PRECISION

FOOTBALL
BY DR. PAUL D. BALSOM
 Table of Contents
• Foreword
• About the author
PART I : INTRODUCTION
• Football is a form of high intensity intermittent exercise
• The energy demands of playing football
PART II : FOOTBALL SPECIFIC ENDURANCE
• What is football specific endurance?
PRECISION • Football specific endurance training
• Factors which can affect the football specific
FOOTBALL endurance capacity of a player
Part III : HEART RATE MEASUREMENT AND
EXERCISE INTENSITY
FOOTBALL SPECIFIC ENDURANCE TRAINING • The relationship between exercise intensity and heart rate
• How a heart rate monitor measures a heart rate
• Expressing a heart rate as a percentage of maximal
BY DR. PAUL D. BALSOM
heart rate
• How to measure a player’s maximum heart rate
Part IV : FOOTBALL SPECIFIC ENDURANCE
TRAINING: SMALL-SIDED GAMES
• A scientific research study
• Factors which can influence exercise intensity during
small-sided games
• Selecting appropriate target heart rates and work-to-
rest ratios
• Examples of variations of small-sided games
Part V : PERFORMANCE TESTING
• General principles of testing
• A football specific endurance field test
Part VI : MONITORING EXERCISE INTENSITY
DURING FOOTBALL TRAINING
• Getting the most out of your heart rate monitor
• Polar heart rate monitors
• References & Recommended reading
 Foreword About the author
Football is a very physically demanding form of exercise,
which in a match situation is performed over a prolonged
period of time. To minimise the negative effects which fatigue
will have on performance, an important part of any football
training programme is endurance training. This is just as appli-
cable for a professional player who trains one or two times a
day as it is for a recreational player who trains once or twice a
week.

The primary aim of this booklet is to describe how, by

monitoring the exercise intensity of individual players with the
help of heart rate monitors, a major part of the endurance
training needed by a football player can be performed effec-
tively with the ball.

In the Scandinavian countries many coaches use heart

rate monitors on a regular basis in their training sessions. In
fact, the principles of using heart rate monitors are taught in
the current coach education programmes conducted by the
Swedish, Danish and Finnish Football Associations.
I hope the information presented in this book will be of
some help in not only improving the fitness level of individual
players, but also the overall standard of football.
As the basic physiological principles of men’s and wo-
men’s football are similar, no distinctions are made between
the genders in the following text. Special consideration should,
however, be given to goalkeepers.
Paul Balsom was born in Torquay, England. He studied
sports science at the South Glamorgan Institute of Higher
Education, Cardiff, Great Britain and at Springfield College,
Massachusetts, USA. In 1989 he moved to Sweden to study
exercise physiology at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm.
Paul received his Ph.D. in 1995 for his work on “High intensity
intermittent exercise - Performance and metabolic responses
with very high intensity short duration work periods”. He has
been able to apply the findings from his studies in his current
position with the Swedish Football Association.
Paul played for Torquay United as a youth and has
coaching certificates from both the Swedish and English Foot-
ball Associations. His work now is chiefly concerned with de-
veloping education material and working directly with the
Swedish National Team as an exercise physiologist.

4 5
 The impact that science has had on improving the level
of performance in many sports is clearly evident. For example,
athletes now run faster and jump higher than ever before.
Science´s impact in football is, however, less evident. Many
of the fitness training methods used in football today are, to a
Part I large extent, based on tradition. As a coach of a top European
club recently said “we train today the same way that we trai-
ned 17 years ago when I was a player”!

There are some indications which suggest that times are

changing. The majority of elite football players today now at
least perform some kind of stretching exercises after a training
session or match!

Introduction
Football is not science -
but science may improve the level of football.
Jens Bangsbo 1994.

An interesting observation is that in countries where

scientific applications have been introduced to football trai-
ning, e.g. in Scandinavia, considerable progress has been
made. In a 1995 FIFA ranking list, Sweden, Denmark and
Norway were ranked amongst the top ten countries in the
world. This is quite an achievement when one considers that
the combined population of these three countries is less than
18 million!

6 7
 Planning a training programme for a football team is an
extremely challenging task. In addition to training for the tech-
nical and tactical components of the game, the fitness levels
of the players must be increased to and maintained at high
levels. In the Scandinavian countries there is an emphasis, at
all levels of the game, on performing as much of the fitness
training as possible with the ball.
Football is, however, a type of intermittent exercise where
short periods of high intensity exercise are randomly inter-
spersed with longer periods of either active or passive reco-
very. In this type of exercise it is not possible to monitor exercise
intensity in the same way as it is in continuous exercise without
the ball, (e.g. running, cycling or swimming), where the time to
cover a fixed distance can easily be recorded.
walk/ jog - low run - high sprint
stand speed speed possession
time
(min)
0
1
2
FOOTBALL IS A FORM OF HIGH
INTENSITY INTERMITTENT EXERCISE
Exercise intensity during “football specific” intermittent
exercise can, nevertheless, be monitored and/or controlled
using heart rate measurements. This is because there is a
direct relationship between exercise intensity and heart rate.
Thus, for example, a coach can objectively monitor and even
control the work rate of all ten players during a 5-a-side game
if they are wearing heart rate monitors.
The movement pattern of a football player (references
are made to a field player and not to the goalkeeper) during a
match is influenced by numerous variables, such as the trai-
ning status of the player, the level of competition, tactical de-
mands imposed on the player as well as on the team as a
whole, the tactics of the opposing team, the result of the game,
environmental conditions, etc.
ball
In general terms however, as previously mentioned, football
may be characterised as a type of intermittent exercise where
very short periods (on average less than 5 seconds) of high
intensity exercise are randomly interspersed with longer periods
of either active (walking) or passive (standing still) recovery.

5
“The exercise pattern seen in most team
6
ball sports and racquet sports (such as
7
hockey, basketball, volleyball, team handball,
8 rugby, American football, tennis, squash
9 and badminton) may be characterised
as a type of high intensity intermittent
exercise.”
Figure 1. This figure illustrates the movement pattern of a top-class
Swedish forward (Martin Dahlin) during a 10 minute period in a com–
petitive game. Each coloured box in the figure represents a 1 second
interval and each row represents one minute.

8 9
 It has been observed that during a 90 minute match, THE ENERGY DEMANDS OF
irrespective of the level of competition, periods of recovery
PLAYING FOOTBALL
(standing still and walking) for a player account for well over
half of the total game time (see figure 2). Despite this, an elite
senior male player will cover, on average, more than 10 km of
A more detailed description of the energy
ground during a match, with an upper limit of around 14 km,
demands of playing football can be found in
at various speeds of motion ranging from walking to sprinting.
the book “Fitness Training in Football - A Scien-
tific Approach” written by Jens Bangsbo, and the
Figure 2 clearly shows that the total high intensity exercise
two scientific reports “High Intensity Intermittent Exercise”
time, defined as high speed running and sprinting, during a
(Balsom 1995) and “The Physiology of Football”
game only accounts for a very small proportion of the total
(Bangsbo 1994) (see Recommended Rea-
game time. Such periods are, however, instrumental in de–
ding). These references are especially re-
termining the path of the ball and thus the eventual outcome
commended for those readers who are inte-
of the game. The duration of a sprint rarely lasts longer than 5
rested in learning more about the physiological
seconds and, in addition to an acceleration phase, often in-
aspects of football.
cludes an abrupt deceleration phase with a change of direc-
tion. The average sprint is around 3 seconds which corres-
ponds to a distance of between 15 to 20 m. Football is a very strenuous and physically demanding
form of exercise. In addition to covering distances greater than
10 km at various running speeds, other energy demanding
% activities include: tackling, jumping and kicking.
15 - year old
80
16 - year old
Aerobic and Anaerobic Energy Production
18 - year old
All types of physical activity require energy. Energy can
60 elite swedish senior
be produced both:
professionals

40 • aerobically (in an oxygen dependent process via the

chemical breakdown of fat and carbohydrate [glycogen]) or

20
• anaerobically (without oxygen via the chemical
breakdown of high energy phosphates and/or glycogen stored
in the muscle).
standing jogging running at a sprinting
During a 90 minute game the aerobic demands can be
still/walking moderate to fast
pace expected to average between 70-80% of maximum oxygen
uptake, despite the fact that, as previously mentioned, a player
Figure 2. The movement pattern of five mid-field players (males) will be in some form of recovery mode (i.e., standing still or
during a 90 minute competitive game. The figure clearly shows that
walking) for well over half of the game.
high intensity exercise accounts for only a minor part of the total
game time. This pattern is similar for senior and youth (both male
and female) players.

10 11
 When you play football large amounts of energy are pro-
duced interchangeably via both the aerobic and anaerobic
energy pathways.

The Aerobic energy demands of playing football

From a purely quantitative standpoint the majority

of the energy needed to play football is produced
via aerobic pathways.

The energy demands during periods of lower intensity

exercise (for example, walking and running at a low pace)
and during recovery from high intensity exercise, are covered
via aerobic energy production.

Aerobic energy demands during exercise can be directly

determined by measuring oxygen uptake, i.e., the rate at
which oxygen is used by the body. However, the conventional
procedure of collecting exhaled air, which is needed for this
measurement, is clearly not feasible for a football player as
the equipment interferes with normal play (see figure 3a). The
aerobic energy demands of playing football can be estimated
from heart rate measurements made continuously during a
game based on the direct relationship that exists between
aerobic energy expenditure and heart rate (see part III). As
can be seen in figure 3b, the equipment needed to monitor
the heart rate of a player during a game situation will not in
any way interfere with normal play.
Figure 3a shows the apparatus needed to directly measure the oxy-
gen uptake of a player during a game situation. The equipment will
clearly interfere with performance.

Figure 3b shows a player wearing a heart rate monitor which can be

used to estimate the aerobic demands of playing football. Such a
heart rate monitor, which consists of a transmitter belt that is worn
around the chest and a receiver that is worn on the wrist, can be
worn during a game situation without in any way interfering with
performance.

12 13
 During a 90 minute game the aerobic demands can be ex- It is not possible to estimate the anaerobic demands of
pected to average between 70-80% of maximum oxygen up- playing football based on physiological measurements. In–
take, despite the fact that, as previously mentioned, a player creases in blood lactate concentrations above resting levels
will be in some form of recovery mode (i.e., standing still or can be used to indicate that energy has been produced an–
walking) for well over half of the game. aerobically via the breakdown of glycogen, from the resultant
formation of lactic acid, but cannot be used to quantify energy
Heart demands. On average, blood lactate values are 5 to 10-fold
Rate
(bpm) higher during a game than at rest, however, this is subject to
both large individual variances and the sampling frequency.
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25

Time
90 min game and half time (min)

Figure 4. This figure shows the heart rate of a player during a 90

minute match. As can be seen in the figure for most of the match the
heart rate is between 10 to 30 beats below the player’s maximum
heart rate (dotted line). This corresponds to an average oxygen
uptake of around 75% of maximum. The heart rate was continuously
recorded during the match by using a Polar Vantage heart rate
monitor with a 5 second sampling frequency.

The anaerobic energy demands of playing football

From a purely quantitative standpoint, anaerobic ener-

gy production accounts for only a minor, but far from
insignificant, part of the total energy production du-
ring a match.

The majority of the energy demands during periods of

high intensity exercise (for example, high speed running,
sprinting, turning, jumping, kicking) are covered via anaerobic
energy production.

14 15

Part II
Football Specific
Endurance
“The type of endurance needed
by a football player to maintain a
high level of performance for the
duration of a game is not the
same as the type of endurance
needed to perform continuous
exercise over a prolonged
period of time.”
16
WHAT IS FOOTBALL
SPECIFIC ENDURANCE?
From a purely physical standpoint football specific endu-
rance may be defined as:
the capacity to perform repeated bouts of short
duration high intensity exercise, interspersed at
random with periods of lower intensity exercise and
rest, over a prolonged period of time.
In addition to influencing the overall work rate during a
match, a player’s football specific endurance capacity can also
influence technical performance and mental concentration.
FOOTBALL SPECIFIC
ENDURANCE TRAINING
“The ability of a football player to sustain a high
work rate for the duration of a 90 minute game can
be maintained or improved with endurance training.”
The aim of football specific endurance training is:
• to minimise the time needed for a player to recover
between bouts of high intensity exercise and therefore,
increase the capacity to perform such bouts of exercise
more frequently throughout a game
• to reduce the negative effects of fatigue on overall
performance, especially towards the end of the game
In general terms it is recommended that, irrespective of
the level of play, the major part of the endurance training for a
football player should include repeated short duration bouts
(less than 10 seconds) of high intensity exercise, preferably with
a ball (e.g., in the form of small-sided games). This is very
different from the endurance training performed by endurance
athletes, which consists mainly of prolonged periods of con–
17
 tinuous exercise, who are training to cover a set distance in the
shortest possible time, e.g., cyclists, runners, swimmers etc.
The physiological adaptations that occur in endurance
training may be divided into central (i.e., the oxygen trans–
port system) adaptations and peripheral (or local muscle)
adaptations. The combined effect of these adaptations is that
more oxygen is delivered to and utilised by the active muscles.
Figure 5. Oxygen (O2) is taken from the air we breath into our lungs
and is transported via blood circulation to muscles where it is used
to provide energy. The by-product of this is Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
which is circulated back to the lungs and exhaled when we breath
out.
The oxygen transport system, which consists of the heart,
lungs and blood, is responsible for the delivery of oxygen to
the active muscles. The amount of oxygen delivered to the
active muscles is determined by the quantity of blood pumped
out by the heart (i.e., cardiac output) and the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood. Both the cardiac output and the oxygen
carrying capacity of the blood can be maintained or improved
by endurance training. It should be noted that adaptations in
the oxygen transport system are common to all forms of endu-
rance training.
18
The local muscle adaptations which occur in endurance
training influence the capacity of the muscle to utilise oxygen.
In contrast to the central adaptations that occur in endurance
training, which as previously mentioned are common to all
types of endurance training, local muscle adaptations are
specific to the type of exercise that is performed.
The movement pattern of the exercise determines the
recruitment pattern of slow and fast twitch fibres in the active
muscles. For example, during continuous running at a mode-
rate exercise intensity predominantly slow twitch fibres are
activated. It is during high intensity exercise that the fast twitch
fibres are recruited.
The local muscle adaptations that are associated with
training in the form of continuous long distance mo-
derate intensity exercise are, for the most part, in
conflict with the adaptations that are optimal to im-
prove football specific endurance capacity.
Training for long periods of time with continuous exer-
cise, where predominately slow twitch fibres are recruited, will
inevitably impair the “explosive” performance of the muscle.
For example, the ability to accelerate (which is of vital impor-
tance to a football player) will be impaired. Therefore, it is
important that the local muscle adaptations which occur as a
result of endurance training should not only optimally improve
football specific endurance but, just as important, should not
in anyway impair the potential to perform high intensity exer-
cise!
So why today, does a large part of endurance training
for the majority of football players at all levels of the game
consist of prolonged periods of continuous exercise, i.e.,
running without the ball?
19
 Two of the most obvious reasons for this are tradition FACTORS WHICH CAN AFFECT THE
and simplicity. FOOTBALL SPECIFIC ENDURANCE
CAPACITY OF A PLAYER
There are many non-training related factors which must also
be considered when discussing football specific endurance.
Although it is not possible to discuss these factors here, their
importance and the potential effect that they can have on
football specific endurance should not be underestimated.

genetics social stress

health fluid balance

To be able to train effectively using repeated short duration

bouts of high intensity exercise, the coach and players need to
have feedback regarding the exercise intensity. Heart rate
measurements provide such feedback.
This type of feedback can be useful in many different
ways, for example it can be used: gender/age nutrition

• to ensure that players are working at or above a target

exercise intensity during endurance training with the
ball. The opportunity exists for a coach to objectively
monitor and even control (by setting target heart rates)
the work rate of all players during a small-sided game
(this is discussed in more detail later). motivation weather

• to help to determine or control the exercise intensity Figure 6. Factors which can affect a player’s football specific en–
of non-fitness specific, i.e., technical or tactical, drills. durance capacity. The factors which are presented in the red boxes
cannot be influenced by either the player or the coach.
This may involve ensuring that players are not working
above a target heart rate, for instance during a “light”
training session the day before or after a match.

20 21
 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
EXERCISE INTENSITY AND HEART RATE

PART III

Heart It is well established that an increase in exercise intensity

is reflected by a proportional increase in both heart rate and
oxygen intake.

rate Heart
Rate
(bpm)

200
Figure 8. This figure shows that there is a linear

measurement increase in heart rate and oxygen uptake, in

relation to increasing work rate. The
data for this graph is from exercise

and exercise 150

performed on a cycle ergo-
meter (redrawn from Åst-
rand & Rodahl, 1986)

intensity
100

50 150 250 Watts

0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0

oxygen uptake, l-min-1

Based on this relationship, the heart rate of a player,

measured during training or a match, can be used to reflect
variations in exercise intensity and indicate the overall intensity
at which the player has been working.

22 23
 HOW A HEART RATE MONITOR
MEASURES A HEART RATE
A Polar electronic heart rate monitor consists of two com-
ponents, namely a transmitter (chest belt) and a receiver (wrist
watch). The transmitter consists of two wireless electrodes
which are built into the belt. The receiver is built into a watch
which is most often worn on the wrist.
Each heart beat is initiated by an electrical pulse. This
pulse is detected by the electrodes and a radio signal is trans-
mitted from the belt to the receiver. This method of measu-
rement is referred to as radiotelemetry. The frequency of the
signals registered by the receiver corresponds to the number
of heart beats per minute. This number is displayed on the
LCD display of the receiver.
Heart
Rate
(bpm)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
Figure 8. Polar Transmitter belt and wrist watch receiver.
24
EXPRESSING A HEART RATE AS A
PERCENTAGE OF MAXIMUM HEART RATE
To evaluate the intensity at which a player is working
during training or a game, the heart rate, in beats per minute,
is expressed as a percentage of his or her maximum heart
rate. It should be noted that maximum heart rate is not indi-
cative of training status, but decreases with increasing age (see
figure 9).
If two players during a given training drill have the same
heart rate, it does not necessarily follow that they are working
at the same exercise intensity. For example, let us say that at
a given time point in a small-sided game two players have a
heart rate of 160 beats per minute. If Player 1 has a maximum
heart rate of 180 beats per minute, then the exercise intensity
for this player is ~90% of his or her maximum heart rate which
means that this player can be considered to be working at a
very high exercise intensity, i.e., close to his or her maximum
capacity. If Player 2 has a maximum heart rate of 200 beats
per minute then the exercise intensity for this player is 80% of
his or her maximum heart rate. Although this player is still
exercising at a relatively high intensity, the intensity is some-
what lower than that of Player 1.
Figure 9. This figure shows how maximum heart rate
decreases as age increases.
Age
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
25
 HOW TO MEASURE A PLAYER’S
MAXIMUM HEART RATE
The maximal heart rate (HRmax) of each player should
be measured during a suitable exercise protocol (see below).
HRmax should not be estimated by a mathematical formula
based on the player’s age. The reason for this is that players
of the same age can have different maximum heart rate values
(which can vary by as much as 40 beats/min). The only equip–
ment needed to accurately measure a player’s maximum heart
rate is a heart rate monitor.
To determine a player´s maximum heart rate, an incre-
mental exercise protocol of 4 -10 minutes duration is most often
used. The test usually ends with a bout of “all-out” exercise.
During the later stages of the test, the peak heart rate is noted
and registered as the player’s HRmax.
A simple test for measuring the maximum heart rate of a
squad of players on the football field (or alternatively a running
track) is presented below. The number of players who can
perform the test at any one time is in principle only limited by
26
the number of heart rate monitors available. The test takes less
than 10 minutes to complete. The test should be repeated 2 or
3 times on separate days to ensure that each player really has
reached their maximum heart rate.
After a “normal” football warm-up, the players jog four
lengths of the football field (or one lap on a 400 m running
track). This is followed by a further six lengths where the exer-
cise intensity is gradually increased to a “fast” running pace.
By the end of the last two lengths, the players should be close
to sprinting. The final two lengths are performed at an “all-out”
sprint. The highest heart rate recorded during the latter stages
of the test or immediately after finishing the test is recorded as
the player’s maximum heart rate.
Due to the strenuous nature of a maximum heart rate test, it
is not recommended that such a test be performed the day before
or after a game. As with any maximal performance test, the play-
ers need to be well motivated. Maximum heart rates may also
be measured during the football specific endurance test des-
cribed in part V of this booklet.
27
 A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH STUDY

The results from a recent scientific research study1

illustrate that small-sided games can be used as an effective
type of endurance training for football players. It should be
PART IV emphasised that this is not the only way to develop football
specific endurance and this type of training can and should
be complimented by different types of intermittent exercise
both with and without the ball.

Aim of the study

The aim of this study was to investigate the exercise
intensity of playing small-sided (3 a-side) games with eight
different work-to-rest ratios, and to compare the intensity of

Football four of these games with continuous running without the ball.

Specific
Endurance
Training:
Small-sided games
Summary of the study
The main finding of this study was that the exercise inten-
sity observed in all of the eight small-sided (3 v 3) games was
high enough to maintain or improve the endurance capacity
of football players. Furthermore, when comparisons were
made to continuous running without the ball at a fixed work-
to-rest ratio the estimated overall intensities were of a similar
magnitude.
1This research was performed by Balsom, P., Lindholm, T., Nilsson, J., and Ekblom, B.,
with funds from the Swedish National Centre for Rearch in Sports.

28 29
 Methodology •results - games 1 & 2
A total of eight 3 v 3 small-sided games with different
work-to-rest ratios were evaluated. Heart rate measurements Heart
Rate
were recorded with a Polar Vantage NV heart rate monitor with (bpm)
a 5 second sampling frequency. Heart rate measurements
max heart rate 194 (n=6)
were also taken from players running without the ball on four 200

occasions. 180
160

Exercise Protocols 140

The total playing time (excluding rest periods) for the first 120
four small-sided games was 18 minutes and the work-to-rest 100
ratios were: 80
Work Rest 60
Game 1. 3 min : 2 min 40
Game 2. 70 sec : 20 sec
20
Game 3. 30 sec : 15 sec
Game 4. 30 sec : 30 sec
The total time (including rest periods) for the four remai- a 3 min work periods (2 min recovery) Time
(min)

ning games and the four running sessions was 30 minutes with
work-to-rest ratios of:
Work Rest
Game 5. 30 min : 0 min Heart
Rate
Game 6. 8 min : 2 min (bpm)
Game 7. 4 min : 2 min
max heart rate 194 (n=6)
Game 8. 2 min : 30 sec. 200
180
Procedures 160
• Each of the 8 games and each of the 4 running sessions 140
were performed on a separate day and proceeded by a 120
standardised warm-up. 100
Figures 11a-b. The mean heart rates (beats/min) for the
• The playing area for the small-sided games was ~33 m 80 6 players during game 1 (fig 11a - 3min : 2min ) and
x 20 m. Small goals without goalkeepers were used. As 60 game 2 (fig 11b - 70sec : 20sec). The mean maximum
soon as a ball left the field of play, a new ball was imme- heart rate of the group was 194 beats/min.
40
diately introduced by one of the test leaders. The run-
20
ning without the ball was performed on an indoor running
track.
Time
• The players were instructed and verbally encouraged to b 70 sec work (20 sec recovery) (min)
work at as high an intensity as possible for the duration
of each work period throughout the study.
30 31
 • results - games 3 & 4 • results - games 5 & 6

Heart Heart
Rate Rate
(bpm) (bpm)

max heart rate 194 (n=6) max heart rate 186 (n=1)
200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
100 100 Figure 12a shows the heart rate curves of one player
80
during the continuous 30 min game [solid line] and during
80
a 30 min period of continuous running without the ball.
60 60
The maximum heart rate of the player is indicated by the
40 40 horizontal dotted line.
20 20

8 min work periods (2 min recovery)

c 30 sec work (15 sec recovery)

Time
(min) a Time
(min)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Heart Heart
Rate Rate
(bpm) (bpm)

max heart rate 194 (n=6) max heart rate 200 (n=1)
200 200

180 180
160 160

140 140

120 120
100 100 Figure 12b shows the heart rate curves of one player
80 Figures 11c-d. The mean heart rates (beats/min) for the 6 80 during game 6 (with 8 minute work periods and 2 minute
players during game 3 (fig 11c - 30sec : 15sec) and game 60 rest periods) [solid line] and during interval running without
60
4 (fig 11d - 30sec : 30sec). The mean maximum heart the ball with the same Work to Rest ratio. The maximum
40 40
rate of the group was 194 beats/min. heart rate of the player is indicated by the horizontal dotted
20 20 line.
8 min work periods (2 min recovery)
Time
d 30 sec work (30 sec recovery)
Time
(min) b (min)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

32 33
 • results - games 7 & 8 Discussion

Heart
The main finding from this study was that the exercise
Rate intensity (estimated from the heart rate measurements) of play-
(bpm)
ing small-sided games (3 v 3) with the selected work-to-rest
max heart rate 193 (n=1) ratios was high enough to maintain or improve the endurance
200
180 capacity of a football player.
160
140
In games 1 through 4, the mean heart rate response was
greater than 85% of maximum heart rate. The highest mean
120
Figure 12c shows the heart rate curves of one player during value recorded was 95% in the game which had 3 minute work
100
game 7 (with 4 minute work periods and 1 minute rest periods and 2 minute rest periods. In games 5 through 8 the
80
periods) [solid line] and during interval running without the heart rate responses on all four occasions were greater than
60 ball with the same Work to Rest ratio. The maximum heart 90% of the player´s maximum heart rate.
40 rate of the player is indicated by the horizontal dotted line.
20
Furthermore, the heart rates recorded during the small-
4 min work periods (60 sec recovery) sided games were of a similar magnitude and in some cases
Time
c (min) higher than those observed during continuous running without
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 the ball. In terms of developing the oxygen transport system,
the data from this study clearly suggest that endurance trai-
ning in the form of small-sided games is comparable to conti-
nuous running without the ball. Futhermore, as previously men-
Heart
Rate tioned, endurance training in the form of small-sided games
(bpm)
is optimal with regards to local muscle (peripheral) adap-
max heart rate 191 (n=1) tations.
200
180
160
Of additional interest was the finding that during the con-
tinuous 30 minute small-sided game (game 5) it was observed
140
that each player had contact with the ball on over 100 different
120
occasions during the game. Thus, it is clear that in addition to
100 Figure 12d shows the heart rate curves of one player
being effective as a form of football specific endurance train-
80 during game 8 (with 2 minute work periods and 30 second
rest periods) [solid line] and during interval running without ing, small-sided games can simultaneously be used as a
60
the ball with the same Work to Rest ratio. The maximum method of improving ball skills and also tactical awareness.
40 heart rate of the player is indicated by the horizontal dotted
20 line. It should, however, be observed that there are many
2 min work periods (30 sec recovery) factors which can affect exercise intensity during small-sided
Time
d (min)
games (see the following section).
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

34 35
 FACTORS WHICH CAN INFLUENCE
EXERCISE INTENSITY DURING
SMALL-SIDED GAMES
There are clearly many benefits to be gained when a
major part of the endurance training programme for a football
player is in the form of small-sided games. This type of training,
however, requires that the coach be well organised. The
following factors can influence the exercise intensity and
careful attention should be paid to each one of them. Coaching
is as much an art as it is a science!
Organisational factors which can be directly
controlled by the coach
The rules of the game - the overall exercise intensity
may be influenced by changing the rules of the game, e.g.,
imposing restrictions such as a maximum of two ball touches,
or imposing a rule that all players must be in the attacking half
of the field to score a goal, etc. The way in which the intensity
is affected (i.e., either increased or decreased) will of course
depend on the rule imposed.
Availability of balls - the overall exercise intensity
will be influenced by the time it takes to restart play when the
ball leaves the playing area. The exercise intensity can be
markedly increased if the coach immediately serves in a new
ball instead of waiting for the players to retrieve a “dead” ball.

The number of players - from 3 v 3 up to 7 v 7 with

or without goalkeepers. In general it is recommended that
different combinations be used. The number of players will
not only affect the exercise intensity, but also other variables,
such as the number of ball contacts per player, tactical
demands, etc. In a recent study we observed that the number
of ball possessions per player, over a 20 minute period, was
almost 3-fold greater in a 3 v 3 game when compared to a 7 v 7.

The duration of Work and Rest intervals - both

short and long work periods greater than 2 min are recom-
mended (see later).

The size and shape of the playing area - this is

obviously dependent on the number of players, but should
also reflect the aim of the training session. As a general
guideline, with elite senior players and small goals an area of
30 x 20 m works well for 3 v 3 as does 40 x 30 m for 4 v 4. The
inclusion of goals, their size and rules (if any) for scoring will
also affect the overall exercise intensity.

36 37
 Factors which can help to improve the Be patient! as in time these players will greatly benefit from
players´ level of motivation this kind of training.

For small-sided games to be an effective form of

endurance training, it is very important that the players be
highly motivated. The level of motivation can be influenced
by the factors listed below.

• Clearly define the aim of the training – it is important

that the players understand the objectives of the training
session, especially when the primary aim of a small-sided
game is to improve their football specific endurance
capacity.
• Educate the players – the players will become more
motivated if they understand how this type of training will
help to improve their endurance capacity and that if they
work at a high enough exercise intensity this type of train–
ing can replace running sessions without the ball.
• Heart rate monitors – heart rate monitors should be
used to monitor the exercise intensity of the individual
players and set individual target heart rates (see later).
• Keep the small-sided games competitive –
ensuring that the teams are evenly balanced will help to
keep the games competitive and thus maintain a high
exercise intensity.
• Organising the training session – it is important to
ensure that the small-sided games are well organised so
that players do not have to wait for unnecessary long
periods between games.

Other important factors which need to be

considered

The standard and the current endurance

capacity of the players – in general small-sided games
can be used as an effective type of endurance training at all
levels of the game. Players with poor ball skills may at first
have problems maintaining a high exercise intensity.

38 39
 Overtraining – due to the strenuous nature of playing
small-sided games, especially as a form of endurance training,
it is highly important to ensure that players are allowed
adequate recovery time between repeated training sessions
of this kind. Consideration should be given not only to the
different phases of the season, but also to each individual
player and not simply the team as a whole. Furthermore,
caution should be taken with any player who is returning from
a period of inactivity, i.e., sickness or injury.
An increased risk of injury? – there is no evidence
which suggests that there is an increased risk of sustaining
an injury when playing in a small-sided game compared to
any other form of endurance training. By clearly defining the
objectives of the training session, unnecessary physical con-
tact and violent play may be avoided.
40
Mental aspects – many coaches prefer to “run their
players into the ground”, a sort of “mental toughening up” type
of endurance training. The use of heart rate monitors is a good
way to show the players that the exercise intensity during
small-sided games is just as high as, if not higher than,
running without the ball. After taking into consideration all of
the influencing factors mentioned in the previous text, it is also
possible to make this type of training just as “tough” as any
other type of endurance training without the ball. For example,
small-sided games with man-to-man marking offer an extremely
tough alternative!
Summary of factors which can influence
exercise intensity during small-sided games
It should now be clear that there are many factors which
need to be considered before small-sided games can be used
as an effective type of endurance training for football players.
It may, therefore, take some time before both the coach and
the players “get it right”!
41
 SELECTING APPROPRIATE TARGET
HEART RATES AND
WORK-TO-REST RATIOS
The key to success when using small-sided games as a
form of endurance training for football players is to set realistic
target heart rates and find appropriate work-to-rest ratios.

Target heart rates

The overall exercise intensity of a small-sided game can
be monitored and even controlled by setting a target heart
rate for each player. As mentioned previously, in order to set
target heart rates the players must know their own maximum
heart rate.

A target heart rate is most often expressed as a per–

centage of a maximum heart rate. Thus, if a player with a maxi–
mum heart rate of 200 beats/min was set a target heart rate of
90% of HR max, this would correspond to a heart rate of 180
beats/min. Another slightly less accurate method of setting a
target heart rate is to refer to a set number of beats below HR
max, i.e., the target heart rate could be 20 beats/min below
HR max.

The target heart rate should reflect the aims of the

training. For example, during small-sided games with
relatively short work periods (less than 10 minutes)
where the objective is high intensity endurance
training a target heart rate of 90% of HR max (i.e. ~20 beats/
min below HR max in the above case) can be set.

Work-to-rest ratios
Determining the correct work-to-rest ratios is as much
an art as it is science. In general, in high intensity endurance
training, work periods of between 2 to 4 minutes and rest
periods of between 30 seconds to 2 minutes are recom-
mended. Longer work periods of between 10 to 30 minutes
should also be used on a regular basis. In these instances
the target heart rate should be lowered by between 5-10%.

42 43
 EXAMPLES OF VARIATIONS OF Goalkeepers and full-size goals should be used.
SMALL-SIDED GAMES
2 minute work periods should be used. At the end of
each 2 minute period two of the previously active players
There are numerous options available to the coach who
switch places with the two “passive” players and the game is
wishes to deviate from “normal” football rules during a small-
restarted immediately (within 5 seconds).
sided game. Not only can this help to keep the players highly
motivated, but a change in the rules can also be used to meet
In this way each player works for either 4 or 6 minutes
different objectives within a training session. Three such
(as an active player depending on the number of players, i.e.,
examples are briefly presented below. Many other good
4 v 4 or 6 v 6) and then rests (as a passive player) for 2
examples can be found in the book “Fitness Training in
minutes.
Football - A Scientific Approach” (see Recommended Rea-
ding).
Game 2

Game 1
GK

GK

The
Two
principles
passive
of this
players
game are
from each
similar to

ne
team stand

ne
r
game 1 in that

te

o
behind the goal

r-z
zo
ou
there are active
line of their

te
-
id
and passive players

ou
m
opponent’s goal
who change places at
(one player on each
two minute intervals.
side of the goal). The
This drill is, however,
remaining active players
performed without the need
play a small-sided game
for either goal-posts or
with normal football rules.
goalkeepers.
The exception being that they may make a wall-
pass to their passive team-mates, who have one touch to
The playing area should be between 60-70 m long (i.e.,
return the ball into play. The passive players may not enter
the width of a normal pitch) and 30-40 m wide, and consist of
the field of play.
a mid-zone and two outer zones of 5-10 m in depth at either
end. In this game one of the two “passive” players from each
The number of players in each team could be
team stand in each of the outer zones. The remaining players
4 (active)+ 2 (passive) or
are confined to the mid-zone.
6 (active) + 2 (passive)

44 45
 The session commences with the coach serving the ball
into the mid-zone. To score a goal, a team must transport (pass)
the ball first to a team-mate in one of the outer-zones, then to
the team-mate in the other outer-zone, and finally back to the
first outer-zone without losing possession. The players in the
outer-zone have a maximum of two touches to play the ball
back to their team-mates. There is no tackling in the outer-zone.
The number of players and the duration of the work
periods are the same as described in game 1.
Game 3
4 4
1
2
5
1
GK
• The game is started when one of the goalkeepers rolls
a ball to a team-mate. These 3 players become the
attacking team and must try to score a goal against
their opponents (defending team).
• As soon as the ball leaves the field of play, a goal is
scored, or the attacking team loses possession of the
ball, the ball is considered dead.
• Once the ball is dead the defending players retreat to
their own goal and change places with their 3 team-
mates who immediately receive a new ball from their
own goalkeeper and become the attacking team.
• The opposing players (who have just attacked) remain
on the field and now become the defending team.
• This cyclic pattern continues, i.e., each unit of three
players first attacks, then defends, and finally rests.

Work periods of 15 minutes or more can be used. The

GK

3 3
5 2 goalkeepers should be encouraged to re-start the play as
6
6
soon as possible after a ball has become “dead”. Thus, as
many balls as possible should be placed in (or at the side of)
each goal at the start of the game.

In this variation
two teams of six
players plus a
goalkeeper compete
against each other.

• Each team is divided into two units of three.

• At the start of the game 3 players from each team
stand behind their own goal with the remaining
players on the field of play.

46 47
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TESTING

Part V

There are many aspects of performance testing which

must be considered if a test is to be of any benefit to the coach
and/or player:

Performance • the test objectives need to be clearly defined

Testing • a suitable and valid test needs to be selected

• the most effective time for administering the test should
be determined
• the test leader should be well organised
• the testing conditions should be standardised and the
players should be highly motivated
• the test results should be analysed and direct
feedback should be given to the players,
preferably on an individual basis, as soon as
possible after a test has been completed

As a testing session will often displace at least part of a

normal training session, it is important that the time is used
effectively. A test should never be used without a
purpose. The ultimate aim of using a performance test is to
obtain information which can be used to improve a player’s
overall matchplay performance.

For a more detailed description of the general principles

of testing football players see Chapter 9 in “The IOC
Handbook of Sports Medicine & Science: Football (Soccer)”
(see Recommended Reading).

48 49
 Before using any test, your objectives should be clearly A FOOTBALL SPECIFIC
defined. One reason for testing a player’s football specific ENDURANCE FIELD TEST
endurance capacity is to objectively evaluate the effect of a
training programme. To quantify changes in performance that
A football specific endurance field test, which can be
have occurred as a result of the training, baseline data is
performed on a football field or in a sportshall, is presented
needed. Baseline data is collected before the start of a train–
below. Due to the strenuous nature of the test, it is not
ing programme (pre-test). This test is then repeated (post-
recommended that this test be performed within 48 hours of a
test) usually after at least 3 weeks of training. The results of
competitive match.
the post-test are compared to the results of the pre-test on an
individual basis. It should be noted that during an intense
YO YO tests
training period, such as the pre-season period, the post-test
The Yo-Yo endurance, intermittent endurance and inter-
should be performed after several days of rest or training at a
mittent recovery tests consist of repeated 20 m shuttle runs
lower intensity.
with a progressively increasing running speed. Players run
back and forth between two lines 20 m apart at a pre-
The subsequent progress of players throughout the season
determined target running speed which increases at pre-
can be periodically monitored through repeated tests.
determined intervals. The running speed is controlled by a
series of “beeps” pre-recorded on an audio cassette*. The
aim of the test is to complete as many shuttles as possible at
the target running speed. As with any maximal performance
test, the players need to be well motivated.

*for more information about the audio cassette and a detailed des–
cription of the test procedures contact: Paul Balsom, Swedish
Football Association, Box 1216, 171 23 Solna, Sweden. e-mail:
paul.balsom@svenskfotboll.se or visit www.soccerfitness.com.

50 51
 Test Circuit
Two straight lines marked on the ground 20 m apart.

Performing the Test

The players line up evenly spaced along one of the lines
(a whole squad of players can be tested at the same time). At
the sound of the first “beep” the players run towards the op–
posite line, arriving and turning to run back to the start line in
time with the second “beep”. In the Yo-Yo endurance test this
pattern is repeated so that the players are continuously
running back and forth between the two lines in time with the
pre-recorded “beeps”. In the Yo-Yo intermittent test there is a
5 or 10 sec rest period between each pair of 20 m shuttles,
i.e., every time the players return to the start line they rest for
5 seconds (intermittent endurance test) or 10 seconds
(intermittent recovery test). In all three tests each player is
instructed to stop running when they can no longer maintain
the target running pace.

The running speed at the start of the test is relatively

slow and can be used as the warm-up. The time between the
“beeps” decreases at set intervals, i.e., the running pace in–
creases. A change of running speed corresponds to a new
“running level”.

Test Result
The test score is presented as the number of completed
shuttles.

A poor football specific endurance capacity is almost

always reflected by a poor test result while a good test result is
in most cases indicative of a good football specific endurance
capacity. The most important consideration, however, is that
for most players an improved test result will almost certainly
reflect a higher football specific endurance capacity.

52 53
 The heart rate curve of a player during a 15 minute period
of a game, recorded with a Polar Vantage heart rate monitor
with a 5 second sampling frequency, is shown below. This figure
demonstrates how the heart rate continuously fluctuates during
a game. Thus, to evaluate the overall exercise intensity during
PART VI a training drill or game, heart rate measurements need to be
made at regular intervals.

Heart
Rate
(bpm)

200

Monitoring 175

150

exercise intensity during 125

Fig 10 The heart rate curve of a player during
football training 100

75
a 15 minute period of a game (recorded with a
Polar Vantage heart rate monitor with a 5
second sampling frequency)

Time
(min)
5 10 15

In the Polar range of heart rate monitors the same

transmitter (i.e., chest belt) is used for all models. The dif–
ferences between the models are with the receivers, i.e., the
watches. With the more advanced models in the Polar range,
heart rate measurements can be stored every 5 seconds in
the memory of an in-built microcomputer. The recordings can
later be downloaded to a computer using a Polar interface
unit and analysed using the accompanying Polar computer
software.

54 55

In the photograph above the coach is seen retrieving data from a
Polar Vantage heart rate monitor. The wrist watch is placed on the
interface and the data is transferred to the laptop computer. The
data is processed and saved using Polar’s Precision Performance
software programme. Once saved the data can be viewed in a
number of different ways and a heart rate curve can be printed out.
56
GETTING THE MOST OUT OF YOUR
HEART RATE MONITOR
The following functions are available in the range of
Polar heart rate monitors. Contact your local Polar distributor
for more information.
Heart Rate DISPLAY
In all of the Polar models the
heart rate is continuously and clearly
displayed, as beats per minute, on the LCD monitor. Thus,
players can see their heart rate at any given time during a
training session by simply glancing at the LCD display on the
wrist watch
TARGET ZONES with warning “beeps”
This feature allows for a target heart rate interval (i.e., a
lower and upper limit) to be set. When the heart rate of a player
is outside of this interval a “beeping” sound is emitted from
the wrist watch. For example, during a small-sided game with
4 minute work periods the lower limit of the interval might
correspond to 85% of a player´s maximum heart rate and the
upper limit to 95% of a player´s maximum heart rate. For a
player with a maximum heart rate of 200 beats per minute,
this would correspond to a lower limit of 170 beats per minute
and an upper limit of 190 beats per minute.
57
 TIME TIME SPENT in target zone
IN TZ
To compliment the target zone feature, the time spent
in a given heart rate interval can be recorded in the watch
and displayed at the end of the session. For example, for the
same player with the same lower and upper limits as presented
previously, a coach could set a target for the player of working
at a heart rate between 170 and 190 beats/min for 20 of the 30
minutes of a 7 v 7 game.
Store INTERVAL TIMES AND HEART RATES in a
“non-downloadable” memory
With this feature the heart rate at any given time can be re–
corded in the memory of the wrist watch by simply pushing a
button. These so called “lap time values” can then be
displayed at the end of the training session. This feature is,
for example, particularly useful during the Yo-Yo tests as
described earlier in this book, i.e., the heart rate at the end of
58
each running level can be recorded in the memory if the players
are instructed to press the button at the appropriate time.
AVERAGE HEART RATES (“non-downloadable”) of
each session
As previously mentioned the heart rate of a player during a
small-sided game continuously fluctuates. Thus, it can be
useful to know the average heart rate of any given exercise
period. With this function by pressing a button at the end of
any given period, the average heart rate of that period is
stored in the memory of the watch and can be displayed at
the end of training.
TIMER function
Football specific endurance training often involves
repeated periods of work and recovery. For example, in the
small-sided games described on pages 44 and 45, 4 minute
59
 work periods are interspersed with 2 minute recovery periods.
The timer function can be used to identify, by emitting a
“beeping” sound, the end of each period. This function is
particulary useful if players are training on their own, i.e., not
under the supervision of a coach, and need to keep track of
the duration of the different work and recovery periods.
TIME Multiple Target Zones
IN TZ The concept of target heart rate zones has been
mentioned earlier. With multiple target heart rate zones, multiple
lower and upper limits can be set according to the different
aims within a drill or the different drills within a training session.
For example, players may alternate between playing in a 3-a-
side game, where the target zone is between 90 and 100% of
a maximum heart rate, and a 6-a-side game where the target
heart rate is reduced to between 80 and 90% of a maximum
heart rate.
60
Record a whole training session in the me-
mory and DOWNLOAD TO COMPUTER
With this function, heart rate data from one or more training
sessions is saved in the receiver watch, at regular (either 5,
15 or 60 sec) intervals and can later be downloaded into a
computer using a Polar interface unit. The data can then be
analysed in many different ways, for example, a heart rate
curve can be printed out.
PROGRAMME THE WATCH via a Computer
This function allows for the pre-programming of wrist
watches via a computer. This is an advanced function which
allows the wrist watch to be, amongst other things, “per-
sonalised” for individual players.
61
 REFERENCES AND
RECOMMENDED READING

Fitness Training in Football: A Scientific Approach (1994).

Bangsbo, J. HO+Storm, Bagsvaerd.
ISBN:87-983350-7-3

Handbook of Sports Medicine & Science: Football (Soccer) (1994).

edited by B. Ekblom, An International Olympic Committee Medical
Commission publication. Blackwell Scientific Publ. Ltd, Oxford.
ISBN: 0-632-03328-2

High Intensity Intermittent Exercise - Performance and metabolic responses

with very high intensity short duration work periods (1995).
Balsom P.D. Doctoral Dissertation Karolinska Institute, Stockholm Sweden.
ISBN: 91-628-1490-7

Science and Soccer (1996).

edited by T. Reilly,
E & FN Spon, London.
ISBN: 0-419-18880-0

Textbook of Work Physiology (1986).

Åstrand and Rodahl.
McGraw-Hall, New York.
ISBN: 0-07-0024162

The Physiology of Football - with Special Reference to Intense Intermittent

Exercise (1994).
Bangsbo, J. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, vol. 150.
ISBN: 87-983350-5-7

62 63
 “The purpose of this booklet is to describe how a major part
of the endurance training with football players can be per-
formed efficiently with the ball. This is made possible by moni-
toring and controlling the loading of individual players using
Heart Rate monitors during small-sided games.

Small-sided games make the endurance training sport spe-

cific and also improve technical, tactical and even mental
skills at the same time. Furthermore, by replacing running
sessions without the ball with “controlled” small-sided games
the level of motivation of the players can be greatly improved.

In addition to being essential reading material for team and

fitness coaches, players and medical staff at all levels of the
game, this booklet can be used as lecture material in fitness
training courses for football.”

ISBN: 952-5048-42x

Polar Electro Oy
Professorintie 5,
90440 Kempele
puh. +358 8 5202 100
fax +358 8 5202 331
www.polar.fi

64