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Introduction
In this chapter, rotational motion of a rigid body about a fixed axis of rotation is discussed.
A rigid body is a system of particles in which interparticle distances do not change and the
body cannot be deformed no matter how large a force is applied to it. Although a solid body
is not a rigid body, it can be so considered for most of the practical applications
om
7.1 Rotational Kinematics and Dynamics
In rotational motion of a body, all its particles move on circular paths having entres on a
definite straight line, called the axis of rotation. Kinematics deals with motion without
considering its cause, whereas dynamics deals with motion alongwith its cau e and properties
of the body.
.c
7.2 Relations between variables of rotational and linear motion
ce
( a ) Angular displacement:
The figure shows a rigid body rotating about a fixed
axis OZ normal to the plane of the figure. P and P’ re
ra
the centre of its rotation with a reference line OX
same angular displacement i a given time. Hence, the angular displacement, ∆θ, of the
As the interparticle distances do not change in a rigid body, all its particles will have the
∆θ
<ω> =
angular displaceme nt
=
w
time interval ∆t
The direction of angular velocity is given by the right handed screw rule. When a right
handed screw is kept parallel to the axis of rotation and rotated in the direction of rotation
of the body, the direction of advancement of screw gives the direction of angular velocity.
= r < ω >,
arc length PP' r ∆θ
<v> = = where r is the radius of the circular path.
∆t ∆t
om
= rω
r ∆θ r dθ
∆ t→0 ∆ t
v = lim =
dt
( Note that the angular velocity of all particles of the rigid body rotating about a fixed axis of
rotation is the same for all the particles, whereas the linear speed of a particle depends
.c
upon its distance ( r ) from the axis of rotation. )
tangential to the path at that point. In the above equation, v, r nd ω are the magnitudes of
Linear velocity is a vector quantity and its direction at any p int n the path of motion is
→ → →
ce
the vector quantities v, r and ω .
→
A × B
→ → →
= l A l l B l sin θ n ,
^
ra f two vectors A and B having an angle
m
^ → →
where n is the unit vector norma to the plane containing A and B having direction given
by the right handed screw rule Whe a right handed screw kept perpendicular to the plane
→ → → →
xa
(1)
→ → → → → → →
(2) A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C
w
( 3 ) The cross product of two parallel vectors, in the same or opposite directions, is a zero
vector.
w
→ → → →
A ⊥ B , then A × B sin 90° = 1 )
^
( 4 ) If = AB n ( Q
i × i = j × j = k × k = 0 i × j = k, j × k = i, k × i = j
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
(5) and
→ →
A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k B = B x i + B y j + B z k , then
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
(6) If and
→ →
A × B = ( A y Bz - A z By ) i + ( A z Bx - A x Bz ) j + ( A x By - A y Bx ) k
^ ^ ^
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 3
^ ^ ^
∴
→ →
i j k
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
om
→
The position vector r w. r. t. the centre of the circular
→ →
path of a particle, angular velocity ω and linear velocity v
→
.c
are shown in the figure. As v is perpendicular to the plane
→ →
formed by ω and r , the scalar relation v = r ω can be
written in the vector form as
→ → →
ce
v = ω × r
( e ) Angular acceleration:
< α>
→ change in angular velocity
ra →
∆ω
m
= =
time interval ∆t
→ →
→ ∆ω dω
α
∆ t→0 ∆ t
= lim = rate of change of angular velocity.
dt
→ →
.e
α is in the dir ction of ∆ ω and in the case of fixed axis of rotation, both are parallel to
the axis. The unit of α is rad / s or rotation / s .
2 2
w
Di fer ntiating the equation v = × r with respect to time gives the linear
acceleration
→ → →
→ d → → → dω →
w
(ω × r ) = ω ×
dv dr
a = = + × r
dt dt dt dt
→ → → →
= (ω × v ) + (α × r )
From the figure on the previous page and using right handed screw rule it can be found that
→ →
the direction of ω × v is radial towards the centre. Hence, it is called the radial component,
→ →
a r , of the linear acceleration a .
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 4
→ →
Similarly, the direction of α × r is tangential to the circular path at the position of the
→ →
particle. Hence it is called the tangential component, a T , of the linear acceleration a .
→
∴ ∴
→ → → →
a = ar + a T a = ar 2 + a T 2 ( Q ar ⊥ aT )
→
α = 0, that is the angular velocity is constant,
om
Even if ar is not zero. As the angular
→ →
displacement, θ, angular velocity, ω and angular acceleration, α are the ame for all the
particles of a rigid body, they are known as variables of the rotational kinematics.
.c
7.4 Torque
Torque is a physical quantity of rotational dynamics whose
ce
role in rotational motion is similar to the role of force in
translational motion.
→
→
F acts
m
τ
→
The torque acting on the part cle w. r. t. point O is
xa
defined as
τ
→ → →
r × F
∴ τ
=
= r F sin θ = ( r s n θ ) = F ( OQ )
.e
τ
Thus, torque is the moment of force w. r. t. an arbitrarily selected reference point.
→ 1 2 2
τ
is a vector quantity. Its dimensional formula is M L T- and its unit is Nm.
→ → →
w
The dire ion of is perpendicular to the plane formed by r and F and is obtained
using the right handed screw rule. The magnitude and direction of torque depends on the
w
selec ion of the reference point and hence it is necessary to mention the reference point
ile defining the torque of a particle.
τ τ1 τ2 τn
r1 , r2 , ... , rn due to external forces, F1, F2 , ... , Fn respectively.
∴
→ → → → → → → → → →
= r1 × F1 + r2 × F2 + … + rn × Fn = + + … +
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 5
om
The torque, τ , acting on the rigid body is the vector
→
∴ τ ∑ τn ∑
→ → → →
rn × Fn
.c
= =
n n
ce
^ ^ ^
∑
i j k
= xn yn zn
n Fnx Fny Fnz
∑ ra
^ ^
= [ ynFnz - znFny ] i + [ znFnx - xnFnz ] j + [ xnFny - ynFnx ] k
n
m
Here, as the rotation is considered about z-axis, only the z-component of torque is
^
τ⋅
responsible for the rotation. In gen ral, if rotation is about a fixed axis with n as the unit
→ ^
xa
→ →
More effective will be the rotational motion, larger the value of l F l, l r l and / or sin θ.
Thus, the effectiveness of rotational motion depends on rFsin θ which is known as torque.
τ
→ → →
Vectorially, Torque, = r × F
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 6
( e ) Couple:
“Two non-collinear forces, equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction, constitute a couple. The figure shows forces,
→ →
om
F1 and F2 , acting at points P and Q of a rigid body
→ →
having position vectors, r1 and r2 , respectively w. r. t. to O.
These forces are equal in magnitude and hence constitute a
couple. Here,
τ
→ → → → →
.c
= r1 × F1 + r2 × F2
→ → → → → →
= r1 × F1 - r2 × F1 [ Q F2 = - F1 ]
ce
→ → → → →
= ( r1 - r2 ) × F1 = l r1 - r2 l ( F1 ) sin ( π - θ )
→ → → → →
= l r1 - r2 l F1 sin θ, where π - θ is the ang e between r1 - r2 and F1 .
∴
ra
Moment of a couple = Magnitude of force constituting couple × perpendicular distance
between the wo for es.
m
( f ) Equilibrium of a rigid body:
τ1 τ2 τn
→ → → → → →
xa
If F1, F2 , ... , Fn are the forces acting on a rigid body and + + … + are
the torques on it due to these forces, then
τ ∑τ
.e
n n n
→ →
( ii ) for rotationa equilibrium, = n = 0
n
w
→ →
Consider a particle Q of mass m having position vector OQ
→ → → →
= r moving with velocity v and having linear momentum
→
defined as
→ →
l = r × p = r p sin θ = p ( OR )
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 7
om
The direction of l is perpendicular to the plane formed by r and p and i obt ined using
→
→
the right handed screw rule. In the present case, l is in the OZ direction.
The magnitude and direction of l depend on the selection of referen e point and hence
while defining the angular momentum of a particle it is necessary to mention the reference
.c
point.
ce
and torque acting on it:
→ → →
Differentiating equation l = r × p w. r. t. to time
→ → →
→ dp d r →
+
→
d l
dt
= r ×
dt
dtra
× p
→
→
→
m
dp dr
But = rate of change of linear momentum = force F and = velocity v
dt dt
→
∴
→ → → →
× F) + (v × p)
xa
d l
= ( r
dt
→
∴ τ
→ → → → → → →
× F) v × p
d l
= ( r = ( As v and p are in the same direction, = 0)
.e
dt
Thus, “the time rate of change of angular momentum is equal to the torque.” This statement
is similar to he Newton’s Second Law of motion that “the time rate of change of linear
w
→ → →
The angular momentum of a system of n particles having angular momenta l 1 , l 2 , ... , l n is
→ → → →
w
g ven by L = l 1 + l 2 + ... + l n
→ → → →
∴ dL
=
d l1
+
d l2
+ ... +
d ln
τ τ τn
dt dt dt dt
→ → →
= τ
= + + … +
→
1 2
Thus, the time rate of change of total angular momentum of a system of particles is equal to
the resultant external torque acting on the system.
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 8
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∴
→ → → → → → → → → →
L = l 1 + l 2 + ... + l n = ( r1 × p 1 ) + ( r2 × p 2 ) + ... + ( rn × p n )
∴ lL l
→ → →
= r1 p 1 + r2 p 2 + ... + rn p n ( Q r ⊥ p and all vecto s on R H. S. are parallel )
= r1 m1 v 1 + r2 m 2 v 2 + ... + rn mn v n ( Q p = mv )
.c
= m1 r12 ω + m 2 r2 2 ω + ... + mn rn 2 ω ( Q v = rω
ce
= ( m1 r12 + m 2 r2 2 + ... + mn rn 2 ) ω
∴ lL l
→ →
= I l ω l, where I = m1 r12 + m 2 r2 2 + ... + mn rn 2
→ →
ra
I is called the moment of inertia of the rigid b dy about the given axis of rotation.
→ →
∴ dω
τ
→ →
= I α
dL
= I =
xa
dt dt
external torque, the angular momentum of a rigid body remains constant.” This statement is
known as the l w of conservation of angular momentum.
w
L = mvd … … … … … … … ( 1 )
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 9
1 1
Area of the triangle SQP is A = ( SQ ) ( PQ ) = (d)s ( Q PQ = s )
2 2
∴ dA
=
1
(d)
ds
=
1
(d)v … … … … (2)
dt 2 dt 2
om
dA L
= = constant ( Q torque due to gravitational force on P by the Sun w. r. t. the
dt 2m
Sun is zero and so L is constant. )
.c
This equation represents Kepler’s second law for planetary motion s ated as “The area swept
by the line joining a planet with the Sun per unit time, called areal velocity, is constant.”
This is the geometrical representation of the law of conservation of ngular momentum.
ce
7.7 Moment of inertia
If m1 , m 2 , ..., mn are the masses of the partic es of a igid body and r1, r2 , ..., rn are
their perpendicular distances from a given axis respect vely, then the moment of inertia of the
body corresponding to the given axis is given by
I = m1 r12 + m 2 r2 2 + ... + mn rn 2
ra ∑ mi ri 2
n
i=1
m
The magnitude of moment of inertia depends on the selection of the axis and the distribution
xa
1 2 0
of mass about it. Its S I unit is kg m and dimensional formula is M L T .
τ
→ → → →
The equations L = I ω and = I α are analogous to the equations of linear motion
→ → → →
.e
P = M v and F M a respectively which shows that the moment of inertia plays the
same role in rotational motion as the mass plays in linear motion. The moment of inertia is
the inertia for rot tiona motion just as the mass is the inertia for linear motion.
w
∴ M = mn.
Suppose the rigid body of mass M consists of n particles each of
w
mass m
( )
The moment of inertia of the body about a given axis,
w
M r12 + r2 2 + ... + rn 2
= m r12 + m r2 2 + ... + m rn 2 =
2
I = MK
n
om
( d ) between the two axes.
2
I = Ic + Md
.c
( a ) For laminar bodies: For laminar bodies, the
moment of inertia I z
about Z-axis normal to its plane is equal to the
ce
sum of its moments of inertia about X-axis,
I x and Y-axis, I y.
Iz = Ix + Iy
ra
( b ) For three-dimensional bodies: The sum o
moments of inertia of a three dimensional b dy
about any three mutually perpendicu ar ax s
m
drawn through the same point is equa to twice
the moment of inertia of the body about that
point.
xa
Ix + Iy + Iz = 2I0
To calculate moment of inertia of a thin rod of length l and mass M about an axis yy’
passing through its centre O and perpendicular to its length, consider O as origin and X-axis
along he length of the rod. A small element of length dx of the rod is at a distance x from
w
2
M 2 M x
l 3 l
-
I = =
l
- 2
M l3 l3
2
+
M l2
3l 8 8
= =
12
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 11
om
2
are also given by MR , where M represents their mass and R their radii.
.c
radius R and mass M about an axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to its plane, consider an element of the disc in the
ce
of the material of the ring. Therefore, the moment of nertia of the
ring about an axis passing through the centre, O, of the d sc and
perpendicular to its plane is
d I = ( 2 π x dx ⋅ t ⋅ ρ ) x ( 2 π t ρ ) x dx
∴
2
=
ra 3
moment of inertia of the disc about an axis passing through its centre and perpendicular
m
to its plane is
∫ = ( 2π
x4
= 2π t ρ ( π R 2 t ρ) R 2
R
Ι = ( 2 π t ρ ) x 3 dx t ρ)
R
R4 1
4
=
xa
4 2
0 0
1
= M R2
2
.e
1
Similarly, moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about its axis is also M R2 .
2
w
∴ I =
2
I0 =
2 2
MR .
3 3
and of thickness dx. The mass of this shell is 4 π x ⋅ dx ρ, where ρ is the density of the
Let the solid sphere of mass M be of radius R. Consider a thin spherical shell of radius x
2
material of the sphere. Hence the moment of inertia of the shell about the centre O is
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 12
d I0 = 4 π x
2
⋅ dx ρ ⋅ x2
Therefore, the moment of inertia of the solid sphere about its
centre is
x5
∫
4 πρ 5
I0 = 4 π ρ = 4π ρ
R
R
x 4 dx
5
= R
om
5
0 0
π R3 ρ ⋅
4 3 R2 3
= = MR 2
3 5 5
.c
The moments of inertia of the solid sphere about three mutually p rpendicular axes passing
through its centre given by I x, I y and I z are all e ual and represent the moment of
ce
inertia, I, of the solid sphere about the diameter.
∴ I = Ix = Iy = Iz
∴ I =
2
I0 =
2
×
3
MR 2 =
2
MR 2
ra 2 I0 = I x + I y + I z = 3 I
m
3 3 5 5
∴ ( dm ) r 2
M. I. of d sc = d I = =
π r 4 ρ dy
∴ r =
2 2
w
r R R
From the geom ry of the figure, = y
y h h
∴ πR4 ρ
w
dI y 4 dy
2 h4
w
π R 4 ρ y5
∴ ∫
πR4 ρ
h
h
5
I = y 4 dy =
2 h4 0 2 h4 0
π R 4 ρ h5 3 1
π R 2 h ρ R 2
10 3
= =
2 h4 5
3
= MR2
10
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 13
→
12 2 3
2 Ring of radius R Passing through its centre and
om
perpendicular to its plane
2
.c
perpendicular to its pla e 2 2
Solid cylinder of radius R → Geometric axis
ce
→
1 R
4 Circular disc of radius R Any diameter MR 2
4 2
→
Any diameter
2
5
MR 2
3 2
R
2
5
3
R
m
7 Solid right circular cone of radius R Geometric axis R
10 10
→
1 Linear displacement d Angular displacement θ
→ →
ω
.e
→ →
→ → dω
α
3 Linear accele at on dv Angular acceleration
w
a = =
dt dt
w
τ
→ → → →
w
6 Force F = m a Torque = I α
→ →
τ
→ dP → dL
7 Newton’s Second Law of Result similar to
F = =
motion dt Newton’s Second Law dt
I ω2
8 Translational kinetic 1 Rotational kinetic 1
energy K = mv 2 energy K =
2 2
9 Work W =
→
F ⋅
→
d Work
W = τθ
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 14
10 Power P = Fv Power τω
ω = ω0 + αt
P =
v = v0 + at
θ = ω0 t + αt
11 Equations of linear 1 2 Equations of 1 2
motion with constant d = v0t + at rotational motion with
2α θ = ω - ω02
2
2 2
linear acceleration constant angular
om
2 2
2ad = v - v0 acceleration
.c
Let a body of mass m, radius R, moment of
inertia I and radius of gyration K start rolling
ce
shown in the figure.
plane.
2 2
mv 2 + I ω 2 … … ( 1 )
.e
1 1
mgh =
2 2
Putting ω = and Ι = m K
v 2
in the equation ( 1 ) above, we get
R
w
2 gh
2
2
v = … … … (2)
1 + K
R 2
w
f d is the length of the inclined plane and a is the acceleration of the body along it, then
w
2 2ah
v = 2ad = … … (3)
sin θ
g sin θ
2
Comparing equations ( 2 ) and ( 3 ), a =
1 + K
R 2
7 - ROTATIONAL MOTION Page 15
∴ the decrease in the acceleration of the body due to the frictional force acting on it
= g sin θ g sin θ
g sin θ K2
K2 + R2
-
=
1 + K
2
R2
∴
om
the frictional force,
F = m g sin θ
K2
K2 + R2
… (4)
.c
The normal reaction N and m g cos θ balance each other.
∴ N = m g cos θ
ce
… … (5)
= tan θ
K2
F
N K2 + R2
( Note: Frictional force, F, inc eases as the angle of inclination, θ, of the inclined plane is
increased till it reaches a aximum value = µ s N at a certain maximum value of θ.
xa
∴
.e
K2 tan θ ≤ µs
K2 + R2
w
µ ≥ tan θ
K2
K2 + R2
or, for body to roll without sliding.
w
Special cases:
w
⇒ µs ≥ tan θ
1
F r thin ring or thin-walled hollow cylinder, radius of gyration, K = R
2
⇒ µs ≥ tan θ
R 1
For circular disc or solid cylinder, radius of gyration, K =
2 3
⇒ µs ≥ tan θ
2 2
and for solid sphere, radius of gyration, K = R
5 7