Double Degree MSc Programme

GEO-INFORMATION FOR SPATIAL PLANNING AND

DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT
Graduate School Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta Phone/Fax. (0274) 564239 UGM
Website http://www.geo.ugm.ac.id, www.geoinfopasca.ugm.ac.id and
http://www.itc.nl/pub/study/programmes/joint-educations

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
MODUL A
GEO-SCIENCES AND ITS APPICATION

LECTURER:
Prof. Dr. Sutikno

By:
Raja Susatio
(18/435102/PMU/09613)

SEPTEMBER 2018
 MODUL A GEO-SCIENCES AND ITS APPLICATION
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
(Part 1 assignment from Sutikno)

THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT A,B AND

C. ANSWER AND DISSCUSS AT LEAST TWO TYPES OF THE
QUESTIONS, SELECT: A and C; or B and C; UNCOMPULSARY A, B and
C. Type for individual assignment took is type B and type C
A. TYPE FOR INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

Explain why the Earth’s surface is very dynamic?

1. Compare and contrast internal processes with surface processes.

2. Compare and contrast uniformitarianism and catastrophism; and give the
examples.
3. List the main major layer of the Earth, and which is the most important to the
dynamic condition of the Earth’s surface, and why?
4. What do you know about plate tectonic theory?
5. What is the impact of plate motion to the geological structure and volcano
distribution?
6. What is the relationship between geological condition and geomorphologic
condition?
7. What is the important role of the geology and geomorphology to determine the
hazard and disaster susceptibility?
8. In what ways do organism, including human, change the Earth; what kind of
Earth processes are affected by human and other organism.
9. What kinds of data are needed to determine spatial distribution of the hazard
susceptibility of landslide, earthquake, volcanic eruption and tsunami; and
explain how to obtain the data?
B. TYPE FOR INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the differences between oceanic crust and continental
crust, and mention the effect of the differences?
Characteristic Oceanic Crust Continental Crust
Average Thickness 7 km 30 – 50 km
Seismic P-Wave Velocity 7 km/second 6 km/second
Density 3,0 g/cm3 2,7 g/cm3
Probable Composition Basalt underlain by Granite, other plutonic
gabbro rocks, schist, gneiss (with
sedimentary rock cover)
The differences will make an enormous effect if those 2 crusts met. As the
continental and oceanic crust met, the continental crust will override the oceanic
crusts as it is denser than the oceanic crust. While the continental crust ascend,
the continental sinks into the mantle, beneath the continental crust. These
phenomena is known as subduction zone.

In the region where the top of subducting plate (oceanic crust) slides beneath
the asthenosphere, melting takes place and magma is created. As the magma
created on the subduction zone is relatively less dense than the oceanic crust but
denser than continental crust, it works its way upward. It either erupts or solidifies
within the crust. In simpler terms, it creates volcanic belts

In addition, sedimentary rocks that may have been below sea level might be
squeezed and then lifted, creating “folded sedimentary rocks” which become part
of a mountain range.

2. What is the asthenosphere, why is it important?

Asthenosphere is the underlying part of the upper mantle below lithosphere
which is a ductile (soft) zone. It provides a “lubricating” layer which the
lithosphere moves.

It is important because heat transfer (convection) is happening in this part.

The heat transfer, or in other term is internal heat engine, makes the hot material
comes upward and the cold material sinks downward. Where mantle material is
at its hot state, it became less dense and wells upward through the asthenosphere,
uplift the lithosphere. Where the lithosphere is coldest, as it’s in its densest state,
it will sink down through the asthenosphere into the deeper mantle. The forces
generated through these heat transfer is called tectonic forces. And tectonic forces
is the main cause of the movement happening on the earth’s crust and it also cause
deformation of rock as well as.
3. What would Earth be like without solar heating?
Earth will not formed as it is right now. Why? That’s because sun is one
of two external heat engine that creates the surface at it is. Without the sun, there
will be no hot air in the equator. As there’s no hot air in the equator, there will be
no cooler zones in the North and South Pole. These difference in temperature
makes it possible for the wind to move because wind is moving to regulate the
temperature. Without the difference in temperature, no wind will be created.
Those wind supposed to create a different season because the wind is not on the
same state in every part. So, without wind, there will be no seasons.

Another role of the sun is to evaporate the seawater, creates vapor in the
air. In simpler way, sun creates moist air. Normally, moist air cools down at some
point and creates rain or snow. But, without the sun, no vapor will be created,
meaning no moist air, no rain, and no snow. Without water, no erosion will
happen on the earth’s surface. As there’s no erosion, the rock will keep on gaining
height, leave the land with no flat area.

And, the biggest effect is, earth will have no life forms as life forms need
seasons and flat area to survive and settle.

4. What facts make it probable that Earth’s core is composed of

mostly iron?
The overall density of the earth is 5,5 g/cm3. The crust part, which is
continental and oceanic crust, has the density of 2,7 to 3 g/cm3. The ultramafic
rock’s density on the mantle is about 3,3 g/cm3 to 5,5 g/cm3 depend on its depth.
The deeper it is, the higher the density. As the crust and the mantle approximately
comprise 85% of the earth’s volume, the core need to have density of 12 or 13
g/cm3 to bring the average to 5,5 g/cm3. Under the pressure in the core, iron would
have a density slightly higher than the required. As such, many geologist thinks
that a mixture of Iron and small amount of lighter element such as oxygen, sulfur,
or silicon, would make the iron in the core meet the required density.

5. Make comparison between continental drift theory, sea floor

spreading theory and plate tectonic theory.
Continental Drift is a concept suggesting that continents move over the
earth’s surface. But, it couldn’t explain about the mechanism of how the
continents moved and it focused on the continental, on the land.

Sea floor spreading is a concept that states that the ocean floor is moving
away from the mid oceanic ridge and across deep ocean basin, to disappear
 beneath continents and island arcs. But it only explain about the origin of the
oceanic crust, it didn’t mention anything about the continental crust of the earth.

Plate tectonic theory is a developed theory by combining continental drift

and sea floor spreading theory. By using the sea floor spreading theory, it explain
how the continental managed to moved.

6. Explain how plate tectonic can account for the existence of the
mid oceanic ridge and its associated rift valley, earthquake, high
heat flow and basaltic flow?
According to plate tectonic theory, divergent boundaries (first type
boundary) exist where plates are moving apart. It is found that divergent
boundaries coincide the crest of submarine mountain range which is mid-oceanic
ridges.

Third type boundary is a convergent boundary where plates move each

other. Just like before, it is found that the earthquake distribution is happening
much more frequent on this boundary. It is caused by the force resulted by
colliding plate.

High heat flow explain about how the hot mantle will uplifted while the cold
crust will sink. This heat flow is the basic concept that used as a plate tectonic
theory which happen to explain and coincide with the previous theory. Those
theories are continental drift and sea floor spreading.

Basaltic flow is a flow which only consist of basaltic that change its
temperature. Its concept is the same as high heat flow. When a basaltic at its
hottest state, it’s less dense and uplifted. As the basaltic cool down, it became
dense and sink again. This movement drive the oceanic crust to move.

7. What geologic processes might cause the forces that can hold a
region out of isostatic equilibrium?
Tectonic process. The higher the ground, which usually is a mountain, the deeper
it’s rooted to the mantle. The less altitude the ground have, the less it’ rooted to
the mantle.

8. Why are there no earthquakes deeper than 670 km?

670 km is the boundary of upper and lower mantle. This depth is having a
high enough contrast of density and viscosity which prevent any passage of
material thorough it. Some said this thing makes it impossible for any slab, which
 is the source of earthquake, to get through it. It makes the slab could only reach
the depth on only 670 km, makes it the deepest earthquake that could occur.

While the other said that there’s no earthquake occur on the lower mantle
as it’s hot, weak, and plastic. These properties make it so no movement that allow
earthquake to happen, which is a fault or a plate boundaries.

9. Explain the spatial distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes in

the world, and in Indonesia.
Earthquake is being distributed around every plate boundary that exist on
the earth. The movement of the plate itself makes it prone to earthquake. The
most important concentration of earthquake is in the circum-pacific belt, which
encircles the rim of Pacific Ocean. Another major concentration of earthquake is
in the Mediterranean-Himalayan Belt, which runs through the Mediterranean Sea,
Crosses the Middle East and Himalayas, and passes thorough East Indies to meet
Circum-Pacific belt in north of Australia. In Indonesia, the Circum-Pacific belt
could be found on the Sulawesi Island, Maluku Archipelago, and North of Papua
while the Mediterranean-Himalayan Belt could be found along the Sumatera
Island, crosses Java and Bali, and crosses the Nusa Tenggara Archipelago. For
the detailed spatial distribution, check figure below.

On the other hand, volcanoes only exist on the divergent and convergent
boundary. At some points, volcanoes exist at intraplate hot spots. But, not all
convergent boundary creates volcanoes. Convergent boundary of continent plates
against continental plates is not creating any volcanoes.
 On a Convergent boundaries, volcanoes could be found in nearly every part
of Circum-Pacific belt but not in every part of Mediterranean Belt. In
Mediterranean belt, Volcanoes can only found in the south part of Europe, in
south west and south of Indonesia. In Indonesia, volcanoes have the same pattern
of distribution as the earthquake. At Circum-Pacific belt, volcanoes could be
found on the Sulawesi Island, Maluku Archipelago, and North of Papua while the
volcanoes of Mediterranean-Himalayan Belt could be found along the Sumatera
Island, crosses Java and Bali, and crosses the Nusa Tenggara Archipelago. For
the detailed spatial distribution, check figure below.

10.Which one is more dangerous between earthquakes disaster and

volcanic disaster, why?
Earthquake is more dangerous. It is because the causes of earthquake are
still not totally clear. It is know that the earthquake is caused by the movement of
the plate that happen absurd and suddenly. But that’s it. No more. On another
note, the forecasting of Volcanoes might be not so precise, but the volcanoes
show a lot of signs before of an eruption. And, mostly, the signs shows days or
even weeks before. So, the evacuation could be done.

But, it is a different case for earthquake. It is inferred that the behavior of

certain animal and solar activity could give a sign of an earthquake. But,
unfortunately, it is noted that those signs only showing about one minute before
the earthquake occur, makes it impossible to forecast.
C. TYPE FOR INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the scope of geological science, and which one of them
have importance role for disaster mitigation and natural resources
evaluation?
The scope of geological science is pretty broad as a geological science scope
is depend on its purpose. For the basic geology which need to be comprehended for
all purpose is petrology, geomorphology, stratigraphy, and geological structure.

Petrology (the science of differentiating rocks), geomorphology (the science

of landform that resulted by the contact of endogenous and exogenous force),
stratigraphy (the science that study the layers of rocks and their depositional
environment), geological structure (the science that study endogenous process such
as tectonic, volcanism, and their influence),

All of them have important role for disaster mitigation and natural resources
evaluation.

2. What is the difference between mineral and rocks?

Minerals are homogenous and cannot be divided mechanically into smaller
components while rocks are an aggregate of heterogeneous minerals.

3. Why acid rocks more dominant in the earth surface compare to

basic rocks?
That’s because acid (silicic or felsic) rocks is less dense than basic (mafic)
rocks. As the acid rocks is less dense, its volume is higher, hence it is more spread
out in the earth surface while the mafic rocks is denser, makes it less spread out in
the earth surface. But, it is need to be noted in term of weight, it is believed that
acid and basic rocks is the same. But, acid rocks tends to be found on the land, as
it’s the composition of continental crust while basic rocks tends to be found on the
sea floor as it’s the composition of oceanic crust.

4. What is correlation between texture and rock types of the igneous

rocks?
The term of the texture of igneous rocks is the crystal size of its composition
and the type of igneous rocks is the intrusive and extrusive rocks. By using those
definition, the correlation of texture and rock types is the finer the texture
(aphanitic) the closer its location to the surface which is the extrusive rock as they
cool quickly. The coarser the texture (Phaneritic), the deeper its location which is
intrusive rock as they cool slowly.
5. Describe at least five geologic structures that have closed relation
to natural disaster, and why?
- Joints are a fracture that occurs on the rock without any visible movement.
- Normal fault is a fault that the hanging wall moved downward while the
footwall moves upward.
- Reverse fault is the opposite of normal fault where the hanging wall moved
upward while the footwall moves downward.
- Strike slip fault is a fault that the motion is horizontal and relatively parallel
towards its strike
- Volcano is a hill or a mountain that formed by the activities of lava and rocks
fragment which ejected through a volcanic vent.

Joints and faults, all three types of it, creates a fracture on a rock that
decrease the rock’s power. This could lead to landslide or rock fall.

Normal fault and reverse fault have an active role in the landslide disaster.
That’s because normal fault and reverse fault tend to form a scarp. This scarp, with
high degree of angle, creates an unstable slope.

Faults, three types of it, can be called as the source of the earthquake as
these faults it the place where rocks move and creates shocks.

An active volcano, when erupt, could eject a lot of lava, rocks, fragment,
rocks, heat cloud, and a lot of other things that could burn and destroy anything on
its way, without exception settlement and human.

6. Describe the main aspects of the geomorphology and their relation

to natural hazard.
The main aspects of the geomorphology are:
- Hillslope relief is the altitude difference between mountain summits or
ridgeline toward the point which a channels begin.
- Tributary channel relief is the altitude difference between one and another
tributaries
- Trunk channel relief is the difference between one

Those main aspects of geomorphology gives information of any processes

that ever happen in the area such as displacements of rocks that gives important
clue to earthquake, trenches and stream banks that act as an indicator of flood, a
paleo movement of materials and rocks to determine the hazard area of landslide,
etc.
7. Why there are some landform units on the earth surface?
Landforms are created through the association of tectonic and surface
processes. Each association of tectonic, such as rock type or structure or any other
else, and surface processes, such as erosion or deposition or any other, will create
their own landform. Takes example a rigid rock that’s been deformed by normal
fault, when in contact with surface processes such as erosion, will create triangular
facet. Or when a limestone have a fracture because of joint then came in contact
with erosion, it will create karst dome. Each combination will create their own
unique landform.

8. Why geomorphologic or landform units can be used for

identification of natural disaster types and evaluation on natural
resources.
That’s because each landform is a trail of the process that happens in the
past, and each landform is unique as its parameter of tectonic and surface process
happen to differ one another. One type of natural disaster will leave a different
marks on the land if compared to the other disaster.
For the evaluation of natural resources, it is used for early evaluation of
natural resources as one landform associates with some geological process, and it
will also associates with geological resources such as we can found gold on folding
hill or iron sand in the beach. But, it can’t be used for detailed exploration as it need
detailed geological mapping.

9. What kind of geomorphologic factors which influence of mass-

wasting susceptibility?
Geomorphologic factors which influence of mass-wasting susceptibility is
steepness of the slope. If the rock is unstable or dislodges, it will fall or move if the
slope is steep as its being pulled down by gravity. But, if the morphology is flat, no
matter how unstable or dislodges, it will never move.

10.What kind of geomorphologic factors which influence of flood

susceptibility?
Geomorphologic factors which influence of flood susceptibility is the slope
and the length of slope. As the river overflowed with water, it will flood the
surrounding area. A flat area will be influenced the most as the water won’t flow.
But, a steep slope around the water will make the water keep on flowing and won’t
stay around. The longer the length, the more the area is susceptible to flood.
 Reference

Grotzinger, J., Jordan, T.H., Press, F., and Siever, R., 2007, Understanding Earth, New
York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
McGeary, D., Plummer, C., and Carldsn, D., 2001, Physical Geology Earth Revealed,
United States: McGraw-Hill
Pandharinath, N. and Rajan, C.K., 2009, Earth and Atmospheric Disaster Management,
Hyderabad: BS Publications.
Selley, R.C., Cocks, L.R.M., and Plimer, I.R., 2005, Encyclopedia of Geology, United
Kingdom: Elsevier
Thompson, G., and Turk, J., 1997, Introduction to Physical Geology, United States:
Brooks-Cole

https://geology.com/rocks/igneous-rocks.shtml