Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919

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Review of copper pyrometallurgical practice: today and tomorrow

a,1 b,*
R.R. Moskalyk , A.M. Alfantazi
a
Consulting Engineer, Nordic Metallurgical Consultants Inc., Sudbury, Ont. Canada
b
Department of Metals & Materials Engineering, University of British Columbia, 309-6350 Stores Road, UBC, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
Received 3 June 2003; accepted 4 August 2003

Abstract
The pyrometallurgical processing of copper varies worldwide with respect to the charge materials, process, operating parameters,
and the physical shape, size, and orientation of the vessel. Plant operations may be either batch, semi-continuous, or fully con-
tinuous to produce blister copper or other end product. The paper provides a compendium of hot metal practice for the multi-billion
dollar global copper industry. The specialized sector, involving smelting and converting of copper-bearing materials, addresses
commercially proven systems and alternative technologies. Five producers, namely, Chile 21.7%, China 11.4%, USA 10.7%, Japan
10.2%, and Russia 6.1%, accounted for the majority of primary refined copper in 2002. The writers reviewed the operations of 220
copper smelters worldwide which is in sharp contrast to nickel smelters which presently number about 50. A comparison of flash
converting practices for Ausmelt, Inco, Kennecott, and Mitsubishi is included after summarizing known hot metal systems. For
completeness, a section outlines the principles of copper electrorefining which go hand in glove with the front end pyrometallurgical
treatment. The comprehensive paper, which may serve as a reference source, is analogous to a treatise since the broad and extensive
coverage has international dimensions. Issues such as primary and secondary smelting, process variations due to either sulphidic or
other copper-containing feedstock, marketing of the product mix, fugitive fixation such as production of sulphuric acid, and re-
covery of by-products such as precious metals, selenium, and tellurium are not addressed herein. Selected references illustrate
smelting principles, competing technologies, and future trends in this vital segment of the economy.
Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Pyrometallurgy; Non-ferrous metallic ores; Minerals economics; Extractive metallurgy

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894

2. Smelting processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897

2.1. Outokumpu flash smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
2.2. Noranda reactor system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
2.3. Mitsubishi continuous smelting and converting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
2.4. El Teniente converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
2.5. Inco’s bulk concentrate flash furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
2.6. Vanyukov smelting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
2.7. Isasmelt system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
2.8. Reverberatory furnace smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
2.9. Blast furnace smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
2.10. KIVCET cyclone smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
2.11. KHD Contop process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
2.12. Flame cyclone smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-604-822-8745; fax: +1-604-822-3619.
E-mail addresses: raymoskalyk@yahoo.ca (R.R. Moskalyk), alfantaz@interchange.ubc.ca (A.M. Alfantazi).
1
Fax: +1-705-522-3698.

0892-6875/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2003.08.002
894 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919

3. Converting practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . .......... . ......... . 905

3.1. Peirce–Smith converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 905
3.2. Hoboken converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 905
3.3. Top blown rotary converter (TBRC) . . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 906
3.4. Worcra process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 906
3.5. Q–S process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 906

4. Continuous converting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . 906

4.1. Kennecott oxygen flash converting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . 906
4.2. Inco’s flash-converting process for chalcocite concentrates . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . 907
4.3. Ausmelt direct converting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . 907

5. Copper melting units. . . . . . . ......... . . ......... . .......... . ......... . 909

5.1. Shaft furnaces . . . . . . . . .......... . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 909
5.2. Anode furnaces . . . . . . . .......... . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 909
5.3. Electric furnaces . . . . . . .......... . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 910
5.4. Contimelt . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 910
5.5. Maertz furnaces . . . . . . .......... . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 911
5.6. Rotary furnaces . . . . . . .......... . . .......... . ........... . .......... . 911

6. Comparison of continuous converting technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911

6.1. Ausmelt direct converting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
6.1.1. Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
6.1.2. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
6.2. Inco’s flash converting process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
6.2.1. Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
6.2.2. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
6.3. Kennecott oxygen flash converting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
6.3.1. Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
6.3.2. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
6.4. Mitsubishi continuous converting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
6.4.1. Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
6.4.2. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912

7. Electrolytic operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915

1. Introduction been realized regarding the continuous processing of

Copper has been an important commodity since 2000
BC and it is still viable as we begin the next millennium.
During the past years, copper dominance has been in-
exorably challenged first by aluminum for radiators then
by fibre optics in telecommunications. Third world and
undeveloped nations will maintain a steady demand for
this versatile metal which is found in a myriad of in-
dustrial and residential uses. Two basic sources exist for
raw materials containing copper; namely, mined ore and
recycled scrap. Although the production of the ‘‘red
metal’’ copper has been conducted for many centuries,
technical development has achieved significant advances
during the past 120 years. Notable developments such as
the Bessemer converter and copper electrolysis have
contributed to the production of high purity copper.
During the past decades, quantum improvements have
copper-bearing concentrates through to blister copper.
In the ‘‘wet’’ end, solvent extraction coupled with elec-
trowinning (SX-EW) has enabled the production of high
purity copper that is suitable for wirerod production, for
example, in a Southwire or Contirod system. Metallic
copper in the 21st century is consumed in electrical and
electronic products, building construction, industrial
machinery and equipment, transportation, plus con-
sumer and general products. Copper is alloyed with
many metals (e.g., zinc, tin) in the production of tubing,
brass, and bronze products. Aluminum substitutes for
copper in products such as automobile radiators, elec-
trical cables and equipment, refrigeration tubing, while
optical fiber is used in some telecommunication appli-
cations. Plastics substitute for copper in water pipe,
plumbing fixtures, and some structural applications.
As a guideline, the global output of copper and alloy
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
products annually represents around 19.5-million tonnes
of which about 15.3-million tonnes (75–80%) originates
from refined copper while about 4.2-million tonnes (20–
25%) is derived from direct-melt scrap. Products are
divided into two categories: (i) wire and cable and (ii) all
other copper and alloy products. Wire and cable
production consumes roughly two-thirds of worldwide
refined copper production (Bloomsbury Minerals Eco-
nomics, 2003). The latest trend in the industry usually
involves ownership change to vertically integrate chains
of formerly independent mines, smelters, refineries, and
fabricating operations.
Worldwide land-based copper reserves report in both
sulphide-bearing ore bodies and in oxide form where
mining occurs within either underground or open pits
(World Copper Databook, 1996). Copper sulphides
consist of minerals such as chalcopyrite, chalcocite,
bornite, cubanite, and enargite. Laterite ores such as
occurring in the southern hemisphere contain copper
oxides such as cuprite and hydrous compounds (e.g.,
malachite, azurite). Copper is associated with base
metals such as nickel and cobalt (JOM, 1998). Pyro-
metallurgical technologies have been commercialized for
the processing of either sulphides or laterites containing
copper metal values plus other non-ferrous metals such
as nickel and cobalt (Moskalyk and Alfantazi, 2000,
2002a,b). The paper outlines the global concepts for the
hot metal processing of copper-bearing materials fol-
lowed by traditional electrorefining to obtain saleable
products. The copper industry is unlike the nickel or
cobalt industries that are dominated by a few large
producers (Mineral Commodities Summaries, 2003;
Stirton and Brown, 1998). Nickel supply from the
western world and Norilsk in Russia during 2002
amounted to 474 and 118 kilometric tonnes, respec-
tively. The production of copper was greater than nickel
by a factor of about 22:1 for the same period. The roster
of commercial smelting systems ranges from low to high
capacity. During 2003, copper accounts for a US$24-
billion investment in mine projects (E&Mj, 2003).
Copper ranked in first place (31.6%) for capital expen-
ditures of major metals followed by gold (21%) and
nickel (15.8%). A projection for the next generation of
smelting system in the year 2010 was made by Demetrio
et al., (1999). Although Outokumpu technology pres-
ently appears to be in vogue, innovative efficient designs
such as Vanyukov may challenge its position in the next
decade.
World copper mine output in 2002 was 13.3-million
metric tonnes and is anticipated to reach 14 million by
the beginning of 2004. Present global land-based re-
sources are projected at 1.6-billion tonnes of copper
while deep-sea nodules are estimated to contain 700-
million tonnes. The total world smelter production of
blister grade copper in 2002 amounted to 12,072,000
metric tonnes of which Japan, Chile and China
895
produced about 35%. Imports of copper concentrates
and blister to China have gradually been declining. The
overall world production of refined copper in 2002
amounted to 15,245,000 tonnes which represented
77.9% of total refinery capacity and reflected a 1.6%
decrease from 2001 (CRU, 2003). The US refined output
(primary and secondary) in 2002 was 1,545,000 tonnes
while mine output of 1,130,000 tonnes was supple-
mented by scrap recycling and imports. The 2002 con-
sumption was comprised of 16.5% for each of USA and
China while Japan and Germany each consumed about
7.3% of available copper (Bloomsbury Minerals Eco-
nomics, 2003). World consumption is expected to rise by
five percentage points during 2003. Although 2003 be-
gan with a surplus of copper, conditions may reverse
to a deficit in the second quarter. The modest demand
recovery in refined copper, compared to aluminum and
nickel, such as in China has pumped up prices of the red
metal. While economies suffer from the excesses of the
late 1990s and the year 2000, copper demand has
weakened due to the war in Iraq and seasonal buying.
The tightness of the scrap market has forced firms to
consume more copper cathode. Copper availability has
been plagued during the past year by strikes, planned
shutdowns, and maintenance repairs. It is rumoured
that the 220,000 tonnes per annum (tpa) Pasar operation
in the Philippines may encounter a work stoppage
(CRU, 2003).
Chile and China are the world’s biggest copper pro-
ducers which combined annually account for about 4.5
million metric tonnes of refined copper output. Chile as
the world’s largest copper producer is expected to ac-
count for 19.3% of the global market (primary and
secondary) during 2003. Corporacion Nacional del
Cobre de Chile (Codelco), plans to increase copper out-
put from its mines by 55%. The expansion follows the
merger of the company’s Chuquicamata and Radomiro
Tomic mines, which produced 902,267 tonnes of copper
in 2001, and the development of smaller deposits in
northern Chile. Part of the expansion plan included the
expansion of Chuquicamata’s copper refinery from
800,000 to 900,000 tpa of copper cathode (Mining
Journal, 2002). BHP Billiton Ltd. owns 57.5% of the
Escondida mine in Chile which is the world’s largest. It
is capable of producing 1.25 million tonnes of copper
annually after completing an expansion during late
2002. Apart from impacting on price via the formation
of strategic stockpiles, grade flexing (low-grading) is
another technique. Ore grade flexing by means of se-
lective mining at major low-cost mines in Chile such as
Escondida and Chuquicamata in effect deferred copper
contained in concentrates production. The flexing ap-
proach in late 2002 rebalanced production and con-
sumption of refined copper. Chile experienced a negative
impact on its competitive position in recent years at-
tributed to its inflation rate and adverse movements in
896 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
its exchange rate coupled with huge inflows of foreign
capital. In 2003, Codelco obtained approval for the
US$1.2-billion Mejillones smelter–refinery project
(Bloomsbury Minerals Economics, 2003). Codelco is
seeking partners for this project which is part of its plan
to double its value by 2005 (CRU, 2003). Grupo Minero
Mexico operates 10 mining units, 11 smelters and re-
fineries. Canada is the third largest copper producer in
the Western World after Chile and the United States.
Vietnam started construction of its first copper mine and
smelter (US$65.3-million) during late 2002. The Sin
Quyen complex is located in the northern province of
Lao Cai about 360 km NE of Hanoi. The smelter is
expected to produce 10,500 tonnes per year of refined
copper for domestic consumption in the first stage.
Local copper reserves predict a mine life of 50 years. The
People’s Republic of China (PRC) operates 50 smelters
of which only four have the capacity to produce in ex-
cess of 100,000 tpa. The average smelter capacity in
China is 20,000 tpa while plants in the Western World
nominally produce 80,000 tpa (Humphreys, 2002).
MMC Norilsk Nickel accounts for 3.5% of global cop-
per output and half of Russia’s output. Norilsk’s unions
are demanding a 17% wage increase and longer paid
vacations in 2003 thereby creating a problematic situa-
tion (Bloomsbury Minerals Economics, 2002).The In-
ternational Copper Study Group (ICSG) evaluates
copper performance in geographic sectors such as the
Western World comprised of Europe, Africa, Asia,
NAFTA, South America, and Oceania in comparison to
the Eastern Bloc.
Copper in the prescient copper market is traded at
major exchanges such as the London Metal Exchange
(LME), Comex and SHME (Shanghai). Copper prices
are said to have a PhD in economic forecasting due to
the ubiquitous metal’s widespread use. The LME and
Comex finished copper inventories at the end of 2002
were reported at 856,000 and 362,000 tonnes, respec-
tively. The LME consists of storage facilities in Europe,
Asia, the USA, and other bonded warehouses (CRU,
2003). LME/Comex prices during 2003 are expected to
remain slightly over the US80 cent level. Codelco ac-
cumulated 40,100 tonnes of Grade ‘‘A’’ cathode in its
strategic stockpile which it is withholding from the
market. Codelco continues to remove 15 kt monthly
from the market while LME stocks drop monthly by 20
kt. Apart from other government stockpiles, it is esti-
mated that Chile will stock 200 kt over the course of the
year while the Chinese Central Bank will buy 270 kt.
The buffer stock build-up is starving both the merchant
market and China. A pricing model suggests that a cash
price of US$1985/tonne represents a ceiling without
prompting reactivation of huge amounts of idled ca-
pacity (Bloomsbury Minerals Economics, 2002). Ana-
lysts are predicting a gradual withdrawal of the stockpile
and a copper price of US$2100 per tonne (95 !/lb.) be-
ginning in 2006. The overall copper balance depends
upon equilibrium of its components such as concen-
trates, blister, and refined material. Subsequently, the
internal balance of key components of concentrates and
blister are affected by factors such as (i) output at the
mines and smelters (ii) domestic and international
transit and (iii) the effects of imports and exports
(Bloomsbury Minerals Economics, 2002). The individ-
uals engaged in marketing and analysis of supply and
demand deserve recognition since their expertise com-
plements the hot metal phase which is but one segment
of the long and complicated process from mine face
through to finished product. An understanding of ter-
minology such as contangos, futures contracts, premia,
tranches, and warrants is required in this aspect of the
global copper industry. With the exclusion of copper, it
has been said that some metals lack producer discipline.
The market price for the ‘‘red metal’’ has fluctuated
considerably during the past years (Silva, 1999; Silva,
1998). Isabel Marshall of Anaconda Chile (Luksic
Group) predicted US$0.75 copper in 2000 until the
oversupply ended in 2001. She estimated copper prices
averaging one American dollar per pound during the
next 8–10 years. August 2003 LME prices for Grade
‘‘A’’ copper were within a narrow band of 80–81 US
cents per pound and likely were affected by the war in
Iraq and other geopolitical tensions such as North
Korea’s nuclear ambitions.
An example of a company with production costs
firmly under control is Freeport-McMoRan Copper &
Gold Inc. (FCX), which engages in the smelting and
refining of copper concentrate in Spain and Indonesia
(Barrios et al., 1998a,b; Barrios et al., 1997). PT Free-
port Indonesia (PT-FI) produced the red metal for an
average net cash production cost of eight cents per
pound during 2002 including by-product gold and silver
credits (News Release, 2003). FCX is the world’s largest
single producer of custom concentrate of which about
one-half is sold to its affiliated smelters Atlantic Copper
and PT Smelting. PT-FI remains the world’s lowest cost
copper producer while the 225,000 tpa Cara
ıba Metais
SA smelter at Camacßari near Dias D’Avila in Brazil
is essentially at par. PT Smelting in Indonesia is con-
sidering an increase of smelter capacity from 200 to
240k tpa by early 2004 (Bloomsbury Minerals Econom-
ics, 2003). A bar chart for 2001 indicated that copper
smelter and refinery cash costs ranged from about 12 to
24 !/lb. (Hunt, 2001). The 2002 average production costs
of major Western World copper producers consisted of
US57 cents per pound for USA, 48!/lb. in Chile, and
29!/lb. in Indonesia. Smelting and refining charges for
an average feed mix in 2003 are expected to cost 15 !/lb.
The custom smelting charges for concentrates are
expected to increase from US$60/dmt to US$92/dmt
during the period 2003–2010 (Bloomsbury Minerals
Economics, 2003). Smelting charges may rise dramati-
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
cally in 2004 as the Chilean producers again process
average ore grades or high-grade ore and some US
mines may reopen. Some companies (e.g., BHP Billiton
Marketing AG) may elect to toll their materials through
smelters and/or refineries.
The utilization rate for mines, smelters, and refineries
during 2003 is anticipated to reach 87.3%, 80.5%, and
83%, respectively. Secondary output is expected to rep-
resent about 12% of total world refined copper pro-
duction during 2003. Although a trough occurred in
2002, both the smelter and refinery capacity utilization
rate demonstrate an upward trend towards the year
2010. In the year 2010, the utilization rate for mines,
smelters, and refineries is predicted to reach 93.2%,
87.4%, and 88.4% respectively. Bloomsbury Minerals
Economics, 2003, 2002 provides bar charts and graphs
to illustrate trends in the copper market and associated
price. The administrative agencies in the copper domain
provide very detailed analyses of copper performance
plus highlights of producers’ current and future activi-
ties. Considerable copper smelter improvements have
been accomplished in many countries such as Japan
(Maeda et al., 1998; Maruyama et al., 1998; Oshima
et al., 1997, 1998; Moriyama et al., 1995), the Philip-
pines (San Miguel et al., 1995), Sweden (Lehner and
Vikdahl, 1995), and the United States of America
(Voermann et al., 1998; King and Phipps, 1998; Jones,
1997; Gonz
ales and Jones, 1995). By the end of the 20th
century, over 25 firms closed some copper production
capacity due to a surplus of copper (Directory of
Copper Mines and Plants, 1998). The appended refer-
ences provide a representative cross section of current
hot metal practice with respect to competitive smelting
and converting technologies. The 126 references include
technical papers regarding vessel integrity (Mounsey,
1995), treatment and fixation of furnace off-gases (Bur-
master et al., 1997; Tarasov and Erokhin, 1997), met-
allurgical theory (Yazawa and Nakazawa, 1998;
Riihilahti et al., 1998), trends in the global copper in-
dustry (Stephens, 1998; D
ıaz et al., 1995), and impurity
removal (Zeping, 1998). In order to reduce the
paper’s length, it was not practical to outline various
emission abatement techniques and associated costs
arising from stack emissions, fumes, gases, and airborne
dusts which typically are collected from furnace systems.
The smelting units are either sealed or partially enclosed
by means of hoods which collect primary and secondary
fume.
2. Smelting processes
2.1. Outokumpu flash smelting
In most cases, smelting furnaces accommodate both
roasting and smelting operations in one unit although
897
some traditional units such as reverberatory furnaces
require prior roasting of the concentrate feed by means
of fluid bed roasters or multiple hearth Herreshoff
roasters. The two basic and widely applied smelting
processes include flash smelting and bath smelting.
Flash smelting employs oxygenated air to promote
autogenous conditions while bath smelting is dependent
upon the roasting and smelting steps occurring within a
molten pool containing both matte and slag phases. The
smelting furnace produces a high grade matte with Cu/
Fe sulphides for further treatment plus a high iron slag
formed with silica addition. Waste slags can be cleaned
in electric furnaces to recover entrained metal values
before being discarded. It is noteworthy that Outok-
umpu Oyj sold its first flash-smelting licence to the
Furukawa Co. Ltd. at Ashio, Japan in 1956 after in-
stalling two units at its Harjavalta smelter in Finland
during 1949 for the copper and nickel smelting circuits.
The technology is employed at its Kokkola sulphur
plant for smelting of pyrites. A progress review during
the past 50 years was provided by Koho et al. (2000).
Outokumpu conquered the smelting furnace market on
several continents and thereby demonstrated the benefits
of its proprietary technology for sustainable develop-
ment in areas of economics and ecology. The well
known process utilizes dry concentrates which are in-
troduced by means of a burner into the top of a vertical
reaction shaft in conjunction with appropriate fluxes
and heated air. The heavy molten particles fall into the
molten bath at the furnace bottom while the hot gases
rise. The matte phase separates from the slag within the
molten pool and is then transferred to a converter. The
resulting high matte grade allows less blowing time in
the downstream converters. The molten slag is treated
by means of one of several proven decopperising tech-
niques as adopted in each facility. Although the
Outokumpu process is essentially autogenous, supple-
mentary heating is required in the settler. The well es-
tablished process features advantages such as a high
throughput rate and energy efficiency. Low energy re-
quirements provide benefits of deceased fuel consump-
tion in context with utilization of tonnage oxygen. An
Outokumpu system requires about two thirds of the
energy for smelting green batches as compared to tra-
ditional reverberatory furnaces and generates up to 30%
SO2 in furnace exhaust gases which are suitable for acid
manufacture. The overall energy consumption of pri-
mary production processes such as Outokumpu, Inco,
and Mitsubishi ranges from 23 to 25 GJ/tonne of copper
for the process consisting of concentrate drying, smelt-
ing and converting, fire refining, electrolytic refining and
capture of SO2 as sulphuric acid (Rentz et al., 1999).
A review of the patents indicates that Outokumpu
has installed 40 furnace systems. Outokumpu’s appli-
cations at Kennecott Utah, WMC’s Olympic Dam and
the DON Process (Direct Outokumpu Nickel) were
898 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
outlined by Hanniala et al. (1999) in conjunction with
future scenarios. Kennecott is the only company that
has purchased two Outokumpu flash furnace units for
copper smelting and converting (Hanniala et al., 1998;
George et al., 1995; George, 1994). Gas flow and waste
heat boilers design were addressed for the Outokumpu
flash smelting process (Yang et al., 1998, 1999). Boliden’s
R€onnsk€ ar smelter in Sweden, expanded its capacity
from 130 to 230k tpa of copper cathodes. The $245M
facilities were commissioned in September 1999. The
R€onnsk€ ar smelter in Skelleftehamn included an Ou-
tokumpu flash furnace for its Cu/Pb operations (Phelps,
2001; Isaksson and Lehner, 2000). MMC Norilsk Nickel
employs Outokumpu flash furnaces at its Nadezhda
smelter in Siberia, the Russian Federation. The People’s
Republic of China (PRC) has flash furnace units in
service which are not of Finnish design. The only two
Outokumpu flash furnaces located in China (Zeping,
1998), were installed by the Jiangxi Copper Corporation
and Jinlong Copper Co. Ltd. during 1985 and 1997 re-
spectively (Kang and Park, 1997). Umicore acquired the
State owned MDK copper smelter, which has a 1987
vintage Outokumpu flash furnace, in Pirdop, Bulgaria,
in September 1997. The Bulgarian plant was ramped up
to 210,000 tpa of anode copper by mid 2002 while ad-
dressing environmental concerns. The Głog
ow II plant
in Poland (KGHM Polska Miedz S.A.) installed an
Outokumpu flash furnace during 1978 for direct con-
version to blister but does not include matte granulation
or a two stage smelting system as at Kennecott. Ou-
tokumpu is involved in the expansion of the Sar-
cheshmeh smelter in Iran. The project involves a
Khatoon-Abad flash smelting plant to increase output
from 120 to 280k tpa within two years. Today, it is
perceived that Outokumpu installations account for 35–
50% of installed smelting capacity worldwide.
The Olympic Dam copper deposit in South Australia
was discovered by Western Mining Corporation in 1975.
The metallurgical plant produces refined copper, ura-
nium, gold and silver. Olympic Dam (WMC Ltd.) in
Australia installed an Outokumpu flash furnace called
#1 Smelter during 1988 for direct production of blister
but also initially employed an Ausmelt system for this
purpose (E&Mj, 1999). The Ausmelt furnace consisted
of a 1 tph pilot unit which was first used to evaluate
slags produced from treating copper concentrates to
facilitate leaching of the contained uranium. The unit
was used to produce copper matte and convert within
the same furnace in early development preceding in-
stallation of the Outokumpu unit. The Ausmelt unit was
decommissioned (Matusewicz, 2003). The Olympic Dam
operations located at Roxby Downs mothballed the
original furnace. On January 20, 1999 it commissioned
another Outokumpu flash furnace (#2 Smelter) which
consists of a direct-to-blister system (97–98% Cu) with-
out any matte production to smelt 380,000 tpa of con-
centrate containing about 50% copper. The direct-
to-blister process incorporates a flash smelting furnace,
an electric smelting furnace and two anode furnaces. A
description of the first 10 years of flash furnace opera-
tion and initial impressions of the replacement unit were
outlined by Hunt et al. (1999). WMC’s copper produc-
tion commenced in 1988 and amounted to 200,523
tonnes in 2001 mainly comprised of electrorefined cop-
per based on MIM technology and electrowon copper
which represents about 10% of the production. The
company produced 113,412 oz. gold, 912,859 oz. silver,
and about 4500 metric tonnes of uranium during the
same period. Although the optimization project to in-
crease capacity was completed in 2002, copper produc-
tion was affected by the rebuild of the solvent extraction
plant. Copper output in 2003 is estimated to be 185,000
tonnes due to a major furnace rebuild during the latter
half of the year. Production is targeted to reach WMC’s
full capacity of 235,000 tpa of copper cathode in 2004.
WMC’s 2002 annual report indicated that its Kwinana
nickel refinery produced a record 65,065 tonnes of nickel
(WMC, 2003).
2.2. Noranda reactor system
The Noranda bath smelting process is energy efficient
and employs a refractory-lined cylindrical vessel to smelt
a broad range of copper-bearing materials such as sul-
phide concentrates, inerts, scrap, and recycled sub-
stances. The flexible smelting process is suited to
processing a wide range of recycled materials, complex
concentrates, and secondary feed such as industrial
waste, electronic scrap, and metal-bearing residues.
Suitable fluxes, fossil fuel, and feedstock are injected
into one end of the reactor via a high-speed belt (slinger)
while oxygen-enriched air is forced into the liquid melt
by means of submerged tuyeres (NORSMELT, 2003).
Additional process heat may be provided by supple-
mentary fuel consisting of oil, natural gas, coal, or coke.
Wet coal may be added with the solid charge without the
necessity of pulverising or sizing the carbonaceous ma-
terial. Despite variations in feed composition and sup-
ply, the controlled conditions enable collection of a high
SO2 concentration in furnace off-gases which are suit-
able for the manufacture of metallurgical grade sul-
phuric acid. Advantages of the Noranda process are (i) a
no frills feed system without expensive blending and/or
drying equipment (ii) usage of common siliceous fluxes
(iii) elimination of expensive water-cooling which lowers
running and capital costs (iv) improved campaign
lengths between relines thereby permitting lower re-
fractory consumption than some competing smelting
methods. The process features a higher recovery of
copper and associated precious metals than competitive
systems which is enhanced by the stirred slag and ca-
pability of maintaining a low silica slag and avoidance
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919 899

of magnetite build-up. The similarity in shape and
construction to a Peirce–Smith (P–S) converter results in
improved fabrication and repair techniques. The pro-
ductive units range in capacity from 1000 to 3500 tonnes
per day of concentrate. A comparison was made be-
tween the Noranda reactor (NR) and Teniente Con-
verter (CT) (Harris, 1999). Although the NR and CT are
competing technologies, it appears that the Noranda
system has a slight edge over the Chilean approach. It is
recognized that the CT continues to evolve as im-
provements are added over the long-term. Similarly, the
NR augments its performance upon introduction of
techniques with each successive installation. Figs. 1 and
2 depict an isometric view of a NORSMELT system and
a cross section of the cylindrical vessel respectively. The
Altonorte copper smelter in Chile was retrofitted with a
Noranda reactor system during the year 2001. The
smelter, rated at 130,000 tpa and located near the port
city of Antofagasta, is 100% wholly owned by Noranda
Inc. The giant vessel shell weighing about 500 tonnes
was 27.4 m long by 5.5 m in diameter was unloaded in
one piece at the harbour. Noranda permanently closed
its 40 year old Gasp
e copper smelter at Murdochville,
Quebec (JOM, 2002). It is the labour union’s contention
that Noranda is considering permanent closure of its
strike-affected Horne smelter since within three years the
majority of mines in the area will become depleted.
Workers have been without a contract since February
2002. Possible synergy of the copper assets between
Noranda and Falconbridge within Ontario and Quebec
is regarded as a factor (Bloomsbury Minerals Econ-
omics, 2003). It is worth noting that Noranda Inc. owns

Wet Material Riding Ring Off-Gas Mouth

Feed System

Bustle Pipe

"White Metal" Slag Taphole

Taphole
Air Blowing Tuyeres/ "White Metal" Taphole
Bone-dry/ Concentrate Injection Tuyeres
Drive Mechanism

Fig. 1. Noranda process reactor.

Fig. 2. Noranda process reactor.

900 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
58.4% of the common shares of Falconbridge Limited
which is a worldwide producer of copper, nickel, cobalt,
and precious metals. Falconbridge’s refined copper
output increased by 22% to 263,140 tonnes in 2002
partly due to diversion of raw material from the Horne
smelter affected by a long strike.
Noranda Inc. invested over $16-million on environ-
mental improvements completed in late 2002 to reduce
sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) by 90% from the current level of
80% and particulate emissions at its Horne copper
smelter in RouynNoranda, Quebec. Initial NR opera-
tion was described by Pr
evost et al. (1999). The Horne
smelter was the site of the original Noranda reactor
commissioned during March 1973 which was upgraded
during the late 1990s. The original furnace design ca-
pacity of 1200 tonnes per day has increased significantly
to an average of 2800 tpd. at the present day. Avail-
ability of tonnage oxygen for enrichment has facilitated
a peak daily throughput of 3600 tonnes of concentrate
which represents a factor of three times the initial design
criteria. During June 1999 a Noranda reactor system
was commissioned at Southern Copper Ltd. (formerly
ER&S), NSW, Australia, to process 413,000 tpa of wet
concentrate at the former Port Kembla Copper facility.
The SCL system was designed to treat concentrates,
scrap, residues, and reverts. The custom design involved
fitting the rotary vessel within an existing plant and
scaling down capacity to about half the normal capacity.
Consequently, some novel solutions were required to
refurbish an existing smelter. The furnace unit interfaced
with an electric furnace for slag cleaning and an acid
plant for sulphur dioxide fixation (Innis et al., 1992).
The oxygenated air injected through 27 tuyeres main-
tains turbulent bath conditions. Slag is skimmed at the
opposite end to feed entry while molten matte is tapped
in the reactor’s side. After smelting, the 70% copper
matte phase and low-silica slag separate by gravity in the
quiesent zone of the continuous reactor. A water-cooled
hood directs furnace off-gases to an evaporative cooling
tower followed by an electrostatic precipitator (ESP).
Collected dust is recycled to the reactor while the
cleaned off-gases are treated in a contact acid plant.
H.G. Engineering (HGE), based in Canada, provided
the technical design input to faciliate implementation.
Southern Copper (parent company CRA Ltd.) was
provided with the reactor design, training, and technical
assistance by means of the engineering and licensing
agreements. Furukawa Co. Ltd (Japan) is planning to
boost the capacity of its 52.5% owned Southern Copper
Ltd. smelter to increase copper cathode production to
140,000 tpa by 2003 or 2004.
Although the identification of leading edge techno-
logies for copper continuous smelting and converting is
a difficult choice, the leading universal contender appears
to be the Noranda reactor system (Mackey et al., 1995).
The expansion plans of Chinese copper smelters seri-
ously considered the Noranda reactor system which al-
ready has penetrated the Asian technological market for
modernization of some plants in situ (Levac et al., 1995).
A Noranda reactor system was commissioned in Octo-
ber 1997 at the Daye Non-Ferrous Metals Co. smelter
located in the province of Hubei near the Yangtze River
in China. The 1500 tpd unit was described in a paper by
Ye Weidan which was presented at a conference in
China. Additional company details are available in
several publications which address the copper commu-
nity in China and the entire mineral industry within the
PRC (Pui-Kwan, 2003; CCDC, 2003). The Daye smelter
commenced operations in 1960. The Noranda process
replaced a traditional reverberatory furnace and im-
proved environmental conditions in the surrounding
countryside to meet government regulations. The mod-
ifications doubled annual copper production and tripled
the amount of sulphuric acid recovered by fixation of
waste gases. In the past only converter gas was treated
and large amounts of SO2 escaped to atmosphere and
contributed to crop damage. The 4.7 m by 18 m reactor
was designed by HGE in Canada. The plant uses its four
existing P–S converters. The gas treatment system
adopted for the Chinese smelter differs from the Horne,
PQ, smelter in areas such as inclusion of a gas sealing
hood, a waste heat boiler, and high efficiency ESP unit.
It was rumoured that the 140,000 tpa Daye operation
may close indefinitely until it can secure adequate feed
(CRU, 2003). Although the Southern Per
u Copper
Company (SPCC) initially considered a Kennecott sys-
tem for its Ilo smelter, industry obervers indicate that a
strong likelihood exists that SPCC will adopt Noranda
technology. At present, the Peruvian copper operations
run their existing Teniente converter in a Noranda
mode. It is worth noting that Grupo Mexico owns
54.2% of SPCC through its Asarco subsidiary. It was
reported that ZCCM in Zambia will switch their Te-
niente vessel in the state-owned Nkana smelter to a
Noranda mode later in 2003 (Harris, 2003). Zambia
Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd. (ZCCM) also operates
a copper smelter at Mulfulira.
2.3. Mitsubishi continuous smelting and converting
The Mitsubishi system is deemed a bath smelting
process which combines roasting, smelting and con-
verting in a continuous operation enabled by three fur-
nace units interconnected via heated and covered
launders. The first commercial facility was commis-
sioned in 1974 at Naoshima, Japan, with an annual
capacity of 70,000 tonnes (Iida et al., 1997). The Mits-
ubishi process includes a smelting furnace (S-furnace)
consisting of: (i) the charging of dried concentrates and
fluxes (ii) air and oxygen lances plus and (iii) burners.
This is followed by the slag cleaning furnace (CL-fur-
nace) which features a slag overflow and matte syphon
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
directing the molten impure copper to the converting
furnace (C-furnace). The concentrates mixed with fluxes
and other raw materials are rapidly melted as they are
injected through the top blowing lances with oxygen
enriched air into the S-furnace. The 65% Cu matte grade
is next treated in the C-furnace to produce blister copper
while the slag fraction is directed to the CL-furnace. An
electric furnace is normally employed for slag cleaning
by the addition of coke and pyrite to decopperize the
waste slag. The continuous converting furnace produces
blister copper by oxidising the matte and uses limestone
to create a slag phase which is recycled for cleaning. The
off-gases contain about 15–20% SO2 which is used for
the production of sulphuric acid (Newmand et al.,
1992). Falconbridge Ltd. installed a Mitsubishi system
at its Kidd Creek facility, Canada, in 1981 to increase
plant capacity. Although the energy consumption is
similar to Outokumpu’s process, the initial capital in-
vestment and manpower costs are apparently lower. A
description of control methodology was provided by
Goto et al. (1998). An interesting situation exists at LG
Metals Corporation’s (LGMC) copper operations. The
Onsan smelter was brought online in 1979 with an Ou-
tokumpu flash smelting furnace and three P–S convert-
ers (Lee et al., 1999). Capital expansion at the Onsan
works reached full production in November 1998 after
implementation of a Mitsubishi continuous process
(Japan) coupled with construction of a new refinery
based on the KIDD Process (Canada). LGMC’s ca-
pacity was increased from 200,0000–360,000 tonnes per
year expressed as full plate cathode.
The world’s most modern copper smelter employs the
Mitsubishi Continuous Process (60.5% owned by Mits-
ubishi Materials). P.T. Smelting’s plant at Gresik, In-
donesia, which was built on a greenfield site began
commercial production in May 1999 (Phelps, 2000). The
small and compact facility employs a Hazelett twin belt
continuous slab caster to produce copper anodes. The
45 mm anode thickness is achieved by continuously
casting a copper strip with integral lug at 100 tph. A
hydraulic shear cuts the strip into individual anodes
which are then water cooled and stacked into 15 batch
lots for the refinery. The continuously cast anodes are
superior to static cast anodes (e.g., wheel systems) due to
their flatness and uniformity of weight and dimensions.
The refinery has a design capacity of 200,000 metric
tonnes of LME Grade ‘‘A’’ cathodes per year via the
ISA Process (i.e. permanent stainless steel cathode
blanks) at a current density of 280 A/m2 . The continu-
ous operation enabled state-of-the-art environmental
control, worker health and safety, plus high energy and
metallurgical efficiency. The plant feedstock consists of
copper concentrates from the Grasberg mine while a
fertilizer plant is situated adjacent to the smelter to
consume the sulphuric acid by-product. A description of
the smelter and refinery operations was provided by
901
Ajima et al. (1999). At Gresik, the circular and refrac-
tory lined S-furnace is about 10 m inside diameter. The
circular C-furnace is 9 m in diameter and fitted with 10
lances which direct a limestone coolant via oxygenated
air into the molten bath. Blister copper is continuously
siphoned out of the converting furnace and directed to
either of two circular anode furnaces to facilitate refin-
ing and casting operations. The off-gases from the
smelting and converting stages are passed through a
waste heat boiler for initial cooling to about 700 °C in
the radiation section then cooled to 350 °C in a con-
vection section. Process steam is produced in the waste
heat boilers. The cooled gas is next directed to electro-
static precipitators for removal of entrained dust then
ducted to an acid recovery plant of 592,000 tpa capacity.
As a point of information the world’s most modern zinc
smelter and refinery (2001) is the Asturiana de Zinc
operation located at San Juan de Nieva in Spain with a
nameplate capacity of 460k metric tpa of zinc. The fa-
cilities at the Xstrata AG subsidiary include roasting,
sulphuric acid leaching, a tankhouse, melting and cast-
ing units.
2.4. El Teniente converter
The Caletones or El Teniente (CT) modified con-
verter, which primarily is used for autogenous bath
smelting, is longer than the P–S converter and includes
two separated mouths for charging and off-gas evacua-
tion, lateral tap holes for molten slag and white metal
(Torres, 1998; Alvarado et al., 1995, 1998). The con-
tinuous smelting and converting process involves pneu-
matic injection of the concentrate through tuyeres into
the reactor’s molten bath (Gonz
alez and Vargas, 1995).
Copper concentrate is dried to a 0.2% moisture level
prior to tuyere injection into the molten bath of the
Teniente reactor. The exothermic reaction caused by
oxygenated air with iron sulphides in the green charge
allows smelting without external heat application.
Availability of technical oxygen has enhanced CT op-
erations. An important feature of the Teniente unit is its
ability to process both wet and dried concentrates.
Concentrates with residual H2 O content require the co-
addition of seed matte as produced in a standard reverb
furnace (Rentz et al., 1999). The resultant high-grade
matte typically contains 74–76% Cu, plus a slag con-
taining 4–6% Cu and 16–18% magnetite (Fe3 O4 ). The
white metal is converted to blister in a traditional P–S
converter. CT off-gases contain an average of 25–35%
SO2 at the reactor mouth while air inleakage creates
dilution in the flue exhaust system. The dirty slags
containing 6–8% copper require additional treatment in
a batch slag cleaning furnace to recover metal values
before discarding the material to a dump site. Final
discard slags contain less than 0.85% copper. On a
global basis, slag is either discarded in its molten state at
902 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
dumps or water granulated then pumped to an im-
poundment area. The CT exhaust gases are cooled,
treated in conventional dust cleaning equipment then
directed to an acid plant. Advantages of CT units are
low capital investment, low operating costs, and low
energy consumption (Morales and Mac-Kay, 1999).
Apart from South American applications, the Teniente
unit is employed at the Rayong smelter in Thailand.
The units are mainly employed within the Chilean
copper smelters (Campos et al., 1998). It is noteworthy
that Chile’s 11 smelters include seven major copper
smelters (three owned by Codelco, one by Disputada,
two by Enami, one by Noranda) and each smelter em-
ploys a different strategy for slag cleaning (Demetrio
et al., 2000). The current operating capacity of the
Caletones smelter owned by Codelo-Chile approaches
1,250,000 tonnes per year of copper concentrate (mainly
chalcopyrite) which translates into a daily throughput of
3650 tpd. The Caletones smelter consists of one reverb,
two CT units, three slag cleaning furnaces, two anode
furnaces and three refining furnaces. The smelter up-
grading in 2002 facilitated a CT processing rate of 2400
tpd (Alvarado and Godoy, 1999). Disputada (Compa~ nia
Disputada de las Condes) owns two mines and the
Chagres copper smelter 95 km north of Santiago, Chile.
The US-based oil producer Exxon Mobil Corporation is
considering the sale of its wholly owned Chilean sub-
sidiary Disputada. One variation of the Caletones type
is the Inspiration converter which also has two mouths,
the larger opening for off-gas venting and the smaller
mouth for charging purposes. This design, that is em-
ployed in Arizona, features excellent hooding in all
operating positions. Oxygen is employed in the Teniente
converters in Chile (Schwarze et al., 1995). A Teniente
unit was commissioned in 1994 at ZCCM’s Nkana 1931
vintage smelter in Zambia to supplement oxy–fuel re-
verb operation (Beene et al., 1999). The present annual
smelting rate of 740,000 tonnes of concentrate generates
240,000 tpa anode copper. The CT unit reduced oper-
ating and energy costs whilst providing a steady stream
of concentrated SO2 suitable for acid manufacture. Al-
though the CT units were first developed in the 1970s, an
improvement in their performance has been an ongoing
activity. A paper by Morales and Mac-Kay (1999)
provided an insight into present practice and proposals
for future upgrading. In October 2000, Outokumpu and
Codelco agreed to collaborate in implementing Outok-
umpu technology for the direct production of blister
copper from a mixture of concentrate and white metal
(high-grade copper matte) in its El Teniente converters.
The existing Outokumpu flash furnace at Chuquicamata
will be modified to produce blister copper thereby re-
placing the present P–S converters. Start-up is scheduled
for 2004 at an annual rate of 750k metric tpa copper
metal which will be the largest production worldwide
from a single vessel (E&Mj, 2002).
2.5. Inco’s bulk concentrate flash furnace
Two flash furnace units of Inco in-house design were
implemented in 1993 as part of the $625-million (Cdn.)
smelter modernization program. The mandate of the
SO2 Abatement Program (acronym of SOAP) was to
reduce sulphur dioxide stack emissions from 685 to 265
kilotonnes per annum at the Copper Cliff smelter com-
plex in Ontario, Canada. Inco was the first company in
the non-ferrous industry to utilize technical oxygen in its
earlier flash furnace unit which treated copper and high
nickel pyrrhotite concentrates as feed material. Since
inception in 1952, Inco has acquired 40 years of expe-
rience in the operation of flash furnaces. Apart from the
Ontario application and a few in North America (e.g.,
Hayden, AZ and Chino, NM) this design apparently has
not found any application in Europe. Salient design
features include a symmetrical furnace with a pair of
concentrate burners at each end plus a central uptake.
One large advantage of the Inco design is an off-gas
composition containing 75–80% SO2 by volume. The
Inco design for handling off-gases includes a water
quench and cleaning stage. Treated rich SO2 furnace
gases are directed to an acid plant with a daily capacity
of 2900 tons of sulphuric acid, oleum, and liquid sulphur
dioxide products. The significant tonnage of by-prod-
ucts from SO2 fixation are handled by the Marsulex
organization. Inco’s flash furnace employs extensive
usage of water cooling. The earlier experience with water
cooled jackets was employed to maximize water cooling
thereby extending refractory life and hence the cam-
paign period between major repairs and furnace relines.
A water cooled transition piece (1 m) was installed be-
tween the furnace uptake and the quench chamber. The
furnace uses water cooled copper plates, copper fingers
and ports. The copper plate coolers were installed in the
sidewall end panels to reduce potential damage from the
natural gas burners. Copper finger cooler tips were in-
stalled in the sidewalls by means of interlocking a novel
tongue and grove arrangement with the basic refractory.
Additional details regarding water cooling and other
relevant design features are found in papers by Carr
et al. (1997) and Queneau and Marcuson (1996). The
data included in the Inco installation was provided as an
example in order for the reader to place details in con-
text. Although the Vanyukov process (Russian equities,
mining, and metals report, 1997) is similar to Inco in
design the differences are described below (Bystrov and
Komkov, 1995; Strishkov, 1984).
2.6. Vanyukov smelting system
The Vanyukov bath smelting furnaces for annually
processing over two million tonnes of copper, Cu/Ni,
Cu/Zn, and antimony sulphide have been in use for
many years in a large number of enterprises within the
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
Russian Federation and Kazakhstan. The process was
commercialized in 1977 and used at five locations within
the CIS in the 1990s (Rentz et al., 1999). The unique
system is used at facilities such as Norilsk Nickel’s
plants located at the JSC Norilsk Kombinat in northern
Siberia and AO ‘‘GMK Pechenganikel’’ in the Kola
peninsula near Finland. The Nadezhda Cu/Ni smelter in
Siberia employs a Vanyukov unit in its operations.
Tarasov will present a paper at the Copper 2003–Cobre
2003 conference which outlines the characteristics of
copper losses in slag with a Vanyukov unit at the Nor-
ilsk Nickel Combine operations. The furnace consists of
a two step process involving two furnace baths to ac-
commodate the smelting. Several papers regarding the
Vanyukov process are published in Russian by Tsvetnye
Metally (Non-ferrous Metals Journal) and Academia
(e.g., Izvestia Vuzov). Feed material is injected by means
of tuyeres into the molten upper slag layer which is
about 1.5 m thick. The difference in this operation is that
the gaseous oxidising medium is injected directly into
the foaming upper slag layer rather than into the matte
layer as employed within other systems. The turbulent
agitation caused by the continuous addition of feedstock
mixed with oxygen and carbonaceous fuel creates rapid
interaction and exothermic conditions. The heavier
matte phase settles into the lower molten layer. Both
molten matte and slag are continuously removed from
the furnace (Bystrov, 2003). To date, technology trans-
fer to western countries has been very sparse. It was
predicted that the Vanyukov’s attributes of high pro-
ductivity coupled with efficiency and flexibility eventu-
ally may compete with the Outokumpu system in the
next decade to process in excess of 5000 tonnes daily
(Demetrio et al., 1999). The Gintsvetmet Institute de-
veloped technology for processing solid municipal and
industrial waste based on the Vanyukov principles.
‘‘Romet’’ is the ferrous off-shoot of the Vanyukov pro-
cess for smelting of base metals (Dry et al., 2002).
2.7. Isasmelt system
The Isasmelt system marketed by MIM Process
Technologies was developed in collaboration with the
Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organization (CSIRO). Initial development
was carried out at the copper and lead smelters in
Mount Isa. MIM is an Australian based mining and
mineral processing company that produces copper, lead,
zinc, gold, silver and coal within Argentina, Australia,
Germany and the UK. The furnace is applicable to both
primary and secondary copper smelting and converting,
nickel smelting, and lead smelting. The bath smelting
process employs the patented Sirosmelt submerged
combustion lance which injects a mixture of oxygen
enriched air and fuel (e.g., natural gas, oil) to form
a highly turbulent bath within a refractory lined
903
cylindrical and stationary furnace to which agglomer-
ated feedstock is added. Coal, fluxes, and pelletized
moist feed material are continuously charged into the
furnace. Water-cooled tap holes are used to withdraw
molten metal-bearing material into a settling furnace to
allow separation of the matte and slag phases. The
height of the lance is adjustable in the molten bath
thereby ensuring that off-gas contains entrained dust less
than 1% of the feed rate. Furnace off-gases are directed
through a waste heat boiler followed by an electrostatic
precipitator which provides a clean gas to an acid plant
for SO2 fixation. The main features of the Isasmelt
process are the high sulphur dioxide concentration in
furnace off-gases, high smelting rates, and decreased fuel
consumption (Rentz et al., 1999). The furnace principles
are similar to Ausmelt since the slag coating frozen on
the top entry lance protects it from chemical and phys-
ical abrasion. MIM employs a 250 kg/h. Isasmelt pilot
plant at Northfleet, UK, for potential clients (ISA-
SMELT, 2002). Isasmelt is being commissioned in 2003
at the Yunnan Copper Corporation (YCC) smelter at
Kunming which will treat 600,000 tpa of copper con-
centrate to produce 125,000 tonnes of copper annually
(MIM Process Technologies, 2003). The process has
replaced several small and environmentally less efficient
plants in China. There are eight large-scale ISASMELT
smelters presently operating worldwide and a further
two under construction. MIM Process Technologies in
Brisbane has signed a contract to supply an ISASMELT
furnace to Sterlite Industries for a copper smelter in
Tuticorin, India, which represents the largest capacity of
any ISASMELT plant built to date.
2.8. Reverberatory furnace smelting
This traditional means of smelting sulphide concen-
trates in a molten bath is still employed worldwide.
Daily throughput in these units, which may include
hearth areas up to 380 m2 , approaches 1000 tonnes per
day (Ullmann, 1995). Fluid bed or multi-hearth roasters
(e.g., bank of Herreshoff units) are used to produce a
low sulphur calcine for injection into the hearth area in
lieu of green charging. Flux material is added with the
red hot calcine by means of fettling pipes which dis-
tribute the charge material along the inside long walls of
the rectangular furnace lined with basic and insulating
refractories. In the past, air inspirator burners had used
pulverized coal as the heating medium. Reverb efficiency
has been improved by means of oxy-fuel (e.g., natural
gas) smelting. Enhanced burner design became the pre-
cursor of several innovative smelting methods. Bath and
flash smelting evolved from the reverb system which is
still in existence in some parts of the world (Cocquerel,
1995). A reverberatory system operating on green
charge material consumes about 60% more energy than
present flash (e.g., Outokumpu) and bath smelting
904 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
(e.g., Mitsubishi) processes (Rentz et al., 1999). The re-
verberatory furnace is considered labour intensive with
the constant fettling of hot calcine, intermittent slag
skimming and matte tapping operations. Frequent re-
placement of hanging roof tiles while in service creates
yet another labour activity. The percentage of silica in
the slag affects the slag’s viscosity and entrainment of
matte particles during skimming. Other dissolved refrac-
tory compounds, such as alumina and magnesia origi-
nating from the furnace lining and calcine, impact on
the slag viscosity and hence the settling rate of matte
within the well area. Bath capacity may be reduced by a
build-up on the furnace bottom consisting of magnetite
and refractory compounds (e.g., spinels). Operators
dump scrap iron into the furnace to eliminate bridging
or alternatively add coal and coke for slag reduction. At
present, the writers are aware of about 45 smelters in the
world that employ one or more conventional reverber-
atory smelting unit. Individuals assume that reverbs are
non existent in Chile which is the world’s largest copper
producing country. In fact, research revealed that six
out of the 11 copper smelters in Chile today still main-
tain reverbs with oxy-fuel fired burners apart from their
Teniente and larger more modern units. Examples in
Chile include Codelco’s smelters at Salvador (1976 vin-
tage) and Caletones (1976 vintage). The reverb was fi-
nally shut down in 1998 after upgrading the 1951
vintage Hern
an Videla Lira Smelter (Paipote) owned by
ENAMI (National Mining Enterprise).
2.9. Blast furnace smelting
The early means of smelting, modelled after the iron
blast furnace, features a smaller and lower design for a
rectangular cross section for treatment of coarse high-
grade copper ores. The matte furnaces include three
zones: (i) a heating zone (ii) a reduction zone and (iii) the
smelting zone. Smelting of sulphide ores result in a 40–
50% copper matte grade plus a discard slag while the
smelting of oxide ores yields impure black copper (about
95% Cu) and slag. It is interesting that the furnace may
be used to treat both ores types together (Ullmann,
1995). Blast furnaces which date as early to mid-20th
century technology are of less importance in modern
day copper processing and only about 30 units are still
operational today worldwide, (Non-Ferrous Metal
Works of the World, 1998; World Copper Databook,
1996). The hot metal units typically are used by smaller
producers in countries such as Albania, Austria and
China to process various charge material thereby pro-
ducing copper cathode equivalent of 7000–85,000 tpa.
After an intensive research program Huttenwerke
Kayser AG (HK) in Germany upgraded three blast
furnaces for a secondary copper smelter. The staged
procedure for the retrofit in situ allows a current output
of over 180,000 tpa electrorefined copper (Nolte and
Kreymann, 1999). One variation of blast furnace design
is the Baiyin process applied to a daily copper output of
400 tonnes at Lanzhou, China. A refractory wall sepa-
rates the melting bath into smelting and settling zones.
The Baiyin type of furnace combines roasting and
smelting stages in a fixed rectangular furnace. Blast
tuyeres faciliate injection of oxidising gas (Rentz et al.,
1999). Baiyin Non-ferrous Metals Co. operates several
small smelters in the Gansu province of China primarily
for lead and zinc. In contrast, the western world features
economies of scale via large throughput furnaces. State-
of-the-art NORSMELT, Outokumpu, and Mitsubishi
are the preferred choice by discerning giant copper
producers.
2.10. KIVCET cyclone smelting
‘‘KIVCET’’ represents the Russian terms for oxygen,
vortex, cyclone and electrothermic for technology orig-
inating in Kazakhstan during 1963. The design is suited
to copper sulphide concentrates containing large
amounts of other metal values. The concentrates are
charged vertically in the smelting cyclone while technical
grade oxygen is blown in horizontally to result in a rapid
reaction rate above 1500 °C. The design is similar to a
reverberatory furnace since the construction allows
separating and settling of the reaction products within
different compartments. A reducing atmosphere is
maintained in the settler portion of the divided furnace
to avoid additional slag treatment. The concentration of
SO2 in the low volume of waste gases may reach 80%
while metal values are recovered from the flue dust ob-
tained from the settler and separating chamber. The
Kivcet process is used for lead/zinc concentrates whereas
the Outokumpu system is employed for copper and
nickel concentrates. The Kivcet process operated by
Nuova Samin Co. is in service at the Portovesme KSS
lead smelter in Sardinia, Italy (Perillo et al., 1989). The
JOM provided an analysis of the combustion in various
types of flash smelting furnaces (Jorgensen and Koh,
2001).
2.11. KHD Contop process
The process, which is applicable to the direct pro-
duction of either copper or lead, was developed by KHD
Humboldt Wedag AG in Cologne, Germany (Brueg-
german and Caba, 1998). The Contop cyclone flash
smelting reactor was developed during the 1970’s to
accommodate continuous treatment of sulphide con-
centrates. It was developed on a commercial scale at
Chuquicamata, Chile, in the 1980’s then applied at the
El Paso Smelter, Texas, in 1993. The system includes
two stationary furnace units that are internally arranged
to conduct different operations. The two main equip-
ment components consist of a flash cyclone smelter and
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
a second vessel comprised of a continuous converter and
refining furnace for producing anode copper quality
(Rentz et al., 1999). The concentrate and suitable flux
are continuously charged into a KIVCET type reactor
to react with top injection pure oxygen at a furnace
temperature of 1500–1700 °C. The feed material is in-
jected tangentially into the cyclone then the reacted
mixture falls into a settling chamber below the cyclone
where the different molten phases separate. This is fol-
lowed by a slag cleaning reactor which typically employs
oxygen in conjunction with methane or propane as re-
ductants. The converting and refining vessel is divided
into three compartments to facilitate continuous con-
verting, oxidation, and reduction. The 75–80 wt% cop-
per matte is fire-refined for anode casting operations. A
1998 feasibility study recommended its use at the 1931
vintage Luanshya smelter (former Roan Antelope) in
Zambia to increase capacity from 42,000 to 62,000 tpa.
The Zambian case would necessitate two-1.8 m diameter
by 2.9 m high cyclones mounted above an oxygen-
enriched reverberatory smelter fitted with four reduction
lances which acts as a settler. A study paper describing
the selection of processes for future smelter moderiza-
tion was provided by Mukherjee et al. (1999). It was
reported that the Contop process is suited to the treat-
ment of concentrates with impurities which are volatile
such as As, Sb, Bi or containing by-products such as Zn,
Pb, and Mo (Demetrio et al., 1999).
2.12. Flame cyclone smelting
This variation from the KIVCET process differs since
the reaction occurs in a special chamber ahead of the
cyclone where the molten droplets are separated by
centrifugal force. The flame cyclone reactor (FCR) was
first proven in a 10 tonnes/hr pilot plant by Norddeut-
sche Affinerie in Hamburg, Germany. Volatile com-
pounds such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth, lead, tin and
other elements are removed as oxides and salts in the
flue dust collected from the system. Reaction tempera-
tures exceed 1500 °C in the autogeneous system designed
to smelt copper sulphide concentrates within a high
oxygen atmosphere. The high-grade matte contains
about 80% copper and is separated from the discard slag
in a settler. The off-gas contains an SO2 concentration in
excess of 50%.
3. Converting practice
3.1. Peirce–Smith converter
Converters process the matte obtained from the
smelting unit by blowing in air, which may be oxygen-
enriched, through submerged tuyeres to oxidize the iron
sulphide and convert copper sulphide to metallic copper.
905
Once the converter batch is completed, cooling follows
thereby forming blister copper since the metallic copper
becomes less soluble for reaction gases. Copper con-
tained in the fayalitic converter slag is recycled to the
smelting furnace for cleaning. Process gases rich in SO2
are evacuated to merge with other gaseous streams and
used for sulphur recovery in an acid plant. The most
common device is the P–S converter which is aptly
dubbed the work horse of copper smelters since its
widespread usage in many countries attests to its excel-
lent performance in the global copper industry. Today,
about a thousand of these horizontal cylinders, lined
with basic refractory such as either chrome-magnesite or
magnesite, are in active service worldwide (Hern
andez,
1996). The low pressure blast air is blown into the ves-
sel’s charge by means of a horizontal row of tuyeres.
Manual or mechanical punching of tuyeres is required to
maintain the flow of air. The largest vessels range in
length from 9 to 11 m while the diameter varies from 4
to 4.5 m. Some plant facilities employ oxygen-enriched
air to improve throughput. The entire vessel rotates on
its long axis by means of a ring gear arrangement and
trunnions to permit charging of molten green matte and
cold charge. Finely crushed flux consisting of siliceous
(e.g., quartz) and/or low-grade ore is injected through
one end wall via a Garr gun arrangement. Low strength
SO2 off-gases due to ingress of air are drawn upwards
through the movable hood into the converter stack then
are normally directed by flues to dry electrostatic pre-
cipitators before being stack discharged to atmosphere.
Some plants employ a water cooled hood system
(Drummond and Deakin, 1999). Lime fluxing has been
used to convert high-grade matte (Acu~ na and Z
~iga,
un
1995). The Bulgarian ‘‘Elvas Process’’ was developed to
remove impurities from the matte phase. Others have
investigated losses during smelting and converting stages
(Vartiainen, 1998; Matousek, 1997). Researchers have
examined various means of off-gas collection and cool-
ing thereby ensuring fixation of sulphur dioxide as sul-
phuric acid and removal of particulates prior to release
to atmosphere (Stephens, 1999; Kumar and Mansour,
1998; Lawler et al., 1998; Safe and Jones, 1998; Eryomin
et al., 1997; Holopainen et al., 1995).
3.2. Hoboken converter
This is another variation of the P–S type which was
developed by the original MHO in Belgium which later
operated under the former Union Miniere organization.
UMICORE now represents all plant operations world-
wide for base and precious metals. Only a small number
of smelters located in Europe and the Americas use this
form of vessel (Bustos et al., 1995). Larger units are in
operation at the Głog
ow smelter in Poland, Inspiration’s
smelter in Arizona, and the Paipote copper smelter
(Hern
an Videla Lira) in Chile. The advantage of this
906 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
design is the minimal air inleakage which assists in at-
taining off-gas concentrations of about 12% sulphur
dioxide which is amenable to fixation in an acid recovery
plant. Additional features include a small converter
mouth and the siphon arrangement that directs the flow
of off-gases and flue dust.
3.3. Top blown rotary converter (TBRC)
The steel industry refers to this furnace type as the
Kaldo unit while the non-ferrous industry adopted the
TBRC terminology. Inco was the first to utilize this
method in 1973 at its nickel refinery in Copper Cliff,
Ontario, to melt high-grade nickel concentrates and
metallics containing copper, nickel and precious metals
then granulate the molten charge prior to the pressure
carbonyl process (similar to Clydach, Wales) to produce
nickel pellets, powders, and foam. Commercial grade
oxygen is blown through a suspended water cooled lance
onto the mixed charge of copper bearing materials
during a batch operation. The rotary and tilting high
temperature furnace was manufactured by Davy-Ash-
more International (UK). Inco closed its Walden, On-
tario, foam plant November 1, 2002 since it could not
compete with larger capacity and lower cost foam fa-
cilities in Japan and China. The nickel foam plant in
Wales remains in service.
3.4. Worcra process
The concept was invented by Worner and tested by
Cozinc Rio Tinto in Australia at Port Kembla in New
South Wales (now Southern Copper). Although a
demonstration test occurred in 1968 the process unfor-
tunately was not technically successful. The stationary
furnace is U-shaped unlike the Noranda process while
the molten slag and matte flow is countercurrent. The
equipment occupied more space than other smelting
systems and required a higher energy consumption. The
short life of the lances immersed in the slag layer re-
sulted in a major operating problem. The process has
been abandoned from further development to the pre-
sent day.
3.5. Q–S process
The Q–S reactor was invented in 1981 by Queneau
and Schuhmann, Jr. Development for extraction of lead
from sulphide concentrates occurred at a pilot plant in
Duisburg, Federal Republic of Germany. The process
featured a rotating almost cylindrical vessel that re-
sembled the Noranda reactor. A countercurrent flow of
matte and low-grade slag occurred within the reactor
thereby resulting in a low grade slag which is further
decreased by reduction with carbon monoxide in the
same vessel. Companies have discontinued any further
pursuit of the system.
4. Continuous converting systems
4.1. Kennecott oxygen flash converting
The Kennecott–Outokumpu flash converting process
was commissioned during late 1995 at the Utah copper
smelter. The original Solid Matte Oxygen Converting
(SMOC) smelting process was renamed Kennecott–
Outokumpu Flash Converting (KOFC) which is mar-
keted globally by the Outokumpu Oyj organization. The
Kennecott Utah Copper Corporation (KUCC) uncou-
pled the smelting and converting steps in traditional
smelting practice with the added capital cost and oper-
ating expense of introducing several additional unit
operations such as matte granulation, matte storage,
grinding, drying, material handling, and other ancillary
equipment (Newman et al., 1999; Newmand et al.,
1992). Matte is granulated with high pressure water then
conveyed to storage. After granulation the solidified
matte has the appearance of sand particles ranging in
size from 0.2 to 2 mm in size and with 4–8% moisture
(George et al., 1995). The ground matte is pneumatically
conveyed to the flash converting furnace which is fitted
with more extensive water and air cooling than the first
stage of flash smelting. The customized unit continu-
ously converts the matte into a low sulphur blister
copper upon employing a lime based flux to form slag.
The molten blister is next directed to either of two rotary
anode furnaces followed by casting of 318 kg anodes by
means of a 1994 vintage Sumitomo casting wheel
equipped with double spoon pouring. Southern Peru
Copper Corp. (SPCC) had proposed a similar KOFC
installation for 2001 at its 1960 vintage Ilo copper
smelter (Press Release, 1999). SPCC is now in its third
phase of major capital refurbishing and plans to capture
92% of the sulphur emissions from the Ilo smelter by
2007 (CRU, 2003).
The HM Głog
ow II (Huta Miedzi Głog
ow) flash
smelting plant in Poland, which is based on a modified
licence with Outokumpu, was started in 1987 for the
single stage direct-to-blister smelting of concentrates
since the Rudna concentrate contains 28% copper
mainly as chalcocite and bornite. After drying to 0.2%
moisture the concentrate is flash smelted using oxygen-
enriched air (60–70%) and recovers 70% of the copper as
blister. The slag is cleaned in an electric furnace to re-
cover the remaining copper as a Cu/Pb/Fe alloy while
the off-gases are cleaned to produce sulphuric acid.
Hoboken converters are used at both the Legnica and
Głog
ow plants. A precious metals plant was built in
1993 to treat anodic slimes from the three refineries by
means of Boliden technology. The state-owned, joint
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
stock company ‘‘KGHM Polish Copper’’ consists of
three mines, three smelting and refining plants, a rolling
mill, and accounts for about four percent of the world’s
copper and seven percent of global silver output. The
Combine was restructured in 1991 as ‘‘KGHM Polska
Miedz S.A.’’. It has operated shaft furnaces for copper
concentrates in the Legnica smelting plant since 1959
and electrolytically refines copper. The Legnica facility
treats blister from abroad and refines blister from the
ZHPMN Hutmen S.A. smelting plant in Wroclaw
(Habashi, 2002). Shaft furnace feed consists of low
moisture mixtures of concentrate and recycled dust
which are briquetted using waste sulphur liquor as the
binder. Głog
ow I was commissioned in 1971 based upon
the shaft furnace technology employed in Legnica.
Overall KGHM annual copper capacity presently ex-
ceeds 450,000 tonnes (Czernecki et al., 1999). The paper
outlined production operations in the Głog
ow I and II
smelters with attention to control parameters and envi-
ronmental improvements.
4.2. Inco’s flash-converting process for chalcocite concen-
trates
During 1965–1985 Inco’s copper cliff smelter pro-
cessed its minus 325 Tyler mesh (45 l) chalcocite (Cu2 S)
flotation concentrate, which nominally contained about
5% Ni, from its matte separation process by Garr gun
addition in conventional P–S converters. The practice
created long converting cycles and generated large dust
emissions into the flue system and work room environ-
ment. Inco modified a surplus P–S converter shell to
install an in-house feed system and unique oxygen flash
gun that simultaneously could inject natural gas and
filter cake. The process operated from 1985 for a period
of eight years while treating 8% moisture filter cake at
production rates of 250–300 short tonnes per day to
enable production of blister copper assaying 2–3% sul-
phur (Queneau and Marcuson, 1996). Inco Limited
commercialized some novel techniques for oxygen con-
verting to blister copper since 1993 which all include the
concept of top blowing with oxygen while accompanied
by gentle bottom stirring with gaseous nitrogen which is
a by-product of Inco’s oxygen plants. Research showed
that flash conversion of chalcocite resulted in an unac-
ceptable 10–20% dusting rate which was due to particle
fragmentation during ignition. Laboratory tests showed
that extremely high oxygen efficiencies could be attained
during blister finishing by blowing oxygen down into the
melt while sparging with nitrogen. The mixing action
promotes desulphurization of the molten blister. Full
scale tests began during 1989 to prove out the concept
on a production scale. Plant tests demonstrated that
tuyere injection of chalcocite in conjunction with oxygen
top blowing and nitrogen stirring was effective and the
commercial operation commenced in 1993 (Carr et al.,
907
1997; Humphris et al., 1997). The reactor vessel consists
of a cylindrical shell 18 m long by 4.5 m in diameter with
oxygen lances mounted on each end wall. Chalcocite is
injected at a nominal rate of 25 tph by means of the
single tuyere connected to a blow tank; this is duplicated
at each end wall. Oxygen efficiency is reported in the
90% range while dusting is about 1%. The low dust load
assists the gas cleaning system which feeds the dedicated
sulphuric acid plant. Nitrogen is introduced into the
molten bath through porous plugs. The addition of
high-grade copper concentrate (called MK) is accom-
plished through a water-cooled pipe positioned onto the
‘‘eye’’ created by the nitrogen stream. The concept
represents a singular process that handles a very minor
proportion (0.7%) of the world’s copper. The 2002 Inco
annual report listed 111,787 tonnes copper produced.
The decline was attributed to mechanical and produc-
tion difficulties in its Ontario division.
4.3. Ausmelt direct converting
Ausmelt Limited was founded in 1981 to commer-
cialize the Sirosmelt Technology invented during the
early 1970’s which is still in operation at MetalEurop in
Germany (Jahanshahi et al., 1995; Binegar, 1995). The
MetalEurop plant is one of many still operational; it was
designed for lead and is not the first such facility con-
structed. Ausmelt technology for Top Submerged
Lancing (TSL) had its origins with J.M. Floyd and his
team at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organization (CSIRO) in Australia. The first
application called ‘‘Sirosmelt’’ involved the treatment of
tin slags. The original TSL concept consisted of a simple
steel lance that was cooled by the process gas flow
through it. The gas flow was slightly disrupted by the
inclusion of swirlers to ensure sufficient cooling thereby
forming a protective slag layer frozen on the lance.
Water cooling of the lance is used for processes requir-
ing high levels of oxygen enrichment since adequate
cooling can not be achieved by the injected process ga-
ses. The outer slag layer allows submergence of the lance
into a molten bath. Lance design has progressed with
modifications consisting of an added shroud for com-
plete post combustion and energy transfer to the molten
charge. Combustion of the fuel at the lance tip heats the
furnace contents while the injected gases create vigorous
agitation and rapid process reactions. Oxygen enrich-
ment is employed to increase the furnace smelting and
conversion capacity. The Ausmelt system was proven
successful for the smelting of copper concentrates and
conversion to blister within the same vessel. The Au-
smelt furnace consists of a totally enclosed refractory
lined vessel which employs a lance to inject fuel and air
into the molten bath. The furnace shape resembles a
refractory lined cylinder that has a high aspect ratio
(height to diameter). The bath volume occupies the
908 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
bottom 1–2 m to ensure intense mixing at the bath level
and allow splash to be contained within the vessel.
Current interest involves the usage of copper panels for
forced cooling designs. The feed and appropriate fluxes
normally involve some degree of agglomeration and are
dropped into the top of the furnace roof through a feed
port while off-gases are exhausted through duct work.
The system achieves a carry-over of about one percent
of the feed material. The TSL units require the off-gases
to be cooled, filtered, cleaned and exhausted as with any
typical furnace system in environmental compliance.
Larger scale systems may employ waste heat boilers for
heat recovery followed by electrostatic precipitators
(ESP’s) for gas cleaning. In copper operations, the
treated gases are normally directed to an acid plant for
recovery of sulphur.
It is noteworthy that today, 28 Ausmelt units are ei-
ther operational and/or pending installation worldwide
while over a third of these are dedicated to copper re-
lated service in capacities of smelting and converting.
Ausmelt Technology is recognized worldwide as a pro-
ven means of processing metallurgical ores and con-
centrates. The unique furnace system has been
successfully applied for applications involving copper,
nickel, lead, zinc, tin, and precious metals. The process
has been applied in the treatment of anode slimes, leach
residues, blast furnace slags, ashes and steel production
dusts. An Ausmelt unit is able to accept either molten or
granulated matte as feed material. A short residence
time is required to process materials which allows
smaller furnaces than conventional designs thereby
providing capital and operating cost advantages. Fur-
nace conditions are precisely controlled upon adjusting
parameters such as feed, fuel, and air flow rates. A single
Ausmelt unit will replace six P–S converters. In 1992 an
Ausmelt furnace system replaced an electric furnace
operation at the Empress Nickel Refinery at Eiffel Flats,
Zimbabwe, to smelt 10,000 tpa of Cu/Ni leach residue
for Rio Tinto Zimbabwe (RTZim). The low sulphur
matte (6% S) is granulated then treated in the 1968
vintage refinery which has processed matte from BCL in
Botswana. Ausmelt technology was put in service during
1995 at the Bindura Nickel Corp. in Zimbabwe (owned
by Anglo American) to process 10,000 tpa of copper
sulphide leach residue. The novel installation featured
smelting, converting, and slag reduction within the same
vessel. Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) employs an
Ausmelt system at the Ghatsila smelter for the pro-
cessing of copper anode slimes. Indo Gulf Corporation’s
Birla Copper division announced late 2001 that the
contract with Ausmelt Ltd. included copper cooling
panel technology for the two submerged lance vessels to
be constructed at the Dahej site. The Birla plant was
commissioned early in 2003. The first unit processes
330,000 tpa of copper concentrate to produce copper
matte whilst the nameplate capacity of the second unit is
125,000 tpa to produce blister copper. Birla plans to
expand its Gujarat smelter to 250,000 tpa in the period
2003–2004 (Bloomsbury Minerals Economics, 2002).
Indo Gulf Corp. and Sterlite Industries (India) Ltd. are
the country’s biggest copper producers. Korea Zinc is
scheduled to install an Ausmelt furnace at Onsan during
2003 to treat copper secondary materials contained in
drosses. Korea Zinc already operates six Ausmelt fur-
naces to treat zinc slags and residues, and secondary
lead materials. The company plans to install a similar
unit at its Sun Metals plant in Townsville, Australia, for
treatment of zinc residues. At Onsan, Korea Zinc in
2003 will commission a 90,000 tpa Ausmelt unit to treat
copper residue for the production of copper matte.
Although the Tsumeb Corporation smelter (Gold
Fields) in Namibia initially installed an Ausmelt furnace
in 1997 for lead smelting, the unit was reassigned to
process between 100,000–120,000 tpa of a lead–rich
copper concentrate (20% Cu and 12% Pb) to produce a
clean copper matte (55–65% Cu, 7% Fe and 20% S). A
larger scale plant currently in operation is located at the
Zhong Tiao Shan (ZTS) smelter in China. The Chinese
facility, located in Houma City, is rated at 67,000 tpa
blister copper. The three furnace system employs two
Ausmelt units, one for smelting and one for converting
to blister copper while a settling furnace links the two
TSL furnaces. A 20% copper concentrate is smelted in
the first unit to produce a 60% copper matte grade which
is directed to the intermediate settling furnace to ac-
commodate separation of the matte and slag phases.
The waste slag containing about 0.6% copper is skim-
med then granulated for usage in road beds and as a
pozzolan in cement manufacture. The recovered matte is
converted in batch mode to blister copper containing
less than 0.3% sulphur in the second Ausmelt unit. Ini-
tial design considerations for the Ausmelt unit at ZTS
were presented by Mounsey et al. (1999) prior to com-
missioning during late 1999. Similar technology was
included in 2003 at the smelter operated by Anhui
Tongdu Copper in China. The Tongling copper smelter
implemented an Ausmelt system during 2002 to process
330,000 tpa copper concentrates and replace two exist-
ing blast furnaces. The plant commissioned during 2002
for AngloPlats Rustenburg’s operation (formerly Am-
plat) in South Africa uses feed injection down the lance
to process 213,000 tpa of a granulated Cu/Ni/PGM
matte and reduce sulphur emission levels. A second
similar unit is scheduled for 2004 to increase plant
productivity (Matusewicz, 2003).
Although both the Ausmelt and Mitsubishi systems
use top blowing lances in the continuous operation,
significant differences exist between the two processes
originating in the Asian Pacific sector. Consumable
Mitsubishi lances must be continuously lowered to
maintain the tip near the slag surface. Mitsubishi lances
are designed to blow air, oxygen, and fine concentrate
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
onto the surface of the slag bath thereby promoting
reactions partly in the gas phase while the bath serves as
a quiescent medium to separate the matte, slag, and
furnace process gases. The consumable converting lan-
ces in the Mitsubishi process are top-jetting and require
the thin slag layer over the matte to ensure reaction of
iron and copper sulphides with oxygen in the injected
gases. The slag requires a low iron content with high
lime composition to avoid precipitation of magnetite
and also limit the amount of copper oxide skimmed off
with the discarded slag volume. Ausmelt lances employ
a protective outer layer of slag during furnace operation
and require a stoppage in operations after a few days to
change the lance. The lances inject oxygen enriched air
into a deep bath of iron silicate slag to facilitate the
converting reactions. A small addition of coal avoids
magnetite precipitation from the slag and minimizes
copper oxide formation and dissolution in the slag.
Ausmelt technology provides a low cost, high intensity
system for smelting base metal ores and concentrates in
addition to treating metallurgical wastes to recover
metal values such as noble metals and other non-ferrous
metals. A variation to produce pig iron involves Aus-
Ironâ technology which is under development.
5. Copper melting units
5.1. Shaft furnaces
A common type of shaft furnace is manufactured by
the Southwire Company, GA, although Asarco had
supplied some units. The latter normally provided the
technology to a copper producer under license and col-
lected a royalty based on the output of finished product.
The Asarco design featured a circular furnace with an
interior carbofrax refractory lining and multiple rows of
natural gas burners injected with preheated air to create a
reducing atmosphere. Although Asarco owns the tech-
nology, it is understood that other firms may manufac-
ture the equipment. Asarco was acquired by Grupo
Mexico in November 1999. Units may be used to melt
copper cathodes and selected high quality bare wire
scrap for the horizontal casting of wirebar or other
shapes. A holding furnace typically precedes the casting
step in order to permit fire-refining by gaseous injection
and pouring the molten copper via a tundish covered
with charcoal thereby controlling the final oxygen con-
tent. Very few large operations employ traditional wood
poles to deoxidize the copper. Other smaller units were
employed in the semi-continuous casting of large cakes
(e.g., 8 in. by 24 in. by 26 ft. long) and continuous casting
of phosphor deoxidized copper billets (e.g., 4 in. by 48
in.) for the copper sheet and tube industry, respectively.
The Southwire furnace capacities range from 5 to 60
tonnes per hour and feature automatic air/fuel ratio
909
control and pre-mix combustion sytems. Charge mate-
rials include full plate cathode, wirebar, scrap billets and
saw chips, cakes, and blister copper. A considerable
number of Southwire shaft furnaces are utilized world-
wide in the continuous casting of copper wirerod for the
wire and cable industry while other similar melting units
are used in the global aluminum industry. The section
regarding melting units was included for completeness
and complements the context of pyrometallurgy.
5.2. Anode furnaces
Many copper producers employ either reverberatory
or rotary furnaces for the processing of blister copper to
produce copper quality suitable for casting into anodes
containing low oxygen levels. The fuel-fired units (some
use O2 -enriched burners) melt the spent anodes from the
tankhouse as a supplementary charge to the blister
copper which may be received in the form of cold blister
ingots or as molten hot metal from the smelter area. Fire
refining is carried out in either rotary or hearth furnaces.
Fire refining consists of a two stage process to purify the
molten metal prior to casting into anode shapes. Selec-
tive oxidation by means of injecting air through the
molten metal is used in the first stage to lower the level of
residual sulphur and other impurities. A slag containing
copper oxide forms which also contains oxidized impu-
rities. Precious metals are not oxidized and remain in the
host metal until later recovered during electrolytic op-
erations. Deoxidation is the second stage which requires
reductants (e.g., propane) to be blown into the copper.
Lances control the final sulphur and oxygen content of
the copper before casting while traditional fire-refining
employs wooden poles (i.e., hardwood) in smaller oper-
ations. Several means of reducing the oxygen were em-
ployed such as reformed gas and ammonia. Others have
injected natural gas and air through tuyeres to produce a
high ratio of reductants such as carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. Blister refining involves desulphurization
employing air, oxygen enriched air, or oxygen depleted
air which is diluted with nitrogen depending upon the
plant’s requirements. At Kennecott, Utah, four tuyeres
inject vaporized ammonia diluted with nitrogen to
deoxidize the copper. Once the desired oxygen end point
is approached, the ammonia injection rate is lowered to
minimize hydrogen burning in the off-gas hoods. Casting
of soluble anodes is accomplished by means of either
traditional static casting systems (e.g., Sumitomo’s Toyo
copper smelter) or the Hazelett continuous cast system
(Contilanod) as practised by Falconbridge at its Kidd
Creek, Canada, operations, UMICORE (former Union
Miniere) at Olen, Belgium, and the Onsan smelter
(LGMC) in Korea. Outokumpu casting wheel systems
which feature twin pouring ladles for casting of even
weight anodes followed by automatic take-off systems
are quite common throughout the world.
910 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
5.3. Electric furnaces
Only a few manufacturers supply DC and AC electric
furnaces to the non-ferrous industry such as for the
production of copper or the steel industry. Single elec-
trode dc arc furnaces are available in a range of capac-
ities. ASEA (Sweden) has developed the dc arc furnace
for scrap melting and melting of ore fines as an alter-
native to conventional 3-phase ac arc furnaces. Apart
from a 50% reduction in electrode consumption via dc
arc furnaces, the unit features a considerable reduction
in noise level. Ore fines, without briquetting or pelletis-
ing, can be charged continuously through the hollow
graphite electrode. Most furnaces employ Soderberg
continuous self-baking electrodes while smaller units are
either fitted with solid graphite electrodes or hollow
electrodes to facilitate charging of fine material. The
direct transfer of arc power to the charge depends upon:
(i) radiation (ii) convection and (iii) anode effect. Other
well known suppliers include Elkem a/s (Norway),
Krupp Industrie-und Stahlbau (Germany) and Man-
nesmann Demag (Germany). The latter firm, which is
located in Duisburg, fabricates submerged-arc furnaces
for many industrial uses such as the production of ferro-
alloys, non-ferrous metals and slag processing. Other
companies such as Clecim SA (France) and Whiting
International (USA) also supply specialized types of
electric furnaces. Channel type induction furnaces such
as fabricated by Russ in Duissburg, Germany, are suited
for the continuous melting and casting of copper. Al-
though the off-gas volume and entrained dust emissions
are low, the SO2 concentration may reach the 10% level.
Electric furnaces are better suited to containment of off-
gases then converters for example thereby improving
work room conditions. In the event that the furnace is
operated at near neutral pressure, minimal air inleakage
occurs which assists in improving the off-gas strength.
Today, electric furnaces are still employed in both
smelting and slag cleaning applications within the base
metals industry (Demetrio et al., 1999). The units are
employed economically when a source of cheap elec-
tricity is available. An application of an electric furnace
used to clean Teniente converter slag at the Las Venta-
nas smelter was provided by Ponce and S
anchez (1999).
A paper being presented by Moreno et al. at the Copper
2003–Cobre 2003 Conference in Santiago, Chile, fea-
tures the operation of an electric furnace at the Las
Ventanas copper smelter in Chile which is owned by
ENAMI (Empressa Nacional de Mineria, National
Mining Enterprise).
5.4. Contimelt
Hearth refining furnaces are normally used in sec-
ondary copper production because they are suited to the
melting of solid copper scrap such as spent anodes.
Contimelt consists of a continuous and energy saving
two-stage process which fits this criteria. This furnace
type originated during 1979 at Norddeutsche Affinerie’s
(N.A.) plant in Hamburg, Germany, in conjunction with
UMICORE, Belgium (formerly Union Miniere and
Metallurgie Hoboken Overpelt). The Contimelt process
is suited to handle both blister copper and scrap copper
to produce copper anodes for the tankhouse. The fol-
lowing description provides the principles of how the
process works based on observations of a prototype
unit. It is recognized that a modern furnace structure
today would feature many advancements in design after
years of operation. N.A. maintains Contimelt specifics
proprietary to actual licensees. The novel furnace design
consists of a shaft furnace combined with a modified
reverberatory furnace thereby resulting in an energy
efficient concept. The shaft furnace section is positioned
off center from an elliptically shaped reverb furnace
structure. The upper 2/3 portion of the shaft is lined with
silicon carbide refractory while the remainder contains
alumina refractory in the oxidising zone above the re-
verb area. The overall shaft diameter was about 4 m.
Support rings on the shaft maintain its integrity for both
thermal and mechanical loading and act as a shock
absorber for the pieces of charge material. The shaft
bottom includes water cooled copper fingers.
Sensors measuring the charge level in the shaft acti-
vate the feeding system. A skip hoist is used to bring
charge material from the working floor level about 32 m
below the charge opening. An operator adds flux as
required to the dump mechanism. The shaft opening is
closed when feed is not required by an automatic gate
mechanism like a butterfly valve. Noise level in the up-
per charge area was about 85–90 dba. Copper pigs and
bales of scrap wire are melted in the shaft furnace sec-
tion which is about 10 m high. Operators prefer indi-
vidual charge components to weigh less than one tonne
to reduce damage to the refractory lining of the shaft
portion of the system. The slope of the reverb bottom
increases from the intersection point with the shaft
melting area and towards the tap hole and skimming
end. The reverb portion of the system contains about 10
oxy-fuel burners set 10 ft. apart along the circumference
of the melting area. Roof burners create a wave action
on the slag surface and actually drag the slag over to the
skim hole for manual removal or by rabbling to ac-
commodate a sticky slag such as caused by the presence
of nickel or ‘‘dirty’’ charge material. Gravity removal of
the slag phase occurs during normal operation. The
combined effect of wall and roof burners results in su-
perheating. The depth of the molten pool held at 1150
°C in the reverb is about 1/3 m to allow tapping of
copper. An overflow weir regulates bath depth. The
prototype unit processed about 60 tonnes/h of copper-
bearing material. Two parallel gas cleaning systems treat
the off-gases. The Contimelt unit was integrated with an
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
anode furnace for fire refining, a holding furnace and a
conventional wheel casting system.
5.5. Maertz furnaces
Warwick Furnace Co. signed an agreement with
Maertz Ofenbau A.G. of Zurich, Switzerland to provide
pyrometallurgical equipment for the worldwide copper
industry. The copper reverb furnace includes a hydraulic
tilting mechanism to facilitate pouring into the furnace
as well as reverse tilting for slag removal. The melting
furnace provides special door openings for blowing and
green log poling. Gaseous poling can also be provided
while tuyere or lance openings are located along the
pouring wall for compressed air blowing. A typical 350-
ton capacity unit has a melting rate of about 40 tonnes/h.
5.6. Rotary furnaces
This type of melting unit (e.g., Tolltrek) as manu-
factured in Colorado, USA, is suited for pilot plant scale
operations or laboratory test work. The tilting rotary
unit is ideal for processing of precious metals residues to
produce a crude Dor
e for refining at some other loca-
tion. Refractory ores, which typically contain noble
metals such as gold, may be processed in this compact
unit.
6. Comparison of continuous converting technologies
It is important to provide a critical analysis of how
the various technologies compare to each other. Since
leading edge technology appears to be direct conversion
of copper concentrates to blister copper, this area was
selected to compare advantages and disadvantages of
major processes. Four processes, as listed alphabetically,
were evaluated as being representative of this category
since a critical review of every distinct process cited
within the paper would not be practical. A description
of the Noranda reactor (NORSMELT) was provided in
preceding sections. It is recognized that other estab-
lished systems such as the El Teniente reactor deserve
honorable mention but further elaboration was limited
in the interest of brevity. The items highlighted in ran-
dom order are not intended to be all inclusive but reflect
the salient differences of the state-of-the-art amongst
worldwide hot metal systems.
6.1. Ausmelt direct converting
6.1.1. Advantages
1. The system was successful since the early 1990s for the
smelting of copper concentrates and conversion to
blister within the same vessel. At the beginning of
the 21st century, 11 non-ferrous Ausmelt applications
911
were in active service worldwide. The number of TSL
units approaches 28 by the year 2004.
2. A short residence time coupled with smaller furnaces
improves throughput while decreasing capital costs
per tonne processed.
3. Apart from the smelting of copper concentrates and
base metal ores, the compact Ausmelt system was ap-
plied in many applications such as the processing of
copper anode slimes and smelting of Cu/Ni leach res-
idues.
6.1.2. Disadvantages
1. Mitsui installed a second Ausmelt vessel (first in-
stalled 1996) during the 2001 modernization of its
Hachinoche smelter complex to obtain the desired
nameplate capacity. The Ausmelt units operating in
parallel are used for slag cleaning operations follow-
ing its Imperial Smelting Furnace (ISF) and recover a
high quality lead/zinc fume from the ISF slags. Twin-
ning of production units or arranging in tandem may
present some logistical problems as opposed to imple-
menting one larger furnace unit.
6.2. Inco’s flash converting process
6.2.1. Advantages
1. Inco absorbed the development costs and tailored the
unit developed in-house to suit its requirements.
2. Process utilizes by-product nitrogen from the firms’s
two oxygen plants for bottom stirring.
3. Process enjoys 90% oxygen efficiency while dust load-
ing has been decreased to one percent.
4. Blister quality suits the static casting of copper an-
odes via a refurbished wheel system at the smelter
for delivery of anodes to its nearby electrolytic copper
refinery.
6.2.2. Disadvantages
1. A one-of-a-kind unit specific to its Copper Cliff smel-
ter to treat fine particles of high-grade chalcocite con-
centrate (i.e., 72% Cu) from its bulk matte separation
department.
2. The unit was constructed from a stretched P–S con-
verter shell and gradually evolved into a production
unit after considerable field modifications. The single
operational unit is a critical link in the overall process
since failure due to refractory relines and other me-
chanical problems requires stockpiling of concentrate
called ‘‘MK’’. The terminology evolved during the
late forties to identify the origin/process/destination
of intermediate and final products for further treat-
ment or shipment.
3. The specialized unit has not been commercially ap-
plied at any other copper producer and it has not
been modified to treat lower grade concentrates typi-
cally fed to flash furnaces.
912 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
6.3. Kennecott oxygen flash converting
6.3.1. Advantages
1. Combines Kennecott’s (owned by Rio Tinto Plc)
smelter experience with Outokumpu’s flash furnace
technology for the direct converting of copper con-
centrates into blister.
2. Since Outokumpu installed over 40 flash furnace
units worldwide the arrangement with Kennecott
was seen as a novel approach to produce blister con-
tinuously.
3. The process is considered a two-step operation since
the intermediate matte granulation links the smelting
and continuous converting stages.
6.3.2. Disadvantages
1. Process results in additional capital and operating
costs by incorporating matte granulation and storage,
matte grinding and other auxiliary equipment to sep-
arate the first stage of Outokumpu flash smelting
from the second stage direct converting unit.
2. The ‘‘KOFC’’ system is a one-of-a-kind installation.
3. The overall smelter and refinery modernization at
Kennecott Corp., Utah cost US$800-million to pro-
duce 273,000 metric tpa. In contrast, an Ausmelt sys-
tem producing 100,000 tpa blister copper requires a
capital outlay of A$88-million while annual operating
costs were A$24.1-million.
4. A lime flux is needed during matte conversion to pro-
duce a low sulphur blister product for casting into
anodes.
5. The heat recovery approach at Utah was designed by
Monsanto while Ahlstr€ om (Finland) designed the
double horizontal waste heat boiler system; these
technologies are not characteristic of other competi-
tive smelting technologies. The acid plant was not
comparable to other established systems such as
Simon Carves, R.M Parsons and Lurgi GmbH.
6. The Ilo copper smelter in Per
u put the KOFC instal-
lation on hold. It appears that SPCC management
are considering implementation of the Noranda pro-
cess. This fact may become apparent via a forthcom-
ing paper at Copper 2003-Cobre 2003 (Herrera et al.,
2003).
7. The process is not globally accepted. For example,
modernization plans of smelters within China in-
clude either Noranda or Ausmelt systems which are
lately becoming the universal contenders for retrofits
in situ.
8. Instead of adopting the KOFC system, a new Outok-
umpudesigned smelter was commissioned in 1999 at
Olympic Dam, South Australia, to smelt 380,000
tpa of concentrate containing about 50% copper. This
direct-to-blister process incorporates a single flash
smelting furnace, an electric smelting furnace and
two anode furnaces.
6.4. Mitsubishi continuous converting
6.4.1. Advantages
1. First established at Naoshima, Japan, in 1974 thereby
achieving 29 years operating experience on a com-
mercial scale.
2. Process is amenable to fixation of off-gases such as
SO2 to produce metallurgical grade of sulphuric acid
and it is regarded as a ‘‘true continuous system’’ to
produce blister copper.
3. Continuously produced blister is integrated with the
proven Hazelett continuous slab caster to produce di-
mensionally accurate and superior anodes for the
tankhouse.
4. Features lower capital investment and manpower
costs than Outokumpu’s process.
5. Process features high energy and metallurgical effi-
ciency.
6.4.2. Disadvantages
1. Only four commercially active units exist worldwide,
(i) Mitsubishi Metal Corp., Japan; (ii) Falconbridge’s
Kidd Creek, 1981; (iii) Onsan, Korea, 1998 and (iv)
Gresik, Indonesia, 1999.
2. Requires downstream slag cleaning treatment.
3. Consumable top-jetting lances must be lowered con-
tinuously for effective slag interface in a mechanism
requiring a thin slag layer for reactions within the
matte phase.
4. Slag composition requires a low iron content with
high dosages of limestone as a consumable to control
magnetite formation and limit entrainment of copper
oxide skimmed off with the slag phase.
7. Electrolytic operations
Conventional refining consists of common areas,
namely (i) pyrometallurgical treatment by means of fire-
refining (e.g., gas poling); (ii) electrolytic refining and (iii)
melting of cathodes and casting of alloyed shapes (e.g.,
billets, cakes). Of particular interest in this section is the
electrolysis of copper in the global copper industry.
About 80 percent of the world’s refined copper output is
obtained from traditional electrorefining tankhouses
while the remaining 20% is recovered by means of SX-EW
as high-grade electrowon cathode (Bloomsbury Minerals
Economics, 2003). During the past two decades the in-
dustry has witnessed a phenomenal growth in compact
and efficient solvent extraction-electrowinning facilities
(Moskalyk et al., 1999). Codelco has received environ-
mental approval for its Gaby project which is scheduled
to start in 2005 to produce 170,000 tpa of electrowon
cathodes. Some of the industry players are becoming
convinced that they obtain a good return on capital by
leaching oxide ores and some sulphide ores grading less
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
than 0.5% copper (Bloomsbury Minerals Economics,
2003). The electrolytic recovery in E/W operations is
typically conducted using a sulphate medium containing
the copper in solution as a component of the acidic
electrolyte then applying appropriate current and voltage
to the permanent lead or lead alloy anodes and stainless
steel blanks thereby facilitating full deposit stripping of
product cathodes (The Electrorefining and Winning of
Copper, 1997). Electrowon cathodes now achieve Grade
‘‘A’’ copper quality and thus can be consumed in the
production of continuous cast rod. The wirerod is an-
nealed and cold drawn to various gauges for commercial
applications in the wire and cable sector. A future tech-
nological challenge involves creation of a process to
electrowin copper directly from the white metal phase
rather than proceeding to blister followed by anode
production and subsequent electrorefining (Demetrio
et al., 1999). In hydrometallurgy, the dissolution kinetics
for SX-EW operations are hindered by the concentrate
mineralogy such as the presence of chalcopyrite. Suc-
cessful leaching of white metal may eliminate solvent
extraction operations. Electrodeposition of copper in
electrowinning operations (Valic et al., 1999) differs from
the traditional electrorefining process via usage of insol-
uble anodes which consequently require a higher power
consumption (Ullmann, 1995). The cathodic half-reac-
tion is identical in both types of electrolysis.
Cu2þ þ 2e
! Cu ðpure cathodesÞ
Cell voltage, which ranges from 0.25 to 0.3 V, and
current density are the two important parameters in
traditional copper electrolysis. Cell voltage is determined
by factors such as (i) Ohmic resistance of the electrolyte;
(ii) overpotential due to organic additives such as glue;
(iii) polarization; (iv) voltage loss and (v) anode passivity
which is associated with high current density (Ullmann,
1995). The current density in electrorefining ranges from
180 to 280 A/m2 in conventional practice. A few refin-
eries employ periodic reverse current (PRC) ranging
from 290 to 380 A/m2 . As a rule of thumb, copper output
increases with higher current density while the current
efficiency decreases. It is noteworthy that the voltage for
electrowinning is approximately two volts and typically
requires about 2000 kW h/tonnes of power for copper
while electrorefining power consumption is much lower
at about 350 kW h/tonnes. Copper electrolyte contains
35–45 g/l of copper, and 150–220 g/l sulphuric acid. The
solution temperature is maintained within 55–65 °C by
means of heat exchangers or steam sparging. The insol-
uble materials contained within the cast copper anode
represent less than one percent of the anode weight and
this undissolved material reports as anode slimes. The
slimes are collected from the bottom of each plating cell
then treated by proven extractive processes to recover the
metal values such as precious metals (gold, silver, and
platinum group metals), copper tellurides and selenides,
913
lead sulphate, stannic oxide, plus complex compounds of
arsenic, antimony and bismuth which affect the quality
of the cathode. Recovery methods include leaching,
electrolytic, and smelting processes (e.g., Dor
e bullion).
The grain morphology and orientation, plus the rate
of growth of copper on the cathodic surface are im-
portant in relation to the current efficiency of the pro-
cess and subsequent cathode purity. Undesirable
impurities are entrained within protrusions and exfoli-
ations. High pressure washing of the pulled cathodes to
remove salts is inadequate to remove deleterious sub-
stances trapped within nodulations. Other insolubles
include silica, gypsum, alumina and barite originating
from plant practice for mould dressing and skimming of
slag from the tundish into each mould. During elec-
trolysis the concentration of cupric ions increases and
the excess copper is removed from the electrolyte solu-
tion by means of hooded liberator cells containing in-
soluble anodes. Cell evacuation is essential in the event
that arsine gas is generated in the liberator section of the
cell house. Cell houses feature an electrolyte purification
section which is associated with the distribution system
to disperse heated solution to each cell via either top or
bottom flow patterns. The electrolyte is usually passed
through polishing filters to remove suspended solids
which would impair the quality of the cathodes if oc-
cluded on to the adjacent surface. Tankhouse electrolyte
purification, pulling and charging practice, automation,
cell mudding procedures, reagents, building ventilation,
crane automation, anode and cathode cycles etc. vary
within the refineries ranging from small to large capacity
which are located in each hemisphere. In many coun-
tries, cathodes are normally shipped full size in weighed
and strapped bundles although a minor percentage is
sheared for specialized customers. Most producers
generate full plate cathodes as the final product of the
smelter and refinery complex for either domestic con-
sumption or export. Full plate cathodes are normally
marketed via the LME and Comex if the cathode
product meets the chemical and physical standards for
registration. Some producers ship their output as wire-
bar (250–300 lbs.) to hot rolling mills. A few specialized
producers provide copper powders plus bronze and
brass alloys. Many plants implement ‘‘ISO’’ certification
to provide customer assurance.
Copper anodes may be static cast on a wheel ar-
rangement such as an automatic Outokumpu system
with twin pouring ladles to produce even weight anodes.
The oxygen content of the cast anode affects the elec-
trolytic operation while a flat set on the surface improves
current efficiency. A few producers worldwide employ
continuous casting systems featuring the Hazelett system
(i.e., Contilanodâ process) which provides superior
quality and a dimensionally consistent shape. Tradi-
tional static cast anodes may require pressing, manual
chipping of fins and protrusions, lug straightening
914 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919

and milling for improved contact and other preparation
prior to insertion within the cell. Plumbness of anodes,
free of surface irregularities, which are adjacent to flat
copper starter sheets ensures improved current efficiency.
Tight spacing of the electrodes such as at 89 mm (3.5 in.)
between centres requires symmetrical hanger bars and
profiled capping boards with an accurate electrical con-
tact system. The busbar system may be constructed of
either copper or aluminum. Copper electrorefining and
electrowinning facilities (e.g., China and Japan) favour
the patented MIM stainless steel blank technology rather
than using prepared starter sheets with the inherent
mechanical handling problems (e.g., cross rods). The li-
censed ISA Process currently accounts for over 35% of
global copper refining capacity. The innovative tech-
nology is marketed by Copper Refineries Pty. Ltd.
(Australia) in conjunction with Outokumpu Wenmec
Inc. (Finland) and MESCO, Inc. (Japan). A contract for
the supply of 40,000 mother plates was signed in 2002 for
the Jianxi Copper Company’s refinery located at Guixi
near Ying Tan city. Falconbridge Ltd. patented the
KIDD PROCESSâ which similarly employs stainless
steel blanks on which the copper is plated then me-
chanically stripped after several days (Moskalyk et al.,
1999).
The anode cycle varies at each tankhouse and most
refineries produce two crops of cathodes from one initial
charge of anodes. Tank room data for 21 refineries was
first compiled in 1985 by J.H. Schloen then expanded by
Davenport et al. (1999). For example, Inco’s copper
refinery in Copper Cliff has a nameplate capacity of
170,000 tpa. It maintains an anode cycle (each 272 kg) of
28 days and produces the first batch of cathodes (122 kg)
after 14 days and the second batch after another 14
days. The cells contain 38 anodes and 39 cathodes and
operate at a current density of 177 A/m2 . The spent
anodes are collected, washed, then recycled back to the
smelting process to produce additional units. In the past,
the refinery allowed heavy anode scrap to remain in the
cells thereby facilitating a third crop of thinner cathodes
which normally are inferior in quality to the first cycle
designated as ‘‘turnover’’. The Inco copper refinery in-
stalled an automated anode scrap washing system
supplied by Outokumpu Wenmec. Inco invested $33-
million to commission refurbished anode casting facili-
ties at its nearby bulk copper/nickel smelter thereby
severing the umbilical cord that has tied the two plants
for many decades. Producing anodes in the smelter
eliminated the transfer of molten blister copper by rail in
special hot metal cars and phased out two outdated
anode furnaces and associated Walker casting wheels.
Inco purchased a 26 mould Treadwell casting wheel that
was retrofitted with an Outokumpu single pouring ladle
to produce constant weight anodes followed by an au-

Table 1
Worldwide summary of copper smelters
Country No. of units Country No. of units
Albania 3 Armenia 1
Australia 7 Austria 2
Belgium 2 Botswana 1
Brazil 2 Bulgaria 3
Canada 8 Chile 11
China 41 Cuba 1
Czech Republic 1 D.R. of Congo 3
Denmark 1 Egypt 1
Finland 1 France 2
Germany 5 Hungary 1
India 7 Indonesia 1
Iran 2 Italy 1
Japan 10 Kazakhstan 5
North Korea 3 South Korea 3
Mexico 7 Namibia 1
Norway 1 Oman 1
Pakistan 1 Per
u 2
Philippines 1 Poland 4
Portugal 1 Romania 2
Russia 14 Slovakia 1
R.S. Africa 6 Spain 6
Sweden 1 Taiwan 2
Thailand 2 Turkey 3
Ukraine 1 United Kingdom 3
Uganda 1 U.S.A. 2
Uzbekistan 1 Yugoslavia 1
Zambia 4 Zimbabwe 6
Source: Non-ferrous metal works of the world, World Copper Databook.
 R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 893–919
tomatic take-off system. The plant constructed two ro-
tary furnaces each 13 ft. diameter by 41 ft. long and 380-
ton capacity. The modified converter shells include four
porous plugs to promote bath agitation once the gas-
eous stream is injected. The 3–4 h refining cycle is car-
ried out by means of superheated steam and natural gas
as employed at Kennecott Utah. The casting system
operates at 45 tph. Barite is used as a mould dressing
which is applied as a slurry by a combination of sprays.
The reconditioned anode casting system improved effi-
ciency, product quality, and environmental perfor-
mance. It became fully operational with hot metal
during the last quarter of 2001.
Table 1 represents 220 copper smelters known to be
in active operation globally in 54 countries in early 2000.
The tentative list of primary and secondary copper
smelting facilities is not intended to be all inclusive but
represents the best available information accessible to
the writers. The worldwide summary of copper pro-
ducers range from small privately owned and low ca-
pacity operations that only produce a few thousand
‘‘metric tonnes per annum’’ (denoted as ‘‘tpa’’ in text) to
the giant complexes such as the Codelco-Chile organi-
zation which is state-owned. Individual smelter entries
were verified upon cross referencing locations, company
names, and ownership by means of several published
texts and other sources in order to avoid duplication.
Unfortunately, discrepancies exist between literature
sources in the public domain. Although one Internet
publication identified 122 of the copper smelters
worldwide, it provided the smelter name, current own-
ership, and plant location (AME Mineral Economics,
2003). It was indicated in the abstract that active nickel
smelters number about one quarter of the copper in-
stallations. Details are addressed in companion papers
by Moskalyk and Alfantazi (2002a) and Moskalyk and
Alfantazi (2002b).
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