Concrete Cover
By Grant T. Halvorsen
The first line of defense in corrosion protection
n most building construction,
I concrete effectively protects re-
inforcement from damage
caused by environmental factors or
exposure to fire. In severe environ-
ments found in some industrial
plants, marine structures, bridge
decks and parking structures, de-
structive effects of reinforcement
corrosion have been a problem. Re-
search and field observations since
the late 1960s have answered many
questions about the mechanism,
consequences, and repair of corro-
sion of reinforcement in concrete.
With proper design, mix selection,
and construction practices, rein-
forced concrete structures can per-
form well in corrosive environ-
ments. Concrete cover makes an
important contribution to this per-
formance.
Environment and Corrosion
The American Concrete Institute
Building Code, ACI 318 (Ref. 1),
defines a corrosive environment as
one where concrete is exposed to
chlorides from deicing chemicals,
salts, or brackish water or spray.
Effects of corrosion may be espe-
cially severe for concrete exposed
to wetting and drying, and to con-
crete where aggressive chemicals
on the exposed surfaces are not
rinsed off with rain or washed
away in a regular maintenance by highly alkaline-hardened Port-
program. Although ACI 318 does
not apply to all construction, it de-
scribes the current consensus on
land cement paste. Corrosion
doesn’t occur while the passive
layer is intact. This protective layer
concrete design and construction may be broken due to the effects of
practice. It’s important to realize carbonation or chloride ions that
that building codes set minimum penetrate to the reinforcement. As
requirements, and that extra pre- described in Reference 5, carbona-
cautions are needed in some cases. tion occurs when carbon dioxide
In concrete, reinforcement is pro- in the air reacts with water to form
tected by a passive layer of iron ox- a weak acid, then converts calcium
ide that forms on steel surrounded hydroxide in the hardened cement
Water to cementitious materials ratio
A relatively new term, water-cementitious materials ratios, w/cm,
is being referenced frequently. For many years, the water-cement ratio,
w/c, was taken as the most important single parameter to describe
concrete quality. To compute w/c, divide the mix water, except that
contained in the aggregates, by the cement content in any mixture.
Other things being equal, as w/c increases, strength and durability
decrease.
Many mixes now include other cementitious materials to increase
strength, reduce permeability, or otherwise modify the properties of
fresh and hardened concrete. To compute w/cm divide the mix water
by the total amount of cementitious materials. Since the specific gravi-
ty of other cementitious materials is different from portland cement,
the details of mix proportioning may be a bit more complicated.
As defined in ACI 31S92, cementitious materials include portland
and blended hydraulic cements, fly ash and other pozzolans, and
ground granulated blast furnace slag. Each of these components have
ASTM standard specifications. There was no ASTM standard for silica
fume when ACI 318-92 was issued, and it isn’t counted as a cementi-
tious material in the current code. For now, w/cm excludes silica
fume where ACI 318-92 applies, but silica fume is frequently used as
an admixture, typically as 5% to 113% by weight of cement.
paste to calcium carbonate. This re-
action proceeds from the surface
very slowly and is not usually sig-
nificant for sound concrete with a
low water-cement ratio.
In most cases, reinforcement cor-
rodes when chloride ions, often
supplied by deicer chemicals or
marine spray, penetrate to the steel
in a sufficient amount, called the
corrosion threshold. The chloride
ions form an acid and break down
the passive protective layer if
moisture and oxygen are available Figure 1. For similar exposure, the time-to-corrosion, that is the time until chlorides
to sustain the corrosion reaction. exceed the amount required to break down passive layer around the steel and
Since corrosion products—iron ox- initiate corrosion, depends on concrete cover thickness and water-cement ratio.
ides—take up more volume than
the original iron, a bursting effect
concrete mix, fewer chlorides have prove workability and ensure suc-
occurs and concrete cover can then
to penetrate the cover to reach the cessful consolidation. Even a well
span or delaminate.
corrosion threshold. For corrosion proportioned concrete mix won’t
Concrete quality protection, chlorides contributed effectively protect reinforcement if
to the concrete mix from water, ag- the concrete isn’t adequately com-
Although concrete is not imper-
gregates, cementitious materials, pacted.
meable, conventional concrete
and admixtures are limited as a
with low permeability can be suc- Cover as Corrosion protec-
percentage of the cement content.
cessfully produced and placed. For tion
ACI 318 limits of 0.15% for con-
corrosion protection, use concrete
crete exposed to chloride in ser- Figure 1 shows how concrete
made with good quality materials
vice, 1.00% for reinforced concrete cover thickness and water-cement
and the lowest water-cementitious
that will be dry or protected from ratio protect reinforcement from
material ratio possible to meet
moisture in service, and 0.30%, corrosion. Added cover and im-
placing requirements (see box). Al-
otherwise, are based on a specific proved concrete quality delay
so follow proper consolidation, fin-
test procedure. Experts in concrete chloride ion penetration. The fig-
ishing, and curing practices (Ref.
materials and durability disagree ure represents results of a
3).
on the appropriate limits of and “time-to-corrosion” study involv-
In 1989, ACI 318 was revised to
the ways to measure chloride con- ing repeated application of deicer
emphasize the importance of dura-
tent in concrete mixes. For concrete salts (Ref.4). After about 800 appli-
bility early in the process of select-
mixes to be used in corrosive envi- cations, the protection provided by
ing materials for a concrete struc-
ronments, avoid intentional use of 1.5 inches of concrete with a
ture. For corrosive environments,
significant amounts of chlorides water-cement ratio (w/c) of 0.40,
requirements for concrete quality
and don’t exceed ACI 318 require- 2.75 inches with w/c of 0.50, and
now include a compressive
ments. But don’t panic if trace 3.5 inches with w/c of 0.60 is about
strength of at least 5000 psi and a
amounts of chlorides are present. the same. Another phase of the
maximum water-to-cementitious
Concern for concrete quality same study demonstrated the im-
material ratio (w/cm) of 0.40.
doesn’t stop with limits on water- portance of proper consolidation—
These provisions specify a
cementitious materials ratio and concrete proportioned with a very
high-quality cement paste. For
chloride content of the mix. It’s im- low w/c of 0.32, but poorly com-
concrete exposed to deicing chemi-
portant to place and consolidate pacted, was less effective in resist-
cals, amounts of fly ash, pozzolan,
concrete properly. Uncontrolled ing chloride penetration than well
and slag are limited, but this is in-
additions of water to improve consolidated concrete with w/c of
tended to provide protection
workability reduce concrete in- 0.60.
against surface scaling and isn’t re-
tegrity. High-range water-reducing For cast-in-place construction
lated to corrosion protection.
admixtures often are used to im- exposed to earth or weather, ACI
If chlorides are present in the
318 requires a minimum concrete
cover of 2 inches for #6 through
#18 bars, and 11⁄2 inches for #5 bars,
W31 or D31 wire, and smaller rein-
forcement. For corrosive environ-
ments or other severe exposure
conditions, designers should con-
sider increased concrete cover, less
permeable concrete, or other pro-
tective measures. ACI 318R (Ref.2)
recommends a minimum concrete
cover for corrosion protection in
cast-in-place construction of 2
inches in walls and slabs and 21⁄2
inches for other members. For
beams and columns, this is a sig-
nificant increase in cover since re-
quirements don’t depend on bar
size. For a column exposed to the
weather and using #4 ties,11⁄2 -inch
cover on the tie also provides 2
inches of cover to the main bars.
Where cover is increased for corro-
sion protection,21⁄2 inches on the tie
is about 3 inches on the main bars.
Special attention to bar place-
ment is warranted when corrosion
protection is a concern. ACI 318
states tolerances for placement of
reinforcing steel and cover in flex-
ural members (beams and slabs),
walls, and compression members
(columns). For members with ef-
fective reinforcement depth, d, > 8
inches, tolerance on effective depth
is ± 1⁄2 inch, and the cover tolerance
is - 1⁄2 inch but not less than - 1⁄3 of
the specified cover. Project specifi-
cations may require closer toler-
ances. The ACI tolerances are
based on generally accepted field
practices. Contractor quality-assur-
ance inspections are necessary to
verify placement within specified
tolerances.
Strategies for additional pro-
tection
Corrosion protection by using
appropriate cover with quality
concrete is just one of many corro-
sion-protection strategies. Others
include use of surface sealers or
coatings, corrosion inhibiting ad-
mixtures, specialty concretes, coat-
ed reinforcement, and cathodic
protection. Reference 5 describes
advantages, disadvantages, and
cost impact of various corrosion
protection strategies. In some cir-
cumstances, use of more than one
approach is warranted. Currently,
ACI 318 provides no guidance on
the relative effectiveness of these
measures for additional protection.
Some designers feel that use of ad-
ditional protective measures are
equivalent to providing the addi-
tional cover recommended by Ref-
erence 2.
References
1. ACI 318-92, “Building Code Re-
quirements for Reinforced Concrete,”
American Concrete Institute (ACI), De-
troit.
2. ACI 31 8R-92, “Commentary on
Building Code Requirements for Rein-
forced Concrete,” ACI.
3. ACI 222R-89, “Corrosion of Metals
in Concrete,” ACI.
4. K. C. Clear, “Time-to-Corrosion of
Reinforcing Steel in Concrete Slabs, V.
3: Performance after 830 Daily Salt
Applications,” Report No.
FHWA-RD-76-70, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, D.C.,
1976.
5. Terence C. Holland, “Corrosion Pro-
tection for Reinforced Concrete,” Con-
crete Construction, March 1992, pp.
230-236.
PUBLICATION #C930427
Copyright © 1993, The Aberdeen Group
All rights reserved