Earth's core is the very hot, very dense center of our planet.

The ball-shaped core lies beneath the cool, brittle crust and
the mostly solid mantle. The core is found in about 2,900
kilometers (1,802 miles) below Earth's surface and has
a radius of about 3,485 kilometers (2,165 miles).

It is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is a hot iron ball

the size of Pluto. The inner core is solid due to the
pressure caused by the weight put on it by the Earth's
other top layers. It is distinct from the outer core, which
is a liquid.

The outer core is the third layer of the Earth. It is the only
liquid layer and is mainly made up of the metals iron and
nickel, as well as small amounts of other substances. The
outer core is responsible for Earth's magnetic field. As
Earth spins on its axis, and the iron inside the liquid outer core
moves around.

The mantle is the mostly solid bulk of Earth's interior. The

mantle lies between Earth's dense, super-heated core and
its thin outer layer, the crust. The mantle is about 2,900
kilometers (1,802 miles) thick and makes up a whopping
84 percent of Earth's total volume.

The lower mantle is the region 400 to 1,800 miles below

the Earth's surface, made of solid rock. The lower mantle
lies beneath the upper mantle and surrounds the outer core.
The lower mantle is characterized by extremely high pressure
and temperatures of around 7,000° F.

The upper mantle extends from the crust to a depth of about

410 kilometers (255 miles). The upper mantle is mostly solid,
but its more malleable regions contribute to tectonic activity.
Two parts of the upper mantle are often recognized as distinct
regions in Earth's interior: the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of Earth. The lithosphere

includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust,
the outermost layers of Earth's structure. It is bounded by
the atmosphere above and the asthenosphere (another part of
the upper mantle) below.

The asthenosphere is the denser, weaker layer beneath the

lithospheric mantle. It lies between about 100 kilometers
(62 miles) and 410 kilometers (255 miles) beneath Earth's surface.
The temperature and pressure of the asthenosphere are so high
that rocks soften and partly melt, becoming semi-molten.
“Crust” describes the outermost shell of a terrestrial planet.
Earth's crust is generally divided into older, thicker continental
crust and younger, denser oceanic crust. The dynamic geology
of Earth's crust is informed by plate tectonics.

Plate tectonics is, a theory dealing with the dynamics of Earth’s

outer shell—the lithosphere—that revolutionized Earth
sciences by providing a uniform context for understanding
mountain-building processes, volcanoes, and earthquakes
as well as the evolution of Earth’s surface and reconstructing
of its past continents and oceans.

What is the theory of continental drift?

The theory of plate tectonics is based on a broad synthesis

of geologic and geophysical data. It is now almost universally
accepted, and its adoption represents a true scientific revolution,
analogous in its consequences to quantum mechanics in physics
or the discovery of the genetic code in biology. Incorporating the
the much older idea of continental drift, as well as the concept of
seafloor spreading, the theory of plate tectonics has provided
an overarching framework in which to describe the past
geography of continents and oceans, the processes controlling
creation and destruction of landforms, and the evolution of
Earth’s crust, atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and climates.
During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, it became apparent
that plate-tectonic processes profoundly influence the composition
of Earth’s atmosphere and oceans, serve as a prime cause of
long-term climate change, and make significant contributions
to the chemical and physical environment in which life evolves.

When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary.

The impact of the colliding plates can cause the edges of one or both
plates to buckle up into a mountain range or one of the plates may
bend down into a deep seafloor trench.

When two continental plates converge, they smash together and

create mountains. The amazing Himalayan Mountains are the result
of this type of convergent plate boundary.

When oceanic crust collides with a continent, an oceanic-continental

convergent boundary forms. The oceanic plate is denser, so it undergoes
subduction. This means that the oceanic plate sinks beneath the continent,
forming a deep ocean trench.
At an ocean-ocean convergent boundary, one of the plates
(oceanic crust and lithospheric mantle) is pushed, or subducted,
under the other (Figure 4.6. 1). Often it is the older and colder
plate that is denser and subducts beneath the younger and
warmer plate.
A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates
move away from each other. Along these boundaries,
earthquakes are common and magma (molten rock) rises
from the Earth's mantle to the surface, solidifying to create
new oceanic crust.

What is the result of divergent boundaries occurring on land?

When plate divergence occurs on land, the continental crust
rifts, or splits. This effectively creates a new ocean basin as the
pieces of the continent move apart. In continental rifting, magma
rises beneath the continent, causing it to become thinner, break
and ultimately split apart.

What is a product of a divergent plate boundary in the oceans?

Divergent boundaries that occur between oceanic plates produce
mid-oceanic ridges. In places where molten lava can move
up and fill the gap, volcanic islands are eventually formed.
Molten lava that rises eventually cools and forms part of
the ocean floor.

A transform boundary causes a fault between two plates of

the lithosphere, which will slide past one another. This
motion does not create or destroy crust and will cause
earthquakes, but no volcanoes. A transform boundary occurs
when two tectonic plates move past one another.
 What are primary waves?

P waves, or Primary waves, are the first waves

to arrive at a seismograph. P waves are the
fastest seismic waves and can move through
solid, liquid, or gas. They leave behind a trail of
compressions and rarefactions on the medium
they move through. P waves are also called pressure
waves for this reason.

What are secondary waves?

S waves also called secondary waves and shear waves,

are the second waves to hit the seismographs.
They are transverse waves, which means that the
motion is perpendicular to the direction of the wave
propagation.

What is a seismograph?

Seismographs are instruments used to record the

motion of the ground during an earthquake. They are
installed in the ground throughout the world and operated
as part of a seismographic network. The earliest
"seismoscope" was invented by the Chinese philosopher
Chang Heng in A.D. 132.