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MOST ORGANISMS ARE ACTIVE IN A LIMITED TEMPERATURE RANGE

1.1. IDENTIFY THE ROLE OF ENZYMES IN METABOLISM, DESCRIBE THEIR CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND USE A SIMPLE MODEL TO
DESCRIBE THEIR SPECIFICITY ON SUBSTRATES
Why do organisms ● Most organisms are active within a limited temperature range
need to balance o Must adapt to extreme temperatures to keep their internal temperature within a
chemicals in their narrow range.
bodies? ● Need to maintain a relatively constant balance of chemicals within their bodies to remain
functionally active.
o Ensures effective metabolism: sum of all chemical reactions occurring within a living
What are the two organism (at a cellular level)
types of ● Anabolic: Reactions that build up large organic compounds from simpler molecules
metabolism? o Increase protein synthesis within cells
o E.g. starch: made from monosaccharide units like glucose
o Usually endergonic reactions – require energy
● Catabolic: Reactions that break down complex organic compounds to simpler ones.
o E.g. protein break down into amino acids, absorb in blood, digestion of food
o Usually exergonic reactions – release energy
What are enzymes ● All metabolic reactions in living cells are controlled by enzymes
and their role? o Biological catalysts that speed up a chemical reaction by providing a path of lower
What do they act activation energy
like? o Control the rate of the complex chemical reactions taking place in cells.
o Made by living cells when needed→ manufacture is controlled by nucleus.
What is a o Globular protein molecules: long chains of amino acids that are folded into a
substrate? specific shape
o Their effective functioning relies on their shape.
● Enzymes are highly effective and efficient:
What are the o Not used up in a reaction → remain unchanged, can be reused so small numbers are
properties of necessary
enzymes? o Enzyme controlled reactions are always reversible (build up OR break down).
o Do not release or absorb heat during the reaction
o Lowers activation energy required to start a reaction, so the reaction can proceed
quickly without a change in temperature
▪ Ideal for cell functioning as heat breaks enzyme’s hydrogen bonds changing its
What does shape
substrate specific ● Substrate: The molecule on which an enzyme acts on
mean? o Substrate specific: one particular enzyme can work on only one particular substrate
molecule, catalyses one type of reaction
▪ Provide an active site where the reaction can take place
▪ Active site is jointly shaped to bind with that molecule.
How do enzymes ● Enzymes breakdown specific substrates to create products
work? ● Substrate complex: When the enzyme and the substrate come together
● For an enzyme to catalyse a reaction, small substrate molecules must temporarily bind to
active sites (precise place on the surface of an enzyme).
o The shape of the active site should not be changed for the enzyme to function.
o The enzyme is then reused
● A denatured enzyme will still be inactive when returned to regular conditions
What are ● Co-enzyme/ Cofactor: Some enzymes have a non-protein group (vitamin/metal ion) that
cofactors? bind with the enzyme protein to help form an active site
● It can be separated from protein
o But presence is essential for enzyme reaction to occur as some enzymes can’t function
without the cofactor
● Functional enzymes may just be protein, or an enzyme-cofactor complex, where the enzyme
part of the complex is a protein
● Some poisons (mercury) can disable cofactor
What are the three ● Temperature
factors that alter o Enzymes within cells function best at the body temperature of the living organism.
metabolism? o In most living things, they function normally at temperatures up to 40°C.
▪ Above this, their efficiency (rate of reaction) decreases.
o At temperatures above 60°C, most enzymes stop functioning altogether.
▪ Heat causes the hydrogen bonds that maintain the form of the enzyme to break.
What happens ▪ Active site altered
when temperature ▪ Denatures the molecule: changes the shape and structure
is too high or too ▪ Destroyed if temperature is too high
low? o Low temperature (<36.5°C)
▪ Enzyme changes shape and its functioning and thus slows down or stops
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▪ Low kinetic energy reduces chance of substrate entering the active site – enzyme
activity slows down
▪ However, the change in shape due to extreme cold is often reversible.
Do all enzymes ● pH
work at the same o Different enzymes work best at different pH values
pH values? ▪ e.g. Within cells, most enzymes function at or near neutral, intestinal enzymes
What happens to have an optimum pH of about 7.5 whereas stomach enzymes function best at pH
extremities of pH? 2.
o Outside the optimum pH has a similar effect to temperature, by altering the shape of
the enzyme and slowing down or stopping its functioning.
What happens o Extremes of pH cause the enzymes to denature.
when an enzyme ● Substrate Concentration
and substrate have o If an enzyme and substrate have a high affinity for each other, the reaction will
a high affinity? proceed rapidly.
Relationship o Increase rate of reaction until all enzyme active sites are occupied
between substrate o Higher the substrate concentration, greater the rate of enzyme reaction until it
concentration and reaches the saturation point (all available enzymes are being used to catalyse
enzyme reaction? reactions)
What happens at ▪ Increasing the concentration beyond saturation point won’t increase the rate of
saturation point? reaction
▪ Enzymes are working at their maximum turnover rate and need to be reused to
act on the additional substrate.
▪ Need to increase enzyme concentration to increase the reaction rate from that
point.
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What is the lock ● Active site is rigid

and key model? o Explains enzyme specificity towards substrates
● Small substrate molecule is reciprocally shaped and fits into the active site, like a lock
(enzyme) fits a key (substrate)
o The shape of the active site of the enzyme exactly matches that of the substrate.
● Once the enzyme-substrate complex formed, the close proximity of the molecules rapidly
catalysed the reaction
o Products of the reaction are released.

Why was the

induced fit model ● To validate this model, predictions were made and tested.
created? ● Created the currently accepted amended version: the induced-fit model
o Proteins are not rigid
o The substrate does not fit perfectly into the enzyme
o Assumes active site is more flexible and can be changed by the substance binding to it
What does it ● Binding of a substrate to the active site of an enzyme induces the enzyme to alter its shape
entail? slightly, to fit more tightly around the substrate.
o Explains why enzymes can partake in so many reactions
What are its o Once the products leave, the enzyme returns to its original shape
benefits and ● Benefits:
limitations? o Shows enzyme is unchanged and not used up
o Shows specificity of an enzyme to a particular substrate
● Limitations
o Doesn’t show effects of temp/ pH / [substrate]
o Doesn’t show action of cofactors (substances which aid action of enzymes)

● If reversed, the products would represent the substrate and the ‘substrate’ would be the
product.
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1.2. IDENTIFY THE PH AS A WAY OF DESCRIBING THE ACIDITY OF A SUBSTANCE

What is the pH? ● pH: way of describing acidity (concentration of hydrogen ions in a substance)
What is its effect ● The pH scale runs from 0 to 14, where 7 is neutral.
on an enzyme? ● More hydrogen→ lower the pH, more acidic; below 7, vice versa
● The further away from the neutral value the stronger the respective acid or base.
● pH variations will change the efficiency of an enzyme, as enzymes are pH specific
o Extreme pH will denature enzymes→ enzyme no longer catalyses reaction

1.3. EXPLAIN WHY THE MAINTENANCE OF A CONSTANT INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT IS IMPORTANT FOR OPTIMAL METABOLIC EFFICIENCY

What is internal Internal environment: intercellular fluid around cells and cytoplasm
●
environment? o Must be kept within a narrow of conditions by body→ require optimal temperature, pH, substrate
concentration
o Monitoring their requirements and the wastes that they produce
o Maintaining homeostasis is important because enzymes control all chemical reactions
for the functioning of organisms metabolic processes
▪ For cells to function best at optimal metabolic efficiency, enzymes need an
internal environment that is maintained constantly
▪ If specific conditions are altered, rate of enzyme catalysed in the reaction
decreases, thus metabolic efficiency is too
What does it allow ● Constant internal environment allows for optimal metabolic efficiency
for? o Enzymes functioning/ chemical reactions can occur at optimum speed
● If internal environment changes (e.g. human body temp exceeds 40C), enzymes will not work as
efficiency→ metabolic efficiency goes down→ reactions such as respiration disrupted → will slow down
and stop → no energy for cell (energy release decreased) → cell dies → body would not function
What happens ● Temperature
when temperature, o High temperature→ proteins denature (enzymes)
pH, concentration o Low temperatures: works very slowly because there is less energy
change? ● pH
o If pH changes, the rate of the reaction they are catalysing slows
o Changes shape and blocks the active site of substrates
o H bonds are broken in enzyme disrupting their 3D shape, makes them unspecific to
substrate
● Concentration of metabolites (reactants)
o Metabolites: chemical that participate in chemical reactions in cells (reactants)
o Many metabolic reactions rely on the availability of ATP energy in cells. If cells can’t
produce sufficient energy, other metabolic activity will be adversely affected
o Lack of metabolites slows down/stops chemical respiration, affecting overall metabolic
efficiency
● Water and salt concentration (osmotic pressure)
o All chemical reactions take place in aqueous
environment
o Reactants must be dissolved in water in the
correct concentration (e.g. salt can affect
osmotic balance of fluids)
● Absence of toxins
o Build-up of carbon dioxide/wastes from
chemical reactions are toxic
o Some directly block the active site
o Others alter the optimal conditions for the
enzymes
1.4. DESCRIBE HOMEOSTASIS AS THE PROCESS BY WHICH ORGANISMS MAINTAIN A RELATIVELY STABLE INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
Homeostasis? ● Homeostasis: maintenance by an organism of a constant or almost constant internal state,
regardless of external environmental change.
o Mammalian body has best perfected keeping internal functioning constant, no matter
the changes in the environment
o Must have mechanisms in place to enable them to function independently of external change→
must be maintained within a narrow range of conditions
● All chemical reactions within cells must occur efficiently and be effectively coordinated to
bring about optimal metabolic efficiency.
● Cells are extremely sensitive to changes in their internal environment and any imbalance
adversely affects their functioning.
What does ● Metabolic efficiency relies on a constant level of the following variables in the internal
metabolic environment:
efficiency rely o Temperature and pH
upon? o Concentration of metabolites (reactants)
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o Concentration of water and salt (osmotic pressure), which determines the volume of
cells or fluid such as blood.
o Absence of toxins that may inhibit enzyme functioning
o (also, Blood pressure, Blood glucose concentration, Dissolved gas levels)
● Cells cannot tolerate any build-up in levels of waste products such as carbon dioxide or other metabolic
wastes→ may be toxic to cells, affect enzymes
● All chemical reaction in living organisms take place in water. For chemical reactions to
proceed, the reactants must be dissolved in water.
o Thus, the water concentration of cells and their surrounding fluid is extremely
important.
o Dissolved substances e.g. salt affect the osmotic balance of fluids → concentration of salts and
other dissolved substances must also be maintained within a narrow range.
● To maintain a constant internal environment, two steps are essential:
How can we o Detect the change
mantain a constant o Counteract the change
internal ● Negative feedback mechanisms come into operation in response to change
environment? o Where the response to stimulus is to reduce/counteract the change, it causes the
body to respond so that a reversal in the direction of a change occurs

1.5. EXPLAIN THAT HOMEOSTASIS CONSISTS OF TWO

STAGES: – DETECTING CHANGES FROM THE STABLE STATE –
COUNTERACTING CHANGES FROM THE STABLE STATE
1.2. GATHER, PROCESS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY SOURCES AND USE AVAILABLE EVIDENCE TO
DEVELOP A MODEL OF A FEEDBACK MECHANISM
what is ● Coordination in animals is controlled by nervous system and endocrine system
coordination o Pancreas regulates blood sugar and hypothalamus is the control centre of temperature
controlled by? and water regulation).
● Feedback mechanism: self-regulating mechanism that maintains balance or homeostasis.
o Circular situation where information about something is continually fed back to a
central control region.
How can we detect ● Detecting changes from the stable state
and counteract o Receptors (sensory cells) detect changes in the environment and/or chemical
changes from the composition within the body
stable state? o e.g. sensory neurons in the skin pick up a decrease or increase in temperature of air
surrounding the body.
o Disturbance receptor: detect changes caused by the external environment (skin)
▪ Misalignment receptor: detect changes from the body’s stable state
o Stimulus: this change in the environment that provokes a response
o Uses receptors to detect changes (stimuli) and sends message to CNS (brain/spinal
cord)
o Pancreas acts as a sensor, control centre and effector in regulating blood glucose
● Counteracting changes from the stable state
o CNS determines response, sends message to effectors e.g. muscles and glands → response
o Effector organs (muscles/glands) work to reverse changes, effective responses return
the body to homeostasis
▪ Muscles contract or relax, glands secrete a chemical substance
o An appropriate response occurs that counteracts the changes and thus maintains the
stable environment, e.g. shivering to generate heat in muscles
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o Homeostatic mechanisms ensure variables are maintained at an organism’s ideal

values
o If there is a large fluctuation and exceeds normal range, a negative feedback
mechanism is used to respond to the change
● Negative feedback: reduces/counteracts the change (stimulus), returning the body to within
the normal range (to a state of homeostasis)
What is positive ● Positive feedback: is where the response to a stimulus is to amplify the change instead of
and negative reducing it, this does not result in homeostasis
feedback?
How does negative Stimulus: receive information from various parts of body and from environment in form of
●
feedback work? stimuli. Can either be external or internal
● Receptor: variation in external or internal environment is detected by receptor (e.g. senses)
● Control centre (central nervous system - CNS, includes brain and spinal chord) : message is
sent to the control centre, which then sends message to effector to counteract the variation
● Nerves: pathways which link all the other parts, relaying messages from one part to another
in the form or electrochemical nerve impulse
● Effector: usually a muscle or gland that responds to the message and counteracts the
variation
● Response: action of counteracting the variation
Models are a tool that can support understanding, making predictions and further investigations. Models can also
be based on analogy. No model can possibly explain every detail of a scientific phenomenon

● It is not comprehensive
● Models can be too complex

THERMOSTAT

● A thermostat control temperature to a set level in a room

● It has device which measures temperature, and if it is too low, a heating process is initiated
● The device detects that the temperature is back at the appropriate level
● Sends a message to the heater to cease operations

Thermostat Temperature regulation in

humans
Receptor Thermometer Thermoreceptors
Coordination/control centre Housed in thermostat Hypothalamus (base of brain)
Effector The furnace Blood vessels, sweat glands etc.

Responding to body temperature increases in mammals:

effector Response

Hairs on the body - Goosebumps are an attempt to trap a layer of warm air around the body to
raise reduce the amount of heat lost by radiation, convection and conduction.

Arterioles in the Vasoconstriction - muscular walls of the small blood vessels known as arterioles
skin narrow constrict so that most blood flow is redirected to the core of the body,
preventing heat loss from the cooler body surface (heat is carried throughout
the body in the bloodstream)

Muscles Shivering brought about by rapid small muscle contractions generate heat in
the body

Thyroid gland Heat gain centre stimulates the activity of the thyroid gland, causing it to speed
up/increases metabolism

Responding to body temperature decreases in mammals:

effector Response

Arterioles in the skin Vasodilation - blood carrying heat is directed towards the surface of the body so that heat can be
expand/dilate lost by conduction, convection and radiation to the surroundings

Sweat glands Liquid sweat is secreted through the sweat pores onto the surface of the skin and heat is removed
from the body to evaporate the liquid

Thyroid gland Decreased metabolism - heat loss centre causes thyroid gland to lower the rate of metabolism,
generating less heat
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1.6. OUTLINE THE ROLE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN DETECTING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES
How does negative ● Central Nervous System
feedback work? o Made of brain and spinal cord
o Spinal cord transmits messages from receptors via sensory neurons to the brain (i.e.
via PNS)
o When the brain receives message it then coordinates correct response to counteract
the change by sending messages to effector organs via motor neurons (i.e. via PNS)
● Peripheral Nervous System
o Composed of all neurons outside CNS, including sensory and motor neurons
o Sensory: messages from receptors to brain
o Motor: message from brain to effector Function of the nervous system is coordination
and this takes place in three steps:
o Detects information about an animal’s internal and external environments
o Transmits information to a control centre (the brain)
o Processes the information and generates a response to ensure the maintenance of a
relatively constant internal state.
● The structures of the nervous system involved in the stimulus-response pathway of
coordination are:
o Receptors, control centre, effector, nerve
Detecting change ● Receptors: Sensory cells that detect stimuli (changes in the internal or external
environment).
o In many animals, receptors detect stimuli in external environment
o Interoreceptors detect changes inside body → detect changes such as pH, body temperature,
osmotic pressure and chemical composition of blood related to homeostasis
o Thermoreceptors: detect changes in temperature
o Chemoreceptors: detect the concentration of certain chemicals inside the body in the
blood (eg: carbon dioxide)
● Convert this into a ‘message’ in the form of nerve impulses, which travel along nerves
towards the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
Coordination ● Control centre: Role of the CNS is to process incoming information, analyse it and then
(processing initiate an appropriate response.
information) o CNS take incoming information from receptors, transmit outgoing information to
effectors via motor nerves (PNS)
● Messenger: Motor nerves carry information (as nerve impulses) from the CNS to the effectors.
● Information is processed via interconnecting nerve cells (neurons) followed by transmission
to effector organs (via electrochemical impulses)
o Information → sensory nerves → motor nerves
● Homeostasis relies on involuntary reactions from the CNS
Responding ● Effector: Muscles/ glands receive impulses from CNS, these impulses instruct the effectors to
bring about a response
● Response: reaction in an organism or its tissues, as a result of receiving a stimulus.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE: THERMOREGULATION

Heat gain can arise from Heat loss can arise from
● Metabolism ● Radiation of heat away from the body
● Muscle contractions ● Convection (replace warm air with cool)
● Food and drink ● Evaporation (sweating)
● External source → Heat (radiant energy)
Detecting changes
Thermoreceptors inside and outside the body detect change in temperature (and try to establish
thermoregulation)
● Peripheral receptors are located in the skin
● Central receptors monitor the temperatures of the blood as it circulates throughout the brain.
Coordination
● Hypothalamus is control centre of thermoregulation in mammals
● Anterior hypothalamus: effectors to cool down body
● Posterior hypothalamus: effectors to heat up body
Counteracting changes: cooling body Counteracting changes: warming up body
● Sweating, heat is removed from body to evaporate ● Raising hairs on body (goose bumps) to trap layer
the liquid of warm air
● Decreased metabolism by slowing thyroid gland ● Shivering, rapid muscle contractions to generate
● Vasodilation of arteries directing blood to the heat
surface of the body so heat is lost by conduction ● Increase metabolism via stimulation of thyroid gland
(heat radiates more effectively) (larger SA) (oxidisation → heat)
● Vasoconstriction of arteries to the skin, blood is
redirected to core and friction heats blood (small
SA)

1.7. IDENTIFY THE BROAD RANGE OF TEMPERATURES OVER WHICH LIFE IS FOUND COMPARED WITH THE NARROW LIMITS FOR
INDIVIDUAL SPECIES
1.8. COMPARE RESPONSES OF NAMED AUSTRALIAN ECTOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC ORGANISMS TO CHANGES IN THE
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE AND EXPLAIN HOW THESE RESPONSES ASSIST TEMPERATURE REGULATION
1.3. ANALYSE INFORMATION FROM SECONDARY SOURCES TO DESCRIBE ADAPTATIONS AND RESPONSES THAT HAVE OCCURRED IN
AUSTRALIAN ORGANISMS TO ASSIST TEMPERATURE REGULATION
What type of ● Most organisms live in environments between 0-45 C, but some have been found at -70, and 60 (deserts_
environment do and 350 (hot vents in the sea) → broad temperature range
organisms live in? ● Individual species can only survive within narrow limits of temperatures (tolerance range –
only a few degrees outside range which it is comfortable
o Because they possess behavioural and physiological adaptations that enable them to
maintain their temperature within this narrow range
● Majority of living organisms are found in 10-35 range
o Platypus → -8-34 C
o Sydney blue gum → -1-34oC
● Tolerance range: Temperature range in which a species can survive in
o The average variation in environmental temperature is more prominent on land: -90˚
to 60˚ compared to the ocean -2˚ to 30˚
● Species that occupy habitats with extreme conditions are called extremophiles
● Ambient temperature: external/environmental temperature
o Below 0 cells risk ice crystals forming
o Above 42˚ proteins within cells may denature
o Extreme heat (+100˚) nucleic acids also denature, including DNA
● Humans are unique because of culture and technology, they are able to survive outside
biological range
What is an ● Ectotherm: an organism whose body temperature is governed by external sources(the
ectotherm and environment).
endotherm? o Fish, reptiles, amphibians
Examples? o The body temperature of ectotherms has a greater fluctuation over a small range of
temperatures.
o Their internal temperature varies with the ambient temperature of the environment, as
they only have a limited ability to control its body temperature.
o Advantages: lower food consumption, higher carrying capacity for environment
o Adapt their behaviour to regulate their body temperature
● Endotherms ran organism whose body heat is generated from an internal source.
o Birds and mammals are all endothermic.
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o They can regulate and maintain a constant body temperature within a narrow range
regardless of the ambient temperature. They also can get body heat from cell
metabolism
o In low ambient temperatures, the main source of heat in the body of endotherms is
generated from metabolic activity of their cells, particularly the muscle and liver cells.
o The size of the animal’s body also plays a significant role.
What is behavioral ● Behavioural adaptation - the way an organism acts
adaptation, o Migration: move to avoid temperature extremes
structural and o Hibernation: remain in a sheltered spot, metabolism slows, in endotherms, body
physiological temperature drops e.g. mountain pygmy possum hibernates during winters to reduce
adaptation? Name amount of energy required to keep its body warm)
examples? o Shelter: from extreme conditions
o Nocturnal activity in bilbies (where daytime temperatures are very hot)
o Controlling exposure: frill-necked lizard bask in the sun until they reach an adequate
core body temperature. Then they retreat into shade (alter position of the body and
increase/decrease amount of exposure of their SA to sunlight)
● Structural adaptation - the physical characteristics of the organism
o Insulation : insulating layer of trapped air, feathers of the emu act as an insulator to
reduce heat gain or loss
o blubber in Australian fur seal
o colourisation - dark coloured diamond-backed python absorbs light to tolerate colder
temps
● Physiological adaptation - the way the organism's body functions
o Rate of metabolic activity: hibernation to lower metabolic rate to conserve energy as it
requires little food and reduces amount of metabolic heat energy generated within
Name examples of ENDOTHERM: Red Kangaroo responding to warm desert temperature/hot days
adaptations in the ● Behavioural adaptations:
red kangaroo ○ They lick their paws for evaporations to occur from saliva, which increase heat
loss by evaporation of water from skin
○ Seek shelter to reduce heat gain from the Sun
○ Nocturnal to reduce water loss and prevent overheating by avoiding exposure to
excessive temperatures (and predators). Keeps their metabolic rate low during
the heat of the day
● Structural :
○ Light coloured fur to reflect sunlight and reduce heat absorption
○ Thick layer of fur to insulate from the heat of day and cool off at night
○ Long ears and tail increase surface area for heat loss
● Physiological
○ Sweating to remove heat from body via evaporation
○ Vasodilation; blood vessels closer to skin to lose heat
○ Metabolic activity decreases to reduce their activity
Mountain Pygmy Possum
Examples of ● Behavioural→ Curl in a ball/ burrows/ nocturnal/hibernates→ Shelter from the cold, Escapes heat of
behavioural, day + water control
structural and ○ Torpor (decreased physiological activity with a reduced body temperature and
physiological metabolic rate, that enables animals to survive periods of reduced food
adaptations for the availability
mountain pygmy ● Structural
possum? ○ Short legs, round body and small ears→ Assist in minimising heat loss (small SA: V) and
warming
● Physiological
○ Feeds primarily on the Bogong Moth, which is rich in protein and crucial to the
possums gaining sufficient fat reserves

“ “ for the central ECTOTHERM: Central Netted Dragon

netted dragon? ● Behavioural adaptations:
○ Orients body to face the Sun and increases SA of body exposed to sun,
increasing surface area (SA) exposed
○ Basks under Sun to gain more heat and increase their body temperature
○ Hides under rock/ shelter/ burrow to reduce its exposure to the sun , escaping
high temperatures and keeping their metabolic rate low.
● Structural :
○ Long toes and strong claws to dig burrows to hide from Sun and reduce the heat
lost to the environment.
● Physiological:
○ Body colour pales to reflect heat and reduce heat absorption
○ Body colour darkens to absorb more heat to adapt to cold environments
“ “ diamond Diamond Python
python? ● Behavioural:
○ Sunbake when too cool, seek shade when too hot
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○ Flattens body against warm rocks→ Increase SA exposed warmth rocks which means they
can absorb heat from surroundings
○ Nocturnal→ escape heat of day
○ Lies on eggs and shiver→ increase incubation temperature
● Physiological→ Use fat reserves in winter (metabolising their fat)
● Structural→ dark in colour to absorb heat and tolerate cooler temperatures

1.9. IDENTIFY SOME RESPONSES OF PLANTS TO TEMPERATURE CHANGE

What is functional ● Functioning and growth is affected by:
and growth o Changes in light, water, temperature, evaporative cooling (risk losing too much water)
affected by? ● High temperatures
o Evaporative Cooling (transpiration): Exposure to heat causes the stomata in plants to
How do plants open, leading to a loss of water by transpiration.
respond to high ▪ Decreases the internal temperature but plants run a risk of dehydration.
temperatures? o Turgor Response (wilting) e.g. Hydrangeas, roses, peace lilies
o Changes in turgor pressure in palisade allow them to reduce the exposure of SA to
heat/light/sun.
▪ If water is available, this wilting is temporary, but if not, permanent wilting is
followed by death.
o Leaf orientation: hang vertically in hot weather (eucalyptus), reduce SA in hot part of
day by transpiration
o Stomata opening: open in cool early morning/late afternoon for photosynthesis
o Leaf fall: eucalyptus and evergreens lose leaves during hot summer months to reduce
SA exposed to absorb heat and losing too much water via transpiration
o Reseeding and resprouting in response to extreme high temperatures (Fire):
▪ Reseeding: banksia: pod is blasted open
▪ Resprouting: bottlebrush/eucalyptus: buds under bark, then burnt off
o Thermogenic plants: regulate temperature by altering metabolic rate when ambient temperature
drops→ initiate evaporative cooling e.g. sacred loctus
o Heat shock proteins: when under stress, produce protein to stop the denaturing of
enzymes within cells
o Shiny leaves: reduce amount of heat received by having shiny leaves to reflect solar
radiation
● Low temperatures
o Organic ‘antifreeze’: produces organic compound that reduces temperature at which
cytoplasm freezes.
▪ e.g. Antarctic hairgrass
▪ Due to cell wall and ice will form outside plant cell because the solution within
plant cell is higher in solutes, therefore higher than freezing point
o Dormancy: growth and development is stopped, Plant above ground may die, whilst
roots survive for more favourable conditions e.g. Deciduous beech
o In extreme heat or cold, plants can die but leave behind dormant seeds
o Deciduous trees lose their leaves in cold temperatures
▪ The deciduous beech, is the only indigenous Australian deciduous tree found in
Tasmania
o Vernalisation: Some plants flower in response to low temperatures.
▪ e.g. tulips must be exposed to 6 weeks – 3 months of cold before sprouting again
Australian Oak ● Structural
Eucalyptus Tree o Thick waxy cuticle reduces water lost to the environment as well as reflect heat
▪ Usually located in areas where little water is present (SE outback Australia), so
this helps to keep moist, remain alive and grow
o Small, thin yet hard leaves that droop down vertically expose less area to the harsh
sun.
o Stomata located on both sides of leaf for maximum transpiration to occur to cool the
plant
o Bark is very thick, to prevent heat damage to the cambium layer the tree must have
for vascular transport and growth.
● Behavioural
o Shed part of their canopy (physiological) to reduce their water need during times of
high temperatures
o Extensive root systems comprising of deep sinker roots make it very effective in
conducting water due to their extremely high rates of hydraulic conductivity
● Physiological
o Stomata close when temperature rise to a certain level, preventing water loss through
stomata
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1.1. IDENTIFY DATA SOURCES, PLAN, CHOOSE EQUIPMENT OR RESOURCES AND PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION TO
TEST THE EFFECT OF: – INCREASED TEMPERATURE – CHANGE IN PH – CHANGE IN SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATIONS ON
THE ACTIVITY OF NAMED ENZYME(S)
Change in substrate concentration

Purpose: to test the effect of a change in substrate

concentration on the activity of enzyme catalyse.

Materials

● 30ml 1% hydrogen peroxide

● Dishwashing detergent (captures gas released as bubbles)
● 5 large test tubes
● Test tube rack
● 30mL pureed cow liver
● 30ml distilled water
● stringe
● stopwatch
● ruler
● safety googles
● 10ml pipette with bulb
● Plastic pipette (for soap)

Enzyme: Catalase (obtained through ground liver solution)

Substrate: hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Dependent variable: oxygen production/concentration/amount (rate of enzyme activity) → can be measured by height of bubbles
produced in measuring cylinder OR oxygen probe & data logger
Rate of reaction measured by:

● rate of appearance of a product (in this case, 02, which is given off as a gas)
● rate of disappearance of substrate (in this case, H202)
● pressure of the product as it appears (in this case, 02)

Safety

- Hold pipette near the end when putting the bulb on to prevent it from snapping. Hydrogen peroxide is
toxic/can bleach skin and clothing

Method

1. Set up 5 test tubes in a test tube rack

2. Pipette the volume of hydrogen peroxide and water (as shown in the table) into each test tube( do distilled
water first to prevent contamination)

Test 1(control) 2 3 4 5
H202 (ml) 0 2.5 5 7.5 10
Distilled water (ml) 10 7.5 5 2.5 0
3. Using plastic pipette, place 2 drops of detergent in each test tube
4. Mix the contents of each test-tube

Set reaction time for 5 minutes (if any of the bubbles reach the top of any test tube before 5 minutes, the
measure all the tubes at that time)

5. Use the syringe to place 2ml of pureed liver to test tube 1

6. Start stopwatch
7. When the reaction time (5 minutes) has elapsed, record the height of the bubbles in the table below
8. Repeat using the other test tubes in the other concentrations of Hydrogen peroxide. Record your results in
the table below
9. Graph the data to show the effect of change in substrate concentration on enzyme activity

Can improve accuracy by using more accurate equip e.g. data logger and oxygen probe
Increase range for validity

Explanation: increased substrate concentration will increase rate or reaction until it reaches the saturation point (enzymes are all
used→ limiting factor)

● At low concentration of substrate→ steep increase in the rate of reaction with increasing substrate concentration.
○ The catalytic site of the enzyme is empty, waiting for substrate to bind, for much of the time, and
the rate at which product can be formed is limited by the concentration of substrate which is
available.
 Page | 12

● As the concentration of substrate increases, the enzyme becomes saturated with substrate.
○ As soon as the catalytic site is empty, more substrate is available to bind and undergo reaction.
○ The rate of formation of product now depends on the activity of the enzyme itself, and adding
more substrate will not affect the rate of the reaction to any significant effect.

Increased temperature

Independent variable = TEMPERATURE

1. Set up as follows in 4 test tubes: 6mL 6% H2O2 using 10mL measuring cylinder and 10 drops liver-
solution using plastic dropper
2. Prepare 8 water baths a the temperatures of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 degrees by adjusting the
temperature with varied amounts of boiling and cold water and ice. It is necessary to maintain the
temperature of each water bath throughout the experiment.
3. Transfer solution to Nalgene bottle and insert oxygen probe into bottle opening
4. Record oxygen concentration for each over 3 mins with oxygen probe and data logger → data graphed ([O 2 vs time] +
slope calculated)
5. Repeat twice more, average consistent results and graph.

Results:
● Graph – parabolic shape
● Most oxygen at 37oC
● None at 0/70oC
● Highest activity at 37oC because it is closest to body temperature - the temperature in which the enzyme
functions most efficiently and there is a sufficient temperature for chemical collisions between the enzyme
and substrate to occur.
● Lowest activity at 62oC because the temperature is too high - the enzyme heading towards being
denatured
● Slower activity at 9oC because the temperature is too cold for enough collisions to occur between the
enzyme and substrates

Conclusion: enzyme activity increases as temp increased to 37oC, decreases as temp increases after

Explanation
● More energetic collisions
○ KE of the molecules is converted into chemical potential energy of the molecules.
○ Greater the kinetic energy of the molecules in a system, the greater is the resulting chemical PE
when two molecules collide. As the temperature of a system is increased more molecules per unit
time will reach the activation energy. Thus the rate of the reaction may increase.
● The number of collisions per unit time will increase.
○ In order to convert substrate into product, enzymes must collide with and bind to the substrate at
the active site.
○ Increasing the temperature of a system will increase the movement of molecules and therefore collisions
between enzymes and substrates n per unit time. Thus, within limits, the rate of the reaction will
increase.
● The heat of the molecules in the system will increase.
○ As the temperature of the system is increased, the internal energy of the molecules in the system
will increase.
○ Some of this heat may be converted into chemical potential energy. If this chemical potential
energy increase is great enough some of the weak bonds that determine the three dimensional
shape of the active proteins may be broken.
○ This could lead to a thermal denaturation of the protein and thus inactivate the protein. Thus too
much heat can cause the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction to decrease because the enzyme or
substrate becomes denatured and inactive.
 Page | 13

Controlled variables
● Substrate volume and concentration
● Enzyme volume and concentration
● pH
● amount of mixing
● time of oxygen collection
● (temp – room temp)’

Change in pH
● Hydrogen peroxide must be quickly converted to prevent cell damage
pH = independent variable

Materials
- Fresh potato
- Potato borer
- Ruler
- pH Solutions (3, 5, 6, 7, 11)
- 6% hydrogen peroxide
- 5 labelled beakers for dispensing the solutions
- 5 small test tubes
- test tube rack
- 10mL pipette and bulb
- Detergent
- Dropper for detergent
- Permanent marker
- Stopwatch
- Safety Goggles

Method
- reaction time is the length of time for your experiment calculations→ set for 5 mins, but if any finish before, then measure
all the tubes at the time
1. Label test tube with the appropriate pH level
2. Add 5ml of pH solution to each corresponding test tube
3. Using the potato borer, create 5 cylinders from the potato, then cut the ends to the same size (avoid
getting any of the skin). Place one core in each test tube
4. Add 2 drops of detergent to each test tube. Swirl gently to mix
5. Add 2ml hydrogen peroxide solution to each test tube (try and do this simultaneously) and start the timer
6. After 5 minutes, mark the final height of the bubbles
7. Measure the difference between the two marked points and record the results
Results

● Conclusion: As pH increases, enzymatic activity

increases until pH 7 where after enzymatic activity decreases as pH
increases.
● Each enzyme works within a quite small pH range,
with an optimal pH at which activity is greatest
○ Changes in pH affect the form of the protein by
affecting IMF, changing shape of enzyme and effectiveness
■ Protein structure is held together by many
intermolecular interactions: dipole-dipole, hydrophobic etc. The correct protein structure is
necessary for function.
● At different pH levels, the protonation and deprotonation of ionisable amino acids affects the
intermolecular interactions within the protein and its conformation will change.
● When the pH is too acidic or too basic for an enzyme, its hydrogen bonds begin to break, causing its active
site to change its shape.
○ An altered active site can’t bind with its substrate so enzyme activity decreases.
○ If the pH is too unfavorable then covalent bonds can break, causing the enzyme to denature.
● At a certain pH, the conformation of the protein will be optimal for its function and this is where it will have
maximum activity.
○ As pH deviates to either side of the optimum, the conformation changes and the structure will no
longer be correct for proper function.
● bell curve
●
 Page | 14

Risk assessment
Identify risk Assess Control

Spilling hot water and burning skin Likely - moderate Take care when pouring the hot water - pour into a large beaker first

Hydrogen peroxide irritates skin and Low Wear eye glasses and handle the chemical in a dropper bottle with care
eyes

Liver solution - organic matter Low Eye glasses and using a dropper

Buffer solutions are corrosive Likely – mod Wear eye goggles

Pipette may break Low Hold pipette near the end when putting the bulb on to prevent it from snapping

PLANTS AND ANIMALS TRANSPORT DISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES IN A FLUID

MEDIUM
2.1. IDENTIFY THE FORM(S) IN WHICH EACH OF THE FOLLOWING IS CARRIED IN MAMMALIAN BLOOD: – CARBON DIOXIDE –
OXYGEN – WATER – SALTS – LIPIDS – NITROGENOUS WASTE – OTHER PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION
How can ● To maintain homeostasis, chemicals being transported in the blood must also be maintained
homeostasis be at a particular concentration and carried in a specific form that will not affect the balance in
maintained? the internal environment of the body.
o If the normal balance of substances in the blood is altered, conditions such as ‘low
blood sugar levels’ or ‘high blood pressure’ will arise.
o An indication that metabolic functioning has been compromised.
o Homeostasis relies on maintaining a balance of chemicals within the blood
What two gases do ● All living cells in the body require oxygen and produce carbon dioxide.
all living cells in o Oxygen is required for the process of cellular respiration and carbon dioxide is
the body require? produced as a waste product.
o These gases are carried in particular forms within the plasma or red blood cells of
blood, so that the pH and fluid concentrations remain stable.
● Mammals have a closed circulatory system consisting of a pump (heart) which sends a fluid (blood)
through a network of tubes (blood vessels)→
o vessels transport materials rapidly throughout body, to and from the cells, and the
external environment
o Interstitial or body fluid drains into the lymphatic system and the lymph vessels return
lymph to body
● Plasma: sticky straw coloured slightly salty liquid→ made up of 90% water plus various other substances
carried in solution
● RBC contains pigment haemoglobin→ transport respiratory gases, particularly Oxygen, around body

Homeostasis relies on maintaining a balance of chemicals within the blood

What it is Form carried in mammalian blood Carried by

Carbon Waste product of cellular ● Hydrogen carbonate ions (bicarbonate ions) in plasma Red blood
dioxide respiration (lowers pH → (70%) cells
denature enzymes) ● carbaminohaemoglocin in rbc (23%)
● dissolved in plasma (7%)
Like with oxygen, it is a Formed in

reversible reaction
From body cells to lungs
Oxygen Needed for cellular respiration
Lungs to body cells
Water Solvent of plasma
digestive system and
body cells to body cells
Salts Composed of positive
and negative ions, used
for body processes
digestive system and
body cells to body cells
Lipids Digested lipids are re-
synthesised into tri-
glycerides in the
epithelial cells that line
the small intestine
Digestive system and
body cells to body cells
Nitrogenous Harmful substances
waste produced by breakdown
of proteins
Metabolic wastes
excreted by body
Liver and body cells to
kigney
Page | 15
Large portion of the carbon dioxide enters the RBC. From the red
there, 1 of 2 things happen. blood cells
1.Most of the carbon dioxide mixes with water in the but carried
cytoplasm within the blood cells and forms carbonic acid. in the
● Rapidly converted to hydrogen carbonate/bicarbonate plasma.
ions Diffuses
● Ions then move out of the red blood cells into the from cells to
blood plasma and 70% of carbon dioxide is transported bloodstream
in this form.
● CO₂ + H₂ O → HCO → H₂ CO₃ ⁻ + H⁺ (buffered hydrogen
ions)
2. Some CO₂ (23%) binds to haemoglobin, forming
carbaminohaemoglobin.
● Haemoglobin does not bind to CO₂ in the same way
that it binds to O₂.
● O₂ binds to the iron atom of haemoglobin, CO₂ binds
to the globin molecule, forming carbaminohaemoglobin
● 7% dissolved in plasma→not ideal for all of CO₂ to dissolve,
as when it mixes with water, it forms carbonic acid (change pH)
Diffuses across respiratory surface of lung→ combines reversibly Red blood cells
with haemoglobin inside RBC Plasma
● No more than 1.5% is dissolved in plasma
As oxyhaemoglobin in RBCs
RBC are ideally adapted to carrying oxygen.
● Lack nucleus → plenty of space for haemoglobin→ an affinity
for oxygen
● Each RBC contains approximately 250 million molecules of
haemoglobin → high oxygen carrying capacity.
The slightly flattened biconcave shape of RBCs gives a
larger SA:V ratio for easy diffusion of oxygen across the
surface.
● When blood in the lungs comes into contact with oxygen
(which entered via diffusion), oxygen is attached to
haemoglobin in the RBCs, forming oxyhaemoglobin → gives
red colour to blood
Most arteries carry red oxygenated blood, whereas most
venous blood is dark red (appears blue due to the dark red
deoxygenated blood within the white-yellow vessel wall)
Solvent, makes up 90% of blood plasma→ water travels dissolved Plasma
in plasma
Medium of transport of all substances in the body→ basis of
cytoplasm, interstitial fluid and lymph.
● Dissolved in plasma in the form of ions (e.g. Na+, often Plasma
referred to electrolyte)
Salts are carried in blood as ions (charged particles)
dissolved in the plasma.
● Wrapped in a coat (along with phospholipids and Plasma
cholesterol) of protein to form a package called
chylomicron
Lipids pose a problem in terms of transport, since they are
insoluble in water and therefore cannot be carried
dissolved in plasma
● They need to be packaged into small droplets
(micelles), which pass into the lymphatic system and
then into the bloodstream.
● Urea dissolved in plasma (small amounts as uric acid & Plasma
ammonia)
These substances need to be transported in a diluted form,
from cells where they are produced to the excretory
organs where they can be eliminated from the body.
● Such wastes in the form of ammonia, urea, uric acid
are all carried dissolved in blood plasma.
 Page | 16

Other Amino acids ● Carbohydrates → glucose (simple sugars) Plasma

products of Sugars ● Proteins → amino acids
digestion Vitamins ● Lipids (fats and oils) → fatty acids and glycerol
Glycerol ● Nucleic Acids → nucleotides

Glucose and amino acids are water soluble and so they are
Digestive system and transported in the bloodstream dissolved in the plasma,
body cells to body cells along with other soluble substances such as nitrogen
bases, vitamins and glycerol, absorbed from the digestive
tract.

2.2. EXPLAIN THE ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE OF HAEMOGLOBIN

What is the ● Globular protein molecule made up of 4 polypeptide chains made out of amino acids (called
structure of globins), each of which is bonded to a haem (iron containing) group that contains an iron
haemoglobin? atom (place of oxygen attachment)
o Haem is a red pigment molecule and the iron necessary for haemoglobin formation is
obtained from the diet
● Regular dietary iron is required as iron is lost in waste products e.g. faeces, urine
o Lack of iron in diet can lead to anaemia: too few red blood cells or cells are unable to
carry sufficient oxygen
▪ No nucleus – more room for haemoglobin (1 red blood cell contains 280 million
haemoglobin molecules)
● Flat concave disc shape: high surface area for diffusion of oxygen
● Iron (located in haem) combines easily with oxygen
o Capacity to release oxygen increase when carbon dioxide is present (deliver it to cells
that need it most)
● Metabolising cells release carbon dioxide which combines with water to form carbonic acid
which lowers pH
Carbon Dioxide + Water = Hydrogen Ions + Hydrogen Carbonate Ions (carbonic acid)
Haemoglobin releases oxygen when the environment becomes acidic (Bohr Effect)
● It is able to collect oxygen in the lungs and release it in the tissues when it is needed.
o Enable individuals to respond to changes in surrounding oxygen levels such as those
experienced on aeroplanes.
Can oxygen be ● Oxygen from the air diffuses into blood in the lungs and is transported in the circulatory system to all body
carried in blood? cells→ oxygen diffuses across the respiratory surfaces of the lungs into the blood because it is in a higher
concentration in the air than in the blood
● Oxygen is not very soluble in water→ blood, a watery liquid, cannot carry much oxygen if it relied only on
oxygen being dissolved in the plasma.
Haemoglobin is ● If it were simply dissolved in the plasma, oxygen would upset the osmotic balance of the
contained within plasma.
the red blood cell ● Oxygen binds loosely at the respiratory surface and releases oxygen freely in capillaries
Each haemoglobin ● 1 haemoglobin molecule can combine with 4 oxygen molecules
molecule contains o Increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
four haem units o Organism has ability to become more complex
o More oxygen can be carried in blood cells by haemoglobin than could be carried
 Page | 17

dissolved in plasma
o in lungs it produces oxyhaemoglobin

O2 affinity increases ● The binding of each oxygen molecule causes it to change slightly in shape, making it easier
after the first O2 for every subsequent oxygen molecule to bind to it.
molecule binds with ● Increases rate and efficiency of oxygen uptake
it o Result: very small increase in oxygen concentration in the lungs can result in a large
increases in the oxygen saturation of blood

Bohr effect ● Metabolising cells release carbon dioxide, which combines with water to form carbonic acid
and this lowers pH
● Haemoglobin has a reduced affinity for oxygen at lower pH so it releases oxygen in tissues
where it is needed

Capacity to release ● Haemoglobin has an increased ability to pick up carbon dioxide once it has released oxygen
oxygen increases
when carbon
dioxide is present.

2.5. OUTLINE THE NEED FOR OXYGEN IN LIVING CELLS AND EXPLAIN WHY REMOVAL OF CARBON DIOXIDE FROM CELLS IS
ESSENTIAL

Why is oxygen ● Oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration, a process by which cells obtain energy from
necessary in living glucose.
cells? o Oxygen combines with glucose in a sequence of enzyme controlled steps during cellular respiration
to release chemical energy as ATP→ form of chemical energy needed by living cells for their
metabolism
▪ This is called the oxidation of glucose and it takes place in all living cells
▪ Glucose + oxygen → water + CO2 + energy (ATP)
o Aerobic respiration can occur without oxygen, but produces more energy with it (more
efficient)

Why must carbon ● Carbon dioxide is produced in cells as a waste product of chemical respiration.
dioxide be o It must be removed from cells to prevent a change in pH in the cells, bloodstream and
removed? body.
o When CO2 reacts with water in cytoplasm of cells in blood plasma, it forms carbonic acid→ toxic as
it lowers pH of cells and affects homeostatic balance
▪ A low (acidic) pH prevents enzymes from functioning optimally/denatures and
affects cell functioning by reducing metabolic efficiency in the body.
o CO2 lowers pH of blood - alters the ability of haemoglobin to bind to oxygen
● Removal of carbon dioxide is essential for the optimal functioning of enzymes.
● too much carbon dioxide causes rate and depth of breathing to increase, too little leads to a
slowing of the rate and depth of breathing

2.3. COMPARE THE STRUCTURE OF ARTERIES, CAPILLARIES AND VEINS IN RELATION TO THEIR FUNCTION
What does the ● The transport or vascular system in mammals consists of the heart, blood vessels and lymph
vascular system in vessels, as well as the fluids transported in them - blood and lymph.
mammals consist o All transport vessels have long, hollow structures that consist of a lumen (cavity),
of? surrounded by a wall.
● Blood flows from the capillary networks of tissues into venules → form veins so that blood can be returned
to the heart.
o Fluids that seep out of capillaries into the surrounding tissues are returned to the
bloodstream by the lymphatic system.
 Page | 18

Role of the ● Lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system, made up of a vessel network
lymphatic system o In the tissues of the body, water and dissolved substances diffuse out of the capillaries
and bathe the tissues, as tissue fluid or interstitial fluid.
o Occurs partly due to blood pressure and the osmotic pressure of the tissues.
● Some tissue fluid returns to the capillaries, but a large amount does not.
o Excess accumulation of fluid in the tissues is overcome by the presence of tiny
lymphatic vessels which penetrate deep into the body.
o The fluid is absorbed into the lymphatic vessels and, together with the other
substances there, and form the fluid called lymph
● The lymph flows in one direction – from the tissues towards the heart.
o The flow is brought about partly by contractions of body muscles through which the
lymph vessels pass and partly by the pressure of the lymph accumulation in the
tissues.
o The lymphatic vessels join and form two main lymphatic channels and, in the regions
of the shoulders, these drain into the venous system where the lymph fluid re-joins
the blood.
● The lymphatic system provides a link between the tissue fluids in the deeper cells of the
body and the blood plasma.
● Also defends body→ lymph nodes produce lymphocytes and they also filter out and destroy bacteria.

Arteries: carry CARRY BLOOD AWAY FROM HEART

blood over ● Thick muscular walls (outer structure): to withstand the force of blood pumped out of the
relatively long heart in regular bursts under high pressure.
distances, from one o Major arteries close to the heart have thick layers of smooth muscle in their walls so
organ to another. they withstand the increase in blood pressure as blood is pumped from the heart.
● Smooth muscle:
o When the smooth muscle contracts, the diameter of the lumen is decreased
(vasoconstriction) and this slows down blood flow.
o When the smooth muscle relaxes (vasodilation) allows blood flow to increase.
● Elastic fibre in inner and outer layer: expand/contract to accommodate the increased
volume of blood pumped with each heartbeat.
o Controlling the diameter of the vessel and flow rate of blood (pulse)
o Pulse waves maintain pressure on blood→ send it in spurts towards body tissues
o When the heart relaxes, the elastic fibres allow arteries to recoil, returning to their
original diameter, squeezing the blood forward and propelling it along, ensuring a
continuous flow in one direction.

Veins: carry blood CARRY BLOOD BACK TOWARDS HEART

over relatively long ● Blood enters veins from the capillary networks of tissues, via venuels.
distances, from one ● Thinner muscular walls than arteries (outer structure): blood received at low pressure
organ to another. ● Very few elastic fibres: no stretch and recoil is necessary→ smooth muscle layer is thinner
● Wider lumen diameter: allows for increased amounts of blood to flow easily
● Veins situated between large groups of muscles: thin walls compress veins, propelling blood
to heart (movement is assisted by body muscles)
● Valves: folds of endothelium lining, prevents blood from flowing backwards

Capillaries:form SITE FOR EXCHANGE OF MATERIALS BETWEEN BLOOD & TISSUE – Carry blood between arteries
branching networks and veins
to carry blood over ● To maximise exchange of substances between the blood and cells of the body, capillaries
relatively short have:
distances within o Thin walls: one layer thick of endothelium cells – efficient diffusion between blood and cells
organs (wastes and nutrient) → not have far to travel between the blood and body.
▪ Tiny, microscopic vessels that bring blood into close contact with the tissues
▪ Diffusion is a fairly slow, passive process and so the structure of capillaries is
suited to slowing down the flow of blood.
o Small lumen: slightly larger than diameter of red blood cell, forced to go in single file→ slow flow
and increase exposed SA for gaseous exchange
● Expansive network: spread blood over large SA so no cell is far from blood supply
● There are capillaries next to every cell in body and every entry and exit point of the body
 Page | 19

2.4. DESCRIBE THE MAIN CHANGES IN THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD AS IT MOVES AROUND THE BODY AND
IDENTIFY TISSUES IN WHICH THESE CHANGES OCCUR

● The chemical composition of blood changes as it moves around the body, as a result of the
continuous exchange of substance between blood and tissues
● In addition, the transport system is responsible for transporting hormones – chemical
messenger molecules produced by endocrine glands.
o These are ductless glands and so they pour their secretions directly into the
bloodstream, which transports them to their target organs.
Pulmonary circuit ● Pulmonary or lung circuit provides the flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and then
back to the heart
o Blood low here is under lower pressure than in the systemic circuit→ rate of flow is faster
o blood that has returned from body contains high carbon dioxide and low oxygen levels
o External gaseous exchange occurs in the lungs.
▪ Deoxygenated blood arrives at the lungs→ releases carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen.
▪ Oxygenated blood is returned to the lungs
o Internal gaseous exchange occurs in all organs of the body and is the result of cellular
respiration.
▪ Cells release carbon dioxide, which diffuses into the blood capillaries in tissues.
o Adaptations of the lungs for gas exchange
▪ One cell thick
▪ Layer of water lining the alveoli, assists dissolving into the plasma, speeding up
diffusion
▪ Ventilation
▪ Size of tennis court (SA:V)
o Systemic circuit or body provides the flow of blood from the heart to the rest of the
body, except for the lungs, and it's return
 Page | 20

Systemic circuit o Blood flows under high pressure from the contraction of the large left ventricle but is
gradually slowed by the many large blood vessels in the circuit
▪ Blood pressure forces some fluid out of the blood to become part of the body fluid
▪ Oxygenated blood gives up oxygen as it reaches the tissues
▪ Any ions or nutrients required by cells also leave the blood, and waste products of
metabolism such as urea and carbon dioxide enter the blood
▪ Blood, now dark red, returns to the heart in the veins
o Blood flowing through kidneys loses it's urea and has it's water and composition
balanced
o Blood flowing to the intestines collects the products of digestion→ carried first to liver, where level
of many circulating substances is controlled
● Circulation of lymph: fluid that bathes body cells is returned to blood circualtion via
lymphatic system
Circulation of lymph o one way system that joins up to form larger vessels
o At two points at the base of the neck on the right and left sides of the body, the lymph
is emptied into two large veins and taken to the ehart
● Differences in chemical composition of blood entering and leaving organs depends on the
organ’s function
o Energy is the basis of all metabolic functioning – for any cell to function it must
produce the energy it requires by means of cellular respiration.
Generally what o Requirements for energy production must be transported from their source (glucose
occurs? and food-based nutrients from the digestive system and oxygen from the lungs) to the
sites where they are needed – the cells of the body that require energy.
o The transport system of vessels throughout the body is essential, since the
mammalian body is too large and complex to simply rely on diffusion for movement of
these substances.
● Nitrogenous wastes are the end products of protein breakdown that occurs during metabolic
functioning.
o All wastes are carried from their sites of production, to organs where they can be
excreted.
o The blood vessels are responsible for this transport of wastes, to ensure that
conditions are right for enzyme functioning in metabolism
● Generally; (except in pulmonary circuit)
o blood moving through tissue delivers oxygen, glucose and nutrients (arteries: for
cellular respiration)
o blood moving away from tissue carries carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste (veins:
waste)
 Page | 21

2.6. DESCRIBE CURRENT THEORIES ABOUT PROCESSES RESPONSIBLE FOR THE MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS THROUGH PLANTS IN XYLEM AND PHLOEM TISSUE
what is the role of ● The role of transport in plants is mainly to carry materials for photosynthesis to the cells and
transportation to move cell products away to other parts of the plant.
o In small plants, this may be achieved by diffusion and active transport
o In larger plants, specialised vascular tissue serves this transport function.
▪ The vascular system in plants consists of vessels of xylem and phloem.
● Translocation: The movement of materials from one part of the plant to another

Xylem ● Chemical substances that are needed for photosynthesis (such as water mineral ions) are
carried by xylem tissue from the roots (the site of absorption) up to the leaves where they
will be used for the manufacture of food (photosynthesis).
o Made of dead cells
o No nucleus
o Xylem vessels lignified (thickened) → passive movement
● Vessels and tracheid transport minerals and water→ different to form long tubes
o Lignin is deposited in their cell walls, in spiral, ring or net patterns→ strength them and make them
impermeable to water
o pits develop in the walls to enable water and solutes to pass through
● Root pressure has some minor contribution in moving water through xylem
● Passive transport→ Sun’s energy helps move it up
o Often reinforced with secondary thickening on wall
● Transpiration stream – water is drawn up (one way) from roots through the xylem tubes to the leaves→
replace loss of water through evaporation from stomates

Phloem ● Phloem vessels are involved in the transport of organic nutrient products (particularly
sugars, amino acids and plant hormones) to all parts of the plant.
● Made of living cells and have sieve tube elements
o Companion cells to provide energy and keep sieve tubes alive
● Two direction movement – up towards the flowers and down to the roots.
● Movement of materials by a mechanism known as source-path-sink or pressure/mass flow→ Pressure
flow mechanism
o The flow of materials in phloem is an active transport system that requires energy to
move against concentration gradients

Transpiration ● Cohesion-adhesion-tension theory of movement of water and mineral ions in xylem

stream theory ● Transpiration stream
1. Solutes from the soil are actively pumped into the root at the expense of ATP→ column of water is
sucked up the stem by the evaporative pull of transpiration
2. Once the water has been absorbed into the roots of plants (by osmosis, passive) along
with mineral ions (by diffusion and active transport), these substances move across the
root into the xylem.
 Page | 22

o Water is drawn up the xylem tubes to replace the loss of water from the leaves by
transpiration.
3. Adhesive forces lead to capillarity (water rises up the bore of xylem) and cohesive forces
(the attraction of water molecules to each other) → continuous column of water that moves
upwards is maintained in the xylem vessels
4. When water molecules reach the stomata on the leaf, they transpire, and as a result, pull
the chain of water molecules (harness attached) (passive)

● A concentration gradient exists across the leaf:

o At the surface of the leaf, the osmotic pressure is high (water concentration is low)
because water is continually being lost by evaporation through the stomata
(transpiration)
o In the centre of the leaf the osmotic pressure is low (water concentration is high)

Pressure flow ● Source-path-sink theory of translocation of organic nutrients in phloem.

theory for phloem ● Translocation in phloem tissue moves products of photosynthesis (such as glucose, sucrose
and amino acids) by active transport.
o Dependent on a difference in the osmotic pressure gradient between source (leaves, where
glucose is produced) and sink (tissues where glucose is needed → active loading of sugar into
phloem
o Need to transport glucose for cellular respiration in non-photosynthetic cells
● Phloem loading at the source theories
o Symplastic loading: sugars and other nutrients move in the cytoplasm from the mesophyll cells to
the sieve elements through plasmodesmata→ require many plasmodesmata→ not true for all
plants
o Apoplastic loading, sugars and other nutrients move along a pathway through cell
walls until they reach sieve element
▪ then cross the cell membrane to enter the phloem tube→ pass into the sieve element by
active transport
1. Glucose is actively pumped from source (leaf) into phloem (active)
o The leaf has little amount of glucose compared to phloem, goes against concentration
gradient – active transport needed
o Companion cells also accumulate solutes and deliver them to sieve cells
o The companion cells also provide the energy required for active transport
2. Water enters phloem from xylem by osmosis (low solute to high) (passive)
3. Lots of water and sugar in the phloem creates high pressure, making the glucose travel to the
sink
o Glucose travels from high pressure to low
4. Glucose is unloaded into sink cells (active)
o Offloading causes water to flow out by osmosis (difference in pressure)
o Sink: region of the plant where sugars and other nutrients are being actively removed
from the phloem
o As sugars are actively taken out from the phloem, water flows out with them→ reduces the
pressure in the sieve cells at the sink region
o Pressure difference between source (high hydrostatic pressure) and sink (low) ends of
the phloem tubes drives the phloem sap flow
o Can be used in metabolism or stored

Similarities ● The translocation in both types of tissue relies on a pressure-flow mechanism which moves
liquid contents from their sources in the plant to where they are needed
 Page | 23

2.1. PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION TO DEMONSTRATE THE EFFECT OF DISSOLVED CARBON DIOXIDE ON THE PH OF
WATER

EXPERIMENT ONE: Carbon Dioxide in Breath

The addition of carbon dioxide gas to limewater causes precipitation of the white compound calcium carbonate
causing the limewater to become cloudy & milky. This reaction can be used to test for the presence of carbon
dioxide.

Aim: to test if carbon dioxide is present in breath

Method:

1. 60mL of limewater was poured into a beaker

2. A straw was placed in the beaker
3. Students exhaled through the straw into the limewater
4. Observations were recorded

Results:

The limewater turned cloudy, suggesting that human breath contains carbon dioxide

EXPERIMENT TWO: Carbon Dioxide and pH

Aim: to test the effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water

Method:

1. 60mL of limewater was poured into a beaker

2. 3 drops of universal indicator was added to the limewater
3. A data logger recorded the initial pH of the limewater
4. For five minutes, breath was exhaled through a straw into the limewater
5. A data logger continually recorded the pH of the limewater as the breath was exhaled for the full five
minutes
6. Results and observations were recorded

Results:

The pH of the limewater decreased from 11.69 to 7.63 over the five minutes, suggesting that carbon dioxide
lowers pH, making the substance more acidic. The universal indicator changed from blue to yellow over the course
of the five minutes of exhalation. NB. Can obtain qualitative data using pH chart

Assessment:
How it was ensured How to improve it
Accuracy Use of a data logger Calibrate the probe by measuring it against a known pH solution
(distilled water)
Reliability Repeated: whole class did it, Replicate
Validity Initial recording from data Create a chemical reaction that creates CO2 (calcium carbonate +
(controlling logger acid) and not use breath of 2 people
 Page | 24

variables) 5 minutes only Use two data loggers, one in the CO2 and one in a control sample
Risk Assessment:
Universal indicator ● Contains ethanol as solvent ● Safety glasses were worn
● Ethanol is flammable ● Eye washing station close by
● Soap and water provided to wash if contact
with skin

Handling glassware ● Glass can be shattered and ● Appropriate vacuuming devices/dust pan
cause cuts to the skin ● Enclosed leather shoes

Blowing through ● May inhale the solution ● Teacher supervision

straw into beaker ● Splashback into eye ● Briefed before hand
● Eye protection
● Eye washing station

Use of limewater ● Irritating to eyes and skin ● Eye protection

and hydrochloric ● Hydrochloric acid and limewater ● Rinse skin well
acid are corrosive and harmful by ● Do not inhale
inhalation ● Tie long hair abck

Data Loggers:
Benefits Disadvantages
● More accurate ● Costly
● Take many samples at a time ● Can be technically difficult
● It’s automatic ● Takes interest away from science

2.2. PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION USING THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE AND PREPARED SLIDES TO GATHER INFORMATION
TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF RED AND WHITE BLOOD CELLS AND DRAW SCALED DIAGRAMS OF EACH

AIM: to estimate the size of red and white blood cells when seen with a light microscope and draw diagrams of
each

EQUIPMENT: light microscope, prepared slides of red and white blood cells, clear mm grid

METHOD:

1. Collect equipment
2. Set up the microscope and switch on the inbuilt lamp
3. Place the transparent mm2grid on the stage and focus using the low power objective (10x10=100X)
4. Use the grid to estimate the field of view (count the mm squares) = 1.6mm (1600um)
5. Change the object lens to high power (40x)= 400x
a. The field of view becomes: 0.4mm (400um) (divide 1.6 by 4)
6. Take off the grid
7. Put on a slide with the blood cells
8. Count/approximate the number of red blood cells that fit across the field of view (across diameter)
a. 55 or 58 (do it 3 times)
9. Then divide the field of view by the number of estimated blood cells
a. 400um/55 = 7um = size of a red blood cell
You cannot measure white blood cells in the same way, there are not as many of them and you could estimate
how many would fit across
10. Compare the size of the red blood cell to the size of the white blood cell
11. 1 red blood cell = 7, the white blood cell looks like 7 with a bit more (12um)
12. Then repeat thrice

RESULTS:

Field of view Number of red blood cells Size of red blood cell
(field/number)
400um 55 7.3um
400um 58 6.9um
400um 52 7.7um
● White blood cell (leucocytes): 12-15um
- Around 1.5 times larger than red
- Contain obvious nucleus
- Spherical, irregular shape
- Fight disease
 Page | 25

- 4-12 thousand per mm of blood

- Produced in lymph glands
● Red blood cell (erythrocytes): 6-9um
- No nuclei (live for 3 months after being produced in bone marrow, then destroyed in
liver or spleen)
- 6 million in every mm of blood
- Bi concaved disc shaped (on both sides)

Risk Assessment:

Blood Cross contamination and blood borne disease Use commercially prepared slides
Did not use fresh blood
Sharp slides Cuts and bleeding Gloves and glasses worn

How it was ensured How to improve it

Accuracy Used a mm grid Measure appropriately, rather than guessing
Reliability Experiment replicated and results were Replication
consistent
Validity Variables kept the same, same magnification Set up properly
1. Estimate field of view under low power (100x) → used minigrid

.3. ANALYSE INFORMATION FROM SECONDARY SOURCES TO IDENTIFY CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES THAT ALLOW MEASUREMENT OF
OXYGEN SATURATION AND CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN BLOOD AND DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN THE CONDITIONS UNDER
WHICH THESE TECHNOLOGIES ARE USED

● Oxygen saturation: how much oxygen is in the blood (we need oxygen for cellular respiration so we need
technologies)
● Carbon dioxide concentration: more carbon dioxide, the lower the pH (more acidic → denature enzymes)
● Both tell us if our respiratory system is working effectively

Technique Pulse oximeter

Description of how Two light-emitting diodes, one producing red and one producing infrared light, are
 Page | 26

the technology shone through the finger. The amount of light absorbed by arterial blood determines the
works level of oxygenation of haemoglobin in the blood and thus, oxygen saturation is
calculated and displayed on a screen. If it's oxygenated, it absorbs more red light, if it's
deoxygenated, it absorbs more infrared.

Placement Non-invasive - consists of a prove attached to the patient's finger or earlobe (anywhere
where there is an extremity of blood vessels near the surface)

Information ● Oxygen saturation

● Pulse rate

Conditions where it General: to determine if blood oxygen is within the normal range or not
is used Specific: To monitor on an ongoing basis oxygen saturation and pulse rate - indication
breathing and circulation are normal:
● Patients undergoing anaesthesia or sedation procedures (during and after)
● Patients with abnormal breathing or circulation (asthma)
● While on oxygen therapy or ventilation
● During recovery after surgery
● Who are suffering from sleep apnoea
● Such as premature or newborn babies, who need ongoing checks
● Sport science (stress test) to assess the effectiveness of regime
● Sleep laboratories
● Checking body’s response to different medication
Benefits ● Non-invasive - proceeds on a continuous basis without the need for a blood sample to
be taken
● Quick reading
● Ongoing

Limitations ● Cannot operate reliably with a poor signal

● May appear to have a good signal and be displaying a saturation figure, but either the
figure is inaccurate or gives a false sense of security
● Delay
● Nail varnish interference
● Most do not measure carbon dioxide levels

Current and future The latest generation of oximeters (produced from 2005 onwards) have a carbon
research dioxide sensors and have digital signal processing. They are also designed to allow
patients to move about and can be used on non-translucent body parts - particularly
effective in newborns
Mobile phones are being used to transmit signals

Technique Arterial blood gas analysis

Description of how Electrochemical: uses a sensor that translates chemical properties into an electrical
the technology works signal that can be measured.
Involves removing blood from an artery. This sample is put into ABG Analyser Machine
which performs a blood test using computer-based technology to analyse the chemical
components in the blood. Measures oxygen and carbon dioxide

Placement Invasive - small sample of arterial blood must be withdrawn from the patient or an
arterial probe may be inserted into an artery (usually in the arm)

Information re blood ● Oxygen and carbon dioxide levels and pressure

gas concentration ● pH of blood
collected ● Level of bicarbonate ions
● Tests for: oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen (pH) and bicarbonate ions (kidney
function

Conditions where it ● Only carried out if abnormalities show up in the pulse oximeter readings or in severe
is used cases of breathing disturbance
● Used to diagnose conditions (kidney problems, high oxygen + low pH may mean
heart disease)
● Monitoring patients under anaesthesia, intensive care, comas, premature babies,
serious accidents
● Study of lung disease and monitor conditions of poor gaseous exchange (respiratory
disease eg patients with asthma, cystic fibrosis)
● pH and electrolyte ion levels measured gives important information about how well
 Page | 27

the kidneys are functioning

● General: if blood oxygen content seems low or there is a risk of carbon dioxide levels
being high or blood pH being too acidic

Benefits Gives more information e.g. CO2, pH, bicarbonate ions - (pressure as well as saturation
readings)

Limitations ● Invasive - bleeding or bruising at puncture site

● Only provides information at one particular time - not continuous
● Feeling faint
● Blood accumulating under the skin
● Infection at the puncture site

Current and future Some advanced blood gas analysers can also measure levels of glucose, haemoglobin
research and electrolytes (salts) in the blood. Research has improved the speed of the machines
and in some machines results can be obtained within a few minutes

2.4. ANALYSE INFORMATION FROM SECONDARY SOURCES TO IDENTIFY THE PRODUCTS EXTRACTED FROM DONATED BLOOD AND
DISCUSS THE USES OF THESE PRODUCTS

Blood products are currently grouped into two main categories, depending on their shelf life

● Labile products are perishable blood components→ short shelf life and must be transported under specific refrigerated
conditions.

● e.g. packed red blood cells, platelets, plasma, plasma proteins and cryoprecipitate.

● Stable products have a much longer shelf life

● Produced by fractioning (separating) the different protein components from the plasma or by
recombinant (genetic) manufacturing methods.

● E.g. blood clotting factors, immunoglobulins and the blood protein albumin (protein needed for growth
and repair). All of these products are associated with little or no plasma
Plasma
The liquid part of blood
used to carry dissolved
substances such as glucose,
amino acids and blood cells
Red Blood Cell
Carry oxygen and remove
carbon dioxide
Removed from plasma by
centrifuging and given in
concentrated form
Platelets
Blood clotting and wound
healing (maintain correct
consistency)
Removed from plasma by
centrifuging and given in
concentrated form
White Blood Cells-
Granulocytes
Kill foreign invaders,
infection fighting
component of blood
Immunoglobins (gamma
globulins, immune serum
or antibodies)
Uses
● Plasma contains clotting factors (1-10) to control thickness of blood→ given to hemophiliacs
● Used to adjust osmotic pressure of the blood (to pull fluids out of tissue)
● Carried dissolved nutrients and is important in the treatment of burn victims
● Increase amount of oxygen that can be carried around the body
- Beneficial in the treatment of patients with chronic anaemia and those
who have experienced massive blood loss in surgery or accidents
● Contain abundant amounts of the respiratory pigment haemoglobin
● Administering red blood cells alone: increase blood oxygen levels without
increasing blood volume
- Useful for aged patients/those with heart problems who cannot cope with
increased blood volumes and pressure of whole blood transfusions
● Premature destruction of rbc (from infection, medication, autoimmune disorders
or inherited blood disorders)
- Leukaemia (cancer of red bone marrow)
● Makes the blood clot
● Given to people with blood/lymph cancers: leukaemia or lymphoma who are
undergoing chemotherapy and whose blood does not make enough platelets
- Used specifically in the treatment of patients with thrombocytopenia
(disease in which there is a shortage of platelets caused by severe
bleeding)
● Anaemic cancer of bone marrow (high level of breakdown of platelets in bone
marrow or spleen)
● Used for chemotherapy patients
- The drugs kill off the white blood cells by accident when killing cancer
cells
● Used when people are on antibiotics/severe bleeding and low cell count
● Help to engulf and destroy harmful pathogens in the blood
● The separate fractions of the clotting factors found in whole plasma and
cryoprecipitated AHF
● Used for more specific purposes than whole plasma
 Page | 28

Infection fighting part of - Patients on immunosuppressant drugs

blood - For resistance against disease (eg Hep A)
- To treat deficiencies of immunoglobulins associated with certain diseases
eg leukaemia
Whole Blood ● When a person has lost more than 20% of their blood volume or when a
Made of plasma, red blood particular component is not available
cells, white blood cells and ● Used to restore blood volume
platelets ● Trauma patients with severe blood loss (injury or surgery)

All blood products must be screened for infections and there is a low supply of donated blood

2.5. ANALYSE AND PRESENT INFORMATION FROM SECONDARY SOURCES TO REPORT ON PROGRESS IN THE PRODUCTION OF
ARTIFICIAL BLOOD AND USE AVAILABLE EVIDENCE TO PROPOSE REASONS WHY SUCH RESEARCH IS NEEDED

Why is blood ● Transport of oxygen and its delivery to the cells

necessary? ● Maintenance of fluid volume, water and salt concentration and blood pressure in the internal
environment
What is artificial ● A blood substitute that can increase fluid volume and carry oxygen
blood? o It remains in circulation until blood volume is restored, then safely excreted
● Currently, it can only carry oxygen or replace blood volume, not carry nutrients/white blood
cells.
Why do we need ● There are not enough blood donors to cover growing need of transfusions
artificial blood? ● Human blood has limited shelf life
● Not all human blood is compatible with recipient, but artificial blood is
● Virus affect human blood (HIV) → essential screening for blood-borne diseases
● Human blood needs to be kept cool
● Religious reasons: Jehovah’s Witnesses
Why is research ● Sterile→ Artificial blood could eliminate the risk of contracting infectious diseases from transfusions
necessary? o Pasteurisation removes pathogens→ prevents triggering an immune response
● Universal blood type→ There would be no need for cross matching and typing: saving time, on the spot
transfusions
● Doesn’t need to be kept cool: instant transfusions
● Safety and ease to use
● No short supply→ low cost production in large quantities (no blood donation/storage costs)
o Long periods of storage (over a year, compared to 1 month for donor blood) and easy
transportation.
● Continues to circulate (does not settle out) and, once the patient’s own blood is restored,
may be safely excreted
● Transport of oxygen→ easily picked up and efficiently released where it is required
History of artificial
● 19th Century: tried to use animal blood (unsuccessful due to blood types)
blood
● 1883: Ringer’s Solution: sodium, potassium, calcium. Blood volume expander
● Massive bleeding in WWI and WWII spurred modern efforts to develop artificial blood
● 1960s: military driven efforts to develop blood substitute for soldiers in Vietnam War
● 1966: Dr Leland Clark, developed perflourocarbons
● 1986: urgent research began in response to sudden appearance of HIV and it could be
transmitted via blood transfusions
● Currently, the artificial blood produced carries oxygen and carbon dioxide but lacks coagulation (clotting)
and immune defence→ “oxygen carriers”
Haemoglobin
● Made from old modified haemoglobin extracted from red blood cells (human or bovine) → raw
Based Oxygen
haemoglobin can’t be used as it is toxic
Carriers (HBOC)
o Human haemoglobin is obtained from expired donated blood
 Page | 29

o 1 unit of haemoglobin solution is produced for 2 units of discarded blood.

● Oxygen covalently bonds to haemoglobin, taking advantages of natural function
o Haemoglobin used to produce HBOC’s must be purified and modified to decrease
toxicity and increase effectiveness, which is quite difficult.
o Not contained in a membrane, meaning slower circulation times (around 20-30 hours
in the body); whole blood transfusions last for over a month.
● May be overcome by creating synthetic haemoglobin-based products from haemoglobin
harvested from an E. Coli bacteria strain, to make modified proteins which would be stable
and soluble in water
o Haemoglobin based products don’t last more than 30 hours in body
● Research: linking haemoglobin with enzymes found in blood, inside artificial membrane, so
they would not break down
o Haemopure: stabilised bovine haemoglobin in salt solution (used in Africa)
● Advantages:
o Can be transfused into patients with any blood type as the haemoglobin is not
contained within a membrane that contains antigen molecules
o Can also be stored for long periods of time
● Disadvantages:
o Greater affinity for oxygen that raw haemoglobin (doesn’t release as readily when
needed)
o Still not stable but 2nd generation hboc being developed that doesn’t break down (still
a problem as not enclosed in membrane)
o Residues on HBOCs may trigger immunological responses
Perfluorocarbons
● Completely synthetic hydrocarbon-based compounds, carrying oxygen in a dissolved form
with the capacity to dissolve up to 50 times more oxygen than plasma.
o Cheap and free of biological materials, meaning no risk of infection.
● In development for several decades, but have a problem in mixing with the bloodstream
● Modified hydrocarbons → must be emulsified with lipids to utilize.
● PFC solutions have been tested and approved by The Food and Drug Association in the USA,
but has not been successful because it cannot be given in large quantities to produce
significant results.
● Future research includes improved versions of perfluorocarbon emulsions for easier
combination with blood.
● Advantage:
o Dissolve fifty times more oxygen than blood plasma
o Chemically produced in large amounts and the production is cheap
o Completely synthetic and so cannot be contaminated by infectious agents and their
purity can be controlled
o Suitable for patients whose religious beliefs prohibit donor blood
o Can be stored for long periods of time
o Doesn’t need cross matching
o Smaller molecules than RBC so a large number can fit into the same volume as RBC
and can deliver O2 to areas where RBC may not reach (blockages etc)
● Disadvantages
o Much lower oxygen carrying capacity than haemoglobin
o Immiscible in plasma and so will cause clots and blockages. PFC’s must be combined
with other substances if they are to mix with blood. Some approved lipid products
used in PFC emulsions can only be administered in certain amounts that do not result
in significant benefits.
o Trigger allergic responses such as enlargement of the liver and spleen, hypertension
and anaphylactic reactions
o Some PFC’s remain in the body for a long period of time – too persistent (BUT
oxycyte is removed by 48 hours)
UK’s Sheffield
● Iron atom at core, which mimics the oxygen carrying haemoglobin in real RBCs
University’s Fake
● Designed to be stored as a thick paste that is dissolved in water before use
Blood
● Combines a porphyrin, an organic compound, with monomers that build together in a tree-
like structure.
● Advantages
o Light to carry
o Doesn’t need to be refrigerated + longer shelf life
o Stored easily, which means large quantities can be carried easily by ambulances and
armed forces
o No transmission of infection from blood from donors
o Universal donor properties
● Disadvantages
o Expensive
o Difficult to manufacture on a wholescale approach
o No published journals about it
 Page | 30

o However, it was found that the protected porphyrin was less susceptible to oxidation
than a free one but it could still bind oxygen.
o Results were said to be inconclusive and further trials and experiments have been
conducted, with no improvement

2.6. CHOOSE EQUIPMENT OR RESOURCES TO PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION TO GATHER FIRST-HAND DATA TO DRAW
TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS OF PHLOEM AND XYLEM TISSUE

Aim: gather first hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem

Equipment: microscope, prepared slides (if not dye celery)

Method:

1. Step up a slide of a transverse section of phloem and xylem under a microscope

2. Draw what you can see, using appropriate magnification (start on low (10 head x 10, then 40)
3. Repeat process for a longitudinal section

Xylem Phloem
Transverse ● Larger than phloem ● Smaller than xylem
● Thickened cell walls ● Located on outside
● Located on inside ● Have companion cells
● Packing cells surround phloem
● Perforated sieve plates
Longitudinal ● Wider than phloem ● Thinner than xylem
● Reinforced thickening with lignin ● Have sieve plates breaking up sieve plates
● Looks like spiral going around outside ● Companion cells on the side
(lignin)

Epidermis → cap cells → phloem → cambrium → xylem

 Page | 31

PLANTS ANDANIMALS REGULATE THE CONCENTRATION OF GASES, WATER AND WASTE

PRODUCTS OF METABOLISM IN CELLS AND IN INTERSTITIAL FLUID

3.1. EXPLAIN WHY THE CONCENTRATION OF WATER IN CELLS SHOULD BE MAINTAINED WITHIN A NARROW RANGE FOR OPTIMAL
FUNCTION
● Osmoregulation – the regulation of water conc. to maintain homeostasis
Why is water ● Solvent in which many important ions and molecules required for reactions are dissolved
needed by the ● Carries dissolved minerals, nutrients, wastes, vitamins
body? ● Keep cell membranes moist to allow for diffusion of materials into and out of cells e.g.
efficient gas exchange
● Help maintain body temp through evaporative cooling processes as it can readily absorb and
transfer heat e.g. sweating
● Reactant or product of cellular reactions (e.g. cellular respiration – product)
● Necessary medium in which all chemical reactions of metabolism can occur
Concentration of ● Major solvent for chemical reactions and the amount of water will affect the concentration of materials in
water in cells the cells→ allows cellular reactions to take place
should be ● Vital for efficient metabolism – it allows correct concentration of substances to diffuse across
maintained within and between cells as metabolic reactions as they can only occur in solution
a narrow range for ● Absorbing or releasing heat
optimal function ● Moistening tissues to prevent dehydration
b/c: ● pH and osmotic pressure must be maintained for effective enzyme functioning
o Temperature also tends to stay constant in cells that contain adequate amounts of
water
● If water levels are too low, it increases concentration of solutes like carbon dioxide, the cell
will shrivel and won’t be able to perform these processes, and if they are too high it will
balloon and could even burst à metabolism is disrupted
● Isotonic: The concentration of water inside the cell (intracellular fluid) must match the
concentration of water outside the cell (intercellular fluid).
o If concentrations do not match, water will move by osmosis from
areas of high concentration to low concentration, leaving cells vulnerable to
losing/gaining too much water

3.2. EXPLAIN WHY THE REMOVAL OF WASTES IS ESSENTIAL FOR CONTINUED METABOLIC ACTIVITY
Why is maintaining ● Maintaining relatively constant concentration of gases, water and waste products in the
relatively constant internal environment of living organisms (cells and body fluids) is important for
concentration of homeostasis, as the concentration of these substances directly affects metabolism in cells.
gases important? ● Excretion is the process by which waste products, which have been produced because of
metabolism, are removed from the body.
o Different from elimination: removal of unabsorbed food from the body, à this
undigested food wasn’t a part of the metabolic functioning of the body.
● Excretory wastes include carbon dioxide, excess salt, excess water and nitrogenous wastes
such as ammonia, urea and uric acid.
o Carbon dioxide is excreted via the lungs and nitrogenous wastes are removed along
with excess salts and water, via the kidneys.
o Carbon dioxide→ can dissolve and lower pH→ denature enzymes
o Excess salts and water→ alter osmotic pressure and interfere with membrane functions→ cell
could burst and is less efficient in metabolic processes
o Nitrogenous wastes→ toxic buildup in blood, change pH (more alkaline), interferes with transport of
substances across cell membrane
 Page | 32

● If wastes are not continuously removed, their levels in the body will increase (accumulation
of wastes) and alter the conditions in the internal environment.
o Inhibits enzyme functioning and prevents cells from undergoing normal
metabolic activity.
o Can be toxic to the body→ buildup of carbon dioxide lowers pH which can inhibit the efficiency of
enzymes.

3.3. IDENTIFY THE ROLE OF THE KIDNEY IN THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM OF FISH AND MAMMALS
● The role of the kidney is filtration, reabsorption and secretion.
o It maintains the balance between water disposal and the organism’s need for water and salt.
o The kidney is responsible for stabilising the internal environment of an animal.
● The concentration of water in the immediate environment of an organism determines its need to conserve
(retain) water or lose it
● When amino acids are broken down in metabolism, ammonia is produced.
o Ammonia is toxic, very soluble and diffuses readily across cells.
o In some fish it may diffuse out across the gills and be excreted through the kidneys in dilute urine
● Aquatic animals such as bony fishes, aquatic invertebrates, and amphibians excrete ammonia because it is
easily eliminated in the water.
● Urea is produced in the liver by a process that requires more energy to produce than ammonia does.
● In hot weather, more water is excreted as sweat and, as a result, less urine is produced. In cold weather,
more water is lost in urine and very little in sweat.

Osmoregulation: maintenance of a constant concentration of salt ions and therefore water levels
within the body regardless of the concentrations within the environment

Fish Mammals
 Page | 33

Fish Freshwater Fish Marine Fish ● Osmoregulation (regulate

● Osmoregulation ● Live in rivers and ● Urinate less salt and water concentration)
(regulate salt and lakes, where the water ● Since internal body ● Amount and concentration
water potential is high – fluids are less depends on
concentration) habitats contain very concentrated than water/environment
● Kidneys adjust few dissolved salts → surrounding water, ● Kidney filters blood
levels of water and water is therefore they tend to lose ● Kidneys excrete urine that is
mineral ions in the freely available. body water by composed mainly of water
● Freshwater fish
fish’s body to osmosis, across the and nitrogenous wastes
frequently produce
maintain a constant body surface and gills, (urea), as well as some
hypotonic (dilute)
concentration of urine→ water tends to into their salty excess salts.
internal fluid for accumulate in their surroundings. o Regulate the internal and
the cells tissues by osmosis ● Key on drinking salt water concentrations of
● Excrete ammonia water→ absorb water and the body and excrete urea
● Fish that live in
(occurs across the fresh water have a
salts o Have a complex control
gills) higher concentration of ● Water is retained and mechanism to ensure that
solutes in their bodies salts actively excreted, a balance is maintained
than the surrounding some via the gills and between the amounts of
water→ diffuse into some via the kidneys sweat and urine excreted.
body ● Excess salt tends to o In mammals, sharks and
● Kidneys excrete accumulate in their some bony fish, the liver
excess water (from bodies, moving in by converts ammonia to urea
their surroundings) diffusion from the ● Excess amino acids are
and nitrogenous surrounding sea water. transported to the liver where
wastes(ammonia) ● Main function of the they are broken down in a
o Have large kidneys is to remove process called deamination
glomeruli for the excess salt. o
filtration of blood o Filters blood
in large o Removes
volumes. nitrogenous wastes
o Not involved in o Excrete small
salt balance quantities of highly
● Don’t face issues concentrated urine
with salt ● Kidneys conserve
accumulation from water rather than
freshwater excreting it.
environment.
● Actively rebsorb
salts to prevent
their loss
● Any excess salts
that they consume
in their diets are
excreted via the
gills.

3.4. EXPLAIN WHY THE PROCESSES OF DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS ARE INADEQUATE IN REMOVING DISSOLVED NITROGENOUS
WASTES IN SOME ORGANISMS
3.5. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT AND RELATE THESE TO PROCESSES OCCURRING IN THE
MAMMALIAN KIDNEY

unicellular and ● Unicellular organisms: excretion of dissolved nitrogenous wastes occurs solely by
multicellilar diffusion and osmosis since they are small in size (large SA:V ratio) and are close
organisms? contact with their external environment
● Multicellular organism: too large, made up of millions of cells, must use active
transport moving ions AGAINST concentration gradient through proteins and
specialised cells

● Excretory system: group of organs that function together to remove metabolic

wastes from the tissues of an organism and expel them outside.
● Function of the kidney in excretion is to filter the blood that enters it, removing
wastes (in solution) from the bloodstream so that they can be excreted from the
body.
o This filtration is carried out in millions of tiny units called nephrons
● Animals use water to flush metabolic wastes out of the body.
 Page | 34

o Excretion creates the problem of regulating the amount of water lost, while
ensuring that wastes are removed.
● Osmoregulation: kidney maintains the water and salt (electrolyte) balance in
animals
o Maintenance of a stable blood volume, blood pressure and pH depends
upon a stable water balance within a narrow range in the body.

Movement of ● Passive transport includes the processes of diffusion and osmosis.

materials into and o Require no energy input from the cell, since molecules move along a
out of cells takes concentration gradient.
place in two ways o Results from the random movement of particles, whereby they continually
collide eventually spreading out, achieving equilibrium.
● Passive transport moves water by osmosis (due to salt movement, which is actively
transported), and some nitrogenous wastes such as urea and ammonia (by
diffusion) in the kidneys of mammals.
● 98% of water needs to be reabsorbed from the filtrate and returned to the blood.
o Can move by osmosis only if there are more solutes outside the tubule than
inside the tubule.
● The main limitations of passive movement are:
o Depends on the presence of a difference in concentration of substances (a
concentration gradient) between two regions
o Relatively slow→ when the concentration gradient is not steep
● Diffusion: passive movement of any molecule along a concentration gradient (from
a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration), until equilibrium is
reached.
o Diffusion is too slow to be used in the normal functions of the body
o Diffusion does not discriminate between useful and harmful solutes
o Not all wastes can be removed by diffusion, if wastes are left in blood the pH
of cells change (denature enzymes) and would become toxic
o The movement of water may make wastes too dilute to be excreted by
diffusion
● Osmosis: movement of water molecules from a region of high water concentration
to a region of low water concentration through a selectively permeable membrane.
o Too much water may be lost in urine – water will be drawn into urine by
osmosis to dilute it if it contains a large number of nitrogenous wastes
o Movement of water may make wastes too dilute for excretion by diffusion -
organisms that live in freshwater environments
● Facilitated diffusion: movement of molecules using carrier protein molecules to
transport them across the cell membrane from high to l;ow concentration
● Filtration: movement of water and other molecules across a cell membrane caused
by blood pressure

active transport ● Active transport requires an input of cellular energy to actively move
molecules against a concentration gradient.
o Moves mainly sodium ions, glucose, amino acids and hydrogen ions across the
wall of the nephron.
● As these solutes move out of the nephric filtrate, water follows by osmosis.
o Active transport of sodium ions causes more osmosis and the level of salt and
water are thus adjusted to maintain homeostasis.
● Quicker and more effective than diffusion as it removes most wastes, even against a
concentration gradient.
● Involves a specific carrier protein that spans the membrane, actively moving
chemicals from a low to a high concentration using cellular energy
o May bind with the substance
● e.g. Endocytosis: formation of a pouch that carries the matter through the
membrane
 Page | 35

3.6. EXPLAIN HOW THE PROCESSES OF FILTRATION AND REABSORPTION IN THE MAMMALIAN NEPHRON REGULATE BODY FLUID
COMPOSITION
What does the ● The functional unit of the kidney responsible for filtration and reabsorption (&
neutron consist of secretion at end) is the nephron
and what are its ● A nephron consists of four functional parts:
purposes? o Bowman’s capsule
o Proximal (first) convoluted tubule
o Loop of Henle
o Distal (second) convoluted tubule which leads into a collecting duct
● The purposes of the nephron include:
o Reabsorb useful molecules (water)
o Filter unwanted molecules (metabolic wastes)
o Balance blood pH
o Maintain osmotic balance (salt/water: by reabsorbing water from filtrate)
● The nephron sits in the kidney’s cortex and medulla, with the collecting duct
draining into the pelvis
● Three main processes that lead to urine formation occur in the nephron. These are:
o Filtration
o reabsorption
o secretion

Filtration ● Occurs between glomerulus and inner lining of the Bowman’s Capsule
● Substances small enough are squeezed through the capillary wall under pressure
into Bowman’s capsule (this is a non-selective passive process)
● The movement of materials across the filtration membrane into the lumen of
Bowman's capsule to form filtrate.
o Pressure in glomerulus is so high that it forces fluids and dissolved substances through
walls of the glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule→ liquid called glomerular
filtrate
o Filtrate consists of reusable substances (e.g. amino acids and glucose) and
wastes (urea)
● Water passes through, carrying dissolved substances including amino acids, glucose,
salts (ions), nitrogenous wastes and other toxic molecules.
o Blood cells and proteins are too large and are retained in blood
● The process of filtration separates substances from the blood based on their size.

Reabsorption ● In the proximal tubule, all amino acids, glucose and varying quantities of ions such
as Na⁺ , K⁺ , Cl⁻ , Ca²⁺ , and HCO₃⁻ and some vitamins are reabsorbed.
● May be some secretion of hydrogen ions→ help maintain constant Ph of blood and body fluids
● As the solutes are actively back into the blood , water follows by the passive process
of osmosis. 99% of water is reabsorbed by osmosis.
o Water, salts and nutrients move by diffusion or active transport from the
tubule into the surrounding capillaries.
● Loop of Henle – Ascending Limb: lots of ions reabsorbed, membrane permeable to salt NOT
WATER→ water passes by osmosis. in ascending part, walls are permeable to salt but not to
water
● Water reabsorbed in all parts of tubule, but NOT ASCENDING LIMB
● Reabsorption maintains a constant concentration of essential metabolites (such as
glucose) in blood and consequently body tissues.
o Water and salts have not been regulated and some toxins and H+ ions need
further regulation so that what is not needed by the body is excreted and
 Page | 36

homeostasis is maintained.
o The loop of the Henle and the distal tubule act as a refinery for the filtrate so
that osmoregulation can occur to produce urine at a concentration that
excreted wastes but maintains homeostasis.
o ACTIVE PROCESS
● In the distal tubule, selective reabsorption and secretion again occur to adjust pH of
blood and level of salts, eg. sodium and potassium
o walls of collecting ducts are permeable to water but not salt
o Water passes out by osmosis→ final filtrate or urine is formed
o ACTIVE PROCESS

Secretion ● Removal of toxic substance from blood capillaries and tissues and their active
secreted into nephron
o Solutes are secreted across the wall of the nephron into the filtrate.
o Excess ions and chemicals such as drugs are secreted.
● Wastes: urea, uric acid, ammonia, hydrogen, drugs (penicillin, saccharin, morphine)
● Diffusion: urea/ammonia (urea is secreted in descending limb)

3.7. OUTLINE THE ROLE OF THE HORMONES, ALDOSTERONE AND ADH (ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE) IN THE REGULATION OF
WATER AND SALT LEVELS IN BLOOD
wHAT ARE ● Hormones: chemical control substances that are secreted by endocrine (ductless)
HORMONES? glands, directly into the bloodstream.
o Control homeostasis
o Cope with stress
o Ensure growth and development take place
o Reproduction
o Diuresis: the loss of urine
o Diuretic: a substance which increase urine volume
o Antidiuretic: a substance which reduces urine volume
● They travel via the general circulation to parts of the body and when they reach
their target cells, these cells respond
● Changes to the concentration of water and salt in urine take place through
alterations to the permeability of the nephron membranes.
o This is caused by two main hormones: aldosterone and ADH.
o Both help the kidney to carry out its homeostatic functions of osmoregulation
▪ Regulation of the solute concentration of the blood: regulating the
amount of sodium and other ions that are reabsorbed or secreted in
urine.
▪ Regulation of blood volume: maintaining a constant fluid volume of
dilute urine or a small concentration of concentrated urine
● If body contains little excess water→ kidneys reabsorb max possible amount of water from
filtrate→ small amount of concentrated urine is formed

What does ADH ● Brings about water reabsorption in the body.

(Anti-diuretic ● A decrease in water concentration is detected by the hypothalamus which stimulates
hormone) bring the pituitary gland to release ADH (i.e. released in response to an increase in salt
about? levels)
o Acts on the kidneys’ nephrons to increase the reabsorption of water.
● Presence of ADH increases the permeability of the membranes of the cells lining the distal
tubules and collecting tubules to water→ water is reabsorbed from tubules and is conserved
within the body
● In the presence of ADH, water passes freely by osmosis out of the ducts back into
the body
o As blood returns to normal concentration, by negative feedback, less ADH is
secreted
● If the blood concentration is low, very little ADH is released
o The permeability of the collecting duct walls decreased, less water is
reabsorbed, more is passed out with the urine
● Conserves body water and regulate salt levels, stopping dehydration
● ADH decreases urine volume, increases urine concentration, increases blood volume
and pressure

What is aldosterone ● Regulates salt levels to balance blood volume and pressure
used for? o Low blood pressure/low blood volume and low sodium/high potassium causes
aldosterone to be secreted
● Steroid hormone
● Increases the permeability of the proximal convoluted tubule to allow for greater
reabsorption of sodium ions (active) and water (passive by osmosis)
 Page | 37

● Aldosterone increases the permeability of the nephron to sodium,

particularly in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
● A decrease in the concentration of sodium ions in the bloodstream leads to a
decrease in blood volume and this stimulates cells in the cortex of the adrenal gland
(above the kidney) to secrete the hormone aldosterone.
● If there is an increased blood volume and pressure, the output of aldosterone is
reduced
o Less salt and water is reabsorbed by nephron tubules and increased amount
of salt and water are lost in the urine
● If the body needs salt, the opposite happens→ water is not retained, the adrenals release more
aldosterone and salt is reabsorbed from the tubule

3.8. DEFINE ENANTIOSTASIS AS THE MAINTENANCE OF METABOLIC AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS IN RESPONSE TO
VARIATIONS IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND DISCUSS ITS IMPORTANCE TO ESTUARINE ORGANISMS IN MAINTAINING APPROPRIATE
SALT CONCENTRATIONS
 Page | 38

Enantiostasis ● Enantiostasis is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in

response to variations in the environment.
o Concerned about maintaining the functional state whereas homeostasis is
concerned about maintaining internal state (and as a result, the functional
state)
o Some organisms can move away, but are threatened by human action
Estuaries (cleaning, filling in, dredging)
● It’s extremely important that organisms are able to maintain appropriate salt levels
within their bodies in their changing environment.
● Estuaries are areas where saltwater and freshwater mix, resulting in large
fluctuations in salinity caused mostly by tidal movements (also rainfall).
o e.g. the tidal mouth of the Minnamurra River
o Low/ebb tide, low salt concentration (river takes over)
o High/flood tide, high salt concentration (ocean takes over)
o Rich productive ecosystems→ nutrient traps: water from the sea and from the river is
slowed and sediments settles
o Water is calmer than the sea and much shallower
o Plenty of light for photosynthesis
o Sun heats shallower water→ warmer conditions than in the ocean
o Must deal with salinity gradient→ high salinity at ocean end; tides; periodic changes in
salinity

Osmoregulators: ● Osmoregulators: organisms that avoid changes in their internal environment and
HOMEOSTASIS have the ability to keep the solutes at an optimal level.
(maintain internal o ‘Regulate’ solute concentrations within the body, regardless of the differing
environment) external environment.
● e.g most marine fish and mammals→ maintain homeostasis regardless of the environment’s
osmotic pressure
● Unable to tolerate a range of salt concentrations in their body fluids and cells→ have
mechanisms to exclude salt to keep the internal fluid concentration constant, despite fluctuations
in the environment.
o Excrete salt or concentrate their urine
o Use negative feedback mechanisms to maintain osmoregulation
o Example: muscles close their valves during low tide to keep internal salt
concentration same as seawater

Osmoconformers: ● Osmoconformers are organisms that tolerate the changes in the environment by
ENANTIOSTASIS altering the concentration of their internal solutes to match the external
(vary internal environment.
environment) o ‘Conform’ their body fluids to that of the environment.
o Their metabolism is able to tolerate changes in salinity in their own body
fluids and cells.
● e.g. marine invertebrates → allow their body’s osmotic pressure to vary with their environment.
● For normal functioning to be maintained, another function must be changed to compensate for
the change → e.g. a change in salt concentration may reduce efficiency, so body compensates
by increasing pH increasing efficiency.
● Example: fiddler crabs accumulate solutes in salt water, and pumps out excess salt
when exposed to fresh

Important of ● Without enantiostasis, some estuarine organisms would not be able to maintain homeostasis →
enantiostasis metabolic processes would be interrupted.
● Organisms can’t deal with fluctuations that extreme:
o They have to hide/seek shelter or leave the area (i.e. mammal swim up the
river to stay in fresh water)
o Homeostasis mechanism is not effective enough to deal with changes
o Salt levels must be regulated to keep enzymes functioning (too much/little
salt causes enzymes to denature)
● Enantiostasis allows the organism to function in a wide range of internal
environments, so that these fluctuating external changes do not disrupt any of its
day to day processes.

3.9. DESCRIBE ADAPTATIONS OF A RANGE OF TERRESTRIAL AUSTRALIAN PLANTS THAT ASSIST IN MINIMISING WATER LOSS
 Page | 39

transpiration ● Transpiration: process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from
aerial parts, such as from the stomata of leaves but also from stems and flowers
o Generally, stomata are most abundant on the underside of leaves and are
stimulated to open in the presence of light and/or excess heat in well
hydrated plants.
o About 98% of water loss from plants occurs as a result of transpiration
● Transpiration works in two main ways:
1. It lifts water and dissolved ions up the stem to the top of the plants in a
continuous transpiration stream
2. It is a form of evaporative cooling, a process that is essential in regulating
temperature in plants.
● Xerophytes are plants that live in areas where water is in limited supply and
Xerophytes
possess adaptations that equip them to achieve this balance and survive in their
hostile environment.
o Xerophytes, such as some in Australian plants minimise water loss in four
main ways:

Mechanisms to conserve water Features Explanation on how this conserves

loss water

● Shiny, reflective waxy leaves ● Temperature is kept lower in plant→

1. Structural Features:
o e.g. Saltbrush’s leaves less water to be lost by evaporative
Structural features and
reflect heat/light cooling
physiological mechanisms to o Still keep their
● Thick, insulating cuticle
reduce their internal temperature within the
● e.g. eucalypts and bankasiaas
temperature. correct range for
have coarse, leathery leaves to
protect them from excessive metabolism.
sunlight ● Ensures that all the epidermal
● Hairy leaves that reduce airflow cells are waterproof, preventing
across the leaf, thus reducing loss of water by evaporation from
evaporation these surface cells to the outside
● Small leaves with reduced SA
● Rolled up leaves to minimise water
loss
● Stomates sunk into pits or grooves
and/or a reduced number of
stomates
● Thick bark or extra thickening of
cell walls to prevent wilting

Reduced exposure to light:

● Leaves become reduced in size ● Changing the orientation of
Plant organs that have the most
e.g. Hakea and acacias leaves so that stomata are not
abundant stomata have the
o Leaf is divided into leaflets→ exposed to direct sunlight.
greatest rates of transpiration.
reduces SA. ● Reducing the surface area of
● Cladodes and phyllodes organs that have highest
o Cladodes: photosynthetic proportion of stomata
stems e.g. she-oaks ● The complete loss of transpiring
o Phyllodes: plant organs.
photosynthetic leaf stalks ● Stomata remain closed→ less
e.g. acacias transpiration occurs
o Phyllodes→ carry ● Fewer stomata→ reduces water loss
photosynthesis for the plant but through transpiration.
lack stomata.
● Reduced size of flowers or having
no petals
o Acacias → small clustered
flowers, reducing energy and
water required to produce them.
● Shedding leaves; River gum
● Orientation of leaves e.g.
Eucalypts
o Hung vertically during hot
day to reduce SA exposed to
 Page | 40

the sun
o Minimises water loss by
transpiration
o Stomata aren’t
directly exposed to the sun→
regulate when the stomata open
(morning/afternoon to
photosynthesis) and close
(midday)
● Rolled leaves

3. Reducing Water Gradient: ● Sunken stomata/stomatal pits ● Decreased concentration gradient →

Difference in water
concentration between the plant
and surrounding
atmosphere determines how
much water is lost by
transpiration.
● Hairs on leaves
● Curled/rolled leaves
(e.g. Hakea; in the cladodes of less water leaving plant tissues by
she-oaks) osmosis and less water diffusing out of
o Small pocket of air is the leaves’ stomata.
trapped beside each stomal ● Produce a microclimate around
pore, forming a barrier the leaf, where moist water is
between the air spaces trapped and a barrier is created
inside and around leaf. to prevent its evaporation/
Stomata have no direct removal by currents of dry air
contact with sunlight so
transpiration is reduced
o e.g. Coastal banksia
o The hairs trap water
that has evaporated from
the plant, increasing
humidity
o Humidity decreases
the transpiration rate
o Allows plants to keep stomata
open for longer → less water is
lost, increase
photosynthesis that can occur
o e.g. Porcupine grass,
o The edges of some flat leaves
curl over and form a protective
layer above the stomata. Less
SA is exposed to the sun when
plant is rolled up→ reduces rate
of transpiration

● Succulent plant organs: ● Water is stored in the organs of

4. Water Storage:
o e.g. Calandrinia has leaves→ the plants, such as fleshy stems
● Storing water provide an excellent source of or leaves
● Reducing water loss in fruits moisture in desert environments. ●
● Woody fruits ● No water is lost when woody
fruits fall from the plant as they
are dry

3.1. PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION OF THE STRUCTURE OF A MAMMALIAN KIDNEY BY DISSECTION, USE OF A MODEL OR
VISUAL RESOURCE AND IDENTIFY THE REGIONS INVOLVED IN THE EXCRETION OF WASTE PRODUCTS

Aim: To examine the external and internal structure of a kidney and to relate structure to function.

Method:
1. Carefully remove the fat from around the kidney.
2. Identify and separate the three tubes entering and leaving the kidney: the renal artery, renal vein and
ureter.
3. Cut the kidney in half lengthwise, leaving the three tubes intact in one side of the dissection
4. Observe the internal appearance to identify the cortex, medulla and pelvis. Record observations.

Regions of the kidney (3)

● Renal cortex: superficial layer, pale, contains nephrons (apart from Loop of Henle and bottom of collecting
duct)
 Page | 41

● Renal medulla: central region, stripped pattern, dark reddish tissue, lies within the cortex in the form of
‘pyramids’, contains Loop of Henle and lower 2/3 of collecting duct
● Renal pelvis: funnel like area, collects urine and is continuous with the ureter (all the way to the bladder)

How blood flows through the kidney

● Aorta (main blood vessel from heart) → branches off into the renal artery which delivers oxygenated blood to be filtered
● Renal artery → divides into a series of smaller arteries → arterioles then provide blood to serve nephrons
● Filtered blood then leaves the kidney via the renal vein → inferior vena cava takes blood back to heart

Bowman’s capsule/glomerulus → proximal convoluted tubule → loop of Henle → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct →
ureter → bladder

Function of:
● Layer fat around kidney – protection and insulation
● Renal artery – carries oxygenated blood into the kidney and brings in waste ie urea
● Renal vein – carries deoxygenated blood away from kidney – less waste
● Ureter – carries urine from kidney to bladder
● Kidney tubules – reabsorption, secretion

3.2. GATHER, PROCESS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION FROM SECONDARY SOURCES TO COMPARE THE PROCESS OF RENAL DIALYSIS
WITH THE FUNCTION OF THE KIDNEY

● Renal dialysis is for people suffering from reduced kidney function

o Developed to carry out the function of failed kidneys so that blood may be effectively filtered.
● The patient is connected to a dialysis machine, which pumps their blood through a system of
tubes (coiled to increase their surface area and therefore the rate of diffusion) which have artificial semi-
permeable membranes.
o Main function of a dialysis machine is to remove metabolic wastes that built up in one’s blood.
● Dialysis has the same concentration as blood plasma without the metabolic wastes
o Since concentration of metabolic wastes is higher in blood than in the dialysing fluid, the waste
materials move through semi-permeable membrane into the dialysing fluid by diffusion.
● Dialysis relies on passive transport for the removal of wastes from the blood→ dialysis fluid must constantly be replaced so
that the concentration gradient is maintained away from the blood.
● Renal dialysis must be carried out for 3 to 4 hours, two or three times per week. A
● Only limited amounts of fluid/wastes can be removed from the blood. Other substances such as sodium
phosphate and potassium ions do not diffuse quickly enough and therefore may accumulate in the blood.

Kidney Renal Dialysis

Function Removes urea from blood. Useful substances

Removes urea from blood. Useful
diffuse into blood from dialysing fluid, no
substances are reabsorbed actively by
reabsorption
the kidney
Filtration (remove metabolic wastes from blood)
Filtration (remove metabolic wastes and osmoregulation (keep blood solutes at a
from blood) and osmoregulation (keep constant level)
blood solutes at a constant level)

Secondary Concentration of desired solutes can be adjusted

Maintains and balances various salts in
functions by altering the composition of the dialysis fluid to
the body. No net accumulation of any
maintain natural concentration for healthy blood.
specific ions
Releases hormones that regulate vital
functions, including blood pressure, RBC
production

Structure Consists of about 1 million nephrons, Consists of three parts: a compartment for blood,
which filter the blood. Regulation can be the dialysate and a semi permeable membrane
done by hormones (aldosterone and that separates the two. Regulate usin sensors
ADH) and negative feedback
 Page | 42

What does it Uses a series of membranes (nephrons)
use? which are selectively permeable. Active
and passive transport is used throughout
the nephron. The filter are the walls of
the glomerular blood vessels
Only passive transport is used.
Uses artificial membranes which are selectively
permeable. Peritoneal dialysis needs the peritoneal
membrane while an artificial filter is used in
haemodialysis

Occurrence Continuous process that is very efficient. Every
day, two kidneys excrete 1.5-2.5 litres of
urine→ millions of nephrons provide high SA
Slow process, occurs a few times a week for
patients. Usually patients spent 3-4 hours in a
hospital if they undergo haemodialysis while
peritoneal dialysis needs to be performed daily.
Dialysis takes longer and is less efficient as not all
wastes are removed.

Ions No net accumulation of any specific ions Ions such as sodium and phosphate take a while to
diffuse out and can accumulate – patients should
follow a specific diet

3.3. PRESENT INFORMATION TO OUTLINE THE GENERAL USE OF HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY IN PEOPLE WHO CANNOT
SECRETE ALDOSTERONE

● Aldosterone increases the amount of salt reabsorbed from the kidneys and helps to regulate blood pressure
● Aldosterone carries out the vital processes of controlling blood pressure and body fluid composition
● Addison’s disease results from very lows of levels of aldosterone in the body
o The pituitary gland produces a hormone which influences the secretion of hormones from the adrenal
cortex including aldosterone
o Most cases are caused by an autoimmune response that attacks/damages adrenal glands over time
o Detriments:
▪ Inability to secrete aldosterone results in low sodium levels, high potassium levels
▪ Volume of blood falls dangerously low
▪ Drop in blood pressure due to mineral ion imbalance
▪ Severe dehydration
▪ Weakness/Fatigue
▪ Weight loss
▪ Heart failure
● Hormone Replacement Therapy is the restoration of the balance of hormones. It can:
o Increase fluid retention
o Raise blood pressure
● For patients suffering from abnormally low levels of the hormone aldosterone.
● Genetically engineered hormone fludrocortisone is administered (synthetic form of
aldosterone)
o Fludrocortisone administration must be monitored to avoid fluid retention and high blood pressure
● Chronic condition, which means daily medication can never be stopped
● Management involves proper maintenance treatment (visits to doctor, blood tests etc & regulating salt intake)

3.4. ANALYSE INFORMATION FROM SECONDARY SOURCES TO COMPARE AND EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENCES IN URINE
CONCENTRATION OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS, MARINE FISH AND FRESHWATER FISH

● Isotonic: when 2 solutions have same concentration of solutes, no net movements of solutes and water
● Hypertonic: the solution that contains greater amount of solutes, water flow into hypertonic solution by osmosis
● Hypotonic: solution that contains lesser amount of solutes, water flow out of hypotonic solution by osmosis

Nitrogenous waste Toxicity Water solubility Animals

(protein
breakdown)

Ammonia High High Fish

Urea Medium Medium Terrestrial mammals

Uric acid Low Low Insects, reptiles, birds


General organism Freshwater fish
Specific example/s Carp
● Hyposaline (water
Type of environment
surrounding fish has
lower concentration of
salts than its cells) –
high water potential
● Hypotonic
● Tends to take on
Osmoregulatory
water and lose
problem
valuable salts to the
environment
● Must be able to
eliminate excess water
and retain salts
● Ammonia
Type of nitrogen waste
● They don’t waste
produced
energy converting
ammonia to urea
because they are
using energy to
constantly excrete
Source of water Gills
intake
● Water follows by
Problems to overcome
osmosis from water to
fish, leaving it
overhydrated
● Large volume of salts
are lost via frequent
urination
● Does not drink
Mechanisms/adaptati
● Produces continuous
ons to overcome
stream of urine
problems
● Chloride secretory
cells in the gills
actively transport
salts from
surrounding water
into blood
● High volume, dilute ● Small volume, highly
Urine characteristics
(low concentration)
(volume,
● To produce large ● To produce small
concentration, etc)
volume, must have a
high rate of filtration
into the kidney tubules
● Done by many large
glomeruli capillary
Page | 43
Marine fish Mammal
brim, snapper human
● Hypersaline (water ● Terrestrial – water scare
surrounding fish has
higher concentration
of salts than its cells)
–low water potential
● Hypertonic
● Tend to lose water
through their
membranes
● Must conserve water
and get rid of excess
salts
● Urea ● Urea
o Ammonia is
converted to urea in
the liver, it can be
stored longer to stop
dehydration
● Too much water loss
if it were ammonia (very
toxic and requires instant
excretion)
Gills and drinking Drinking
● Water follows by ● Conserving water,
osmosis from the yet at the same time
fish to seawater, removing nitrogenous
leaving it wastes
dehydrated
● Large volumes of
salts are gained via
drinking
● Constantly drinking ● Ammonia converted
copious amounts of to urea, stop frequent
water to stay urination
hydrated
● Produced
concentrated urine,
not much of it, to
keep the water
inside
● Salt is removed by
chloride secretory
cells in the gills,
which actively
transport salts from
blood into water
● Depends on water
concentrated availability
● Try to conserve
volume, must have low water
rate of filtration of water ● Lots of water = dilute
into kidney tubules → ● Not enough =
Kidney with relatively concentrated
few small glomeruli
 Page | 44

networks

Role of kidneys Primarily Osmoregulation Primarily Osmoregulation Osmoregulation and excretion

and excretion and excretion

● Uptake of salts and ● Excretion of salts

Role of gills N/A
excretion of wastes and wastes
● Gas exchange ● Gas exchange

● Kidney: excretion ● Kidney: excretion ● Urethra

Places of excretion
of dilute urine with of concentrated ● Variable according to
ammonia urine, urea, little environmental conditions
● Gills: active water
absorption of salt, ● Gills: active
water enters gills secretion of salt,
osmotically water loss
● Kidney tubule: active ● Active tubular
tubular reabsorption secretion of salt
of salt ● Excess salt via gills
● Many, large glomeruli and very little urine
● Small proximal is excreted
convoluted tubule ● Via the gills,
● Many nephrons constantly
● Only possible
because it has
constant contact
with water
● Large proximal
convoluted tubule
● Small glomeruli (or
absent)
● Few nephrons

3.5. USE AVAILABLE EVIDENCE TO EXPLAIN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CONSERVATION OF WATER AND THE PRODUCTION
AND EXCRETION OF CONCENTRATED NITROGENOUS WASTES IN A RANGE OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS AND TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS

Three kinds of ● Ammonia: little energy to produce, very toxic, soluble, must be removed
nitrogenous wastes immediately – fish and tadpole (AMMONOTELIC)
[breakdown of amino o Makes Ph more alkaline→ affect enzyme functioning and metabolism
acids (building ● Urea: energy to be produced, toxic, soluble, can be stored for a while – mammals,
blocks of protein)] terrestrial animals, sharks (UREOTELIC)
● Uric acid: lots of energy to be produced, less toxic, not soluble, stored for
extended time – birds, reptiles, insects (URICOTELIC)

● Formation of nitrogenous wastes occurs in the liver, and they are then carried to the
kidneys for excretion.
● The more energy expended, the more water conserved.

Terrestrial Mammals ● Terrestrial mammals living in arid areas, such as the Bilby, produce very
concentrated urine and tolerate high levels of urea in their systems
● Urea is 10 000 times less toxic than ammonia, it can be stored for periods of time
without the need to urinate
o It does require energy to produce though
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Insects ● Some insects excrete uric acid, a very dry waste requiring virtually no water to
remove it (not water soluble)
● Have a low toxicity so that it can be kept in the body for a long time
● Usually excreted through tubules or as uric acid crystals deposited on various parts
of the body
● Almost no water is lost through excreting uric acid
● Require a lot of energy to produce

Leichardt’s Grasshopper Spinifex Hopping Mouse Human

Environment Sandstone plateaus in northern Desert-Central and Western Present worldwide with the
/Where is it Australia (Arnhem land). Australia, in spinifex-dominated environment and water
Found Region has low amounts of grasslands. Region has low availability varying
water. amounts of water. significantly on location.

Nitrogenous Low toxicity uric acid. Large Very concentrated urea to reduce Urea, which is more
waste excreted amount of energy needed for water loss (Less toxic than concentrated than uric acid.
production. ammonia, more than uric acid). More energy required than
Some energy required ammonia but less than uric
acid

Excretory Uric acid is insoluble. Little Very long kidney tubules for Primarily through kidneys. A
system and water is lost with nitrogenous reabsorption in the kidney. small amount of water is lost
water wastes. Malpighian tubules are through excretion.
conservation close to rectum so solutes in
the tubules draw water by
osmosis across the lining of
the rectum. Very dry faeces
produced.

Relationship High relationship between
between conservation of water and
conservation of production of uric acid.
water and Arnhem land is a very dry
production of area. Efficient excretory
concentrated system minimises water loss
nitrogenous and increases areas where the
wastes species can survive. Uric acid
is insoluble in water so little
water is lost during excretion.
Important where water is
scarce
Highly concentrated urine is Concentration varies within
significant to conserve water in limited range, depending on
the desert conditions. water intake and the loss of
70% of filtered urea is reabsorbed water through sweating
with an adequate diet. Up to
90% filtered urea and reabsorbed
during dehydration. Urea urine to
plasma ratio remains constant
suggesting that urea reabsorption
is passive.

3.6. PROCESS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION FROM SECONDARY SOURCES AND USE AVAILABLE EVIDENCE TO DISCUSS PROCESSES
USED BY DIFFERENT PLANTS FOR SALT REGULATION IN SALINE ENVIRONMENTS

Halophyte ● Halophyte – a plant that has successfully inhabited areas of high salinity such as
deserts, salt marshes and coastal areas.
o Possess various adaptations to assist them in surviving high salt levels in their
surroundings.
● Most plants cannot tolerate saline environments: the solute concentration
in the soil is greater than it is inside the plant’s root and so water tends to
move out by osmosis.
o Excess of sodium ions inside cells inhibits enzyme activity and can result in a
decrease in the uptake of essential potassium ions.
● The plants either use salt tolerance or salt avoidance as strategies to survive.
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Salt tolerance and ● SALT TOLERANCE/ACCUMULATION: mangroves, salt bus, seagrass

accumulation. Salt o Maintain metabolic functioning even though their cells accumulate sodium and
excreters chloride ions
o They minimise salt toxicity by increasing their water content in large vacuoles
o Specialised cells called salt glands, located on surfaces of leaves for storing
excess salt (then turn to crystals to be washed off or
‘suicide’ a part of the plant)
● SALT AVOIDANCE: succulents
o Minimise salt concentrations of cells through structural and physiological
adaptations such as stopping salt from entering the roots

Three kinds of salt ● Secretion: plant has special salt glands on leaves which secrete salt, it is then
regulation in plants blown or washed away
(SEA) o Salt is concnetrated in salt glands and then actively secreted from plant
o Example: grey mangrove – salt is washed off by the rain
● Exclusion: structures in the roots of the plant prevent the uptake of salt from
water but allow water
o Prevent entry of salt into their root systems by filtration→ passive process that relies on
transpiration stream
● Accumulation: plant sacrifices certain branches by pumping salt to the area and
letting it die.
o Some plants allow salt to accumulate in older tissues or bark which are later
discarded

Grey Mangrove ● Salt is accumulated in old leaves that drop off, so that the salt is out of the plant’s
system (accumulation)
● Special glands in the mangroves can actively exclude the salt from the water, so
that the water absorbed has a lower salt concentration than the water in the
environment (exclusion)
o Endodermis in roots forms a barrier against passage of most salts into xylem,
xylem continues to contain reasonably fresh desalinated water
● Salt can be excreted from the underside of the leaves of the mangrove plants.
(excretion)

River Mangrove ● Concentrates and excretes salt through special glands which build up on the outside
of the leaf and is washed off during periods of rain (secretion)

Milky Mangrove ● Accumulates salt in older tissues such as leaves, which is then discarded
(accumulation)

Norfolk Island pine ● Stomata are covered with thin layer of cuticle, preventing salt from entering leaves
(Exclusion)

Saltbrush ● Stores its excess salt in swollen leaf bases, which drop off, ridding the plant of salt
(Accumulation)
● Actively transports sodium/chloride ions into bladder cells situated on tip of hairs on
leaf surface, when bladder reaches capacity, bursts, releasing salt (Secretion)

3.7. PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION TO GATHER INFORMATION ABOUT STRUCTURES IN PLANTS THAT ASSIST IN THE
CONSERVATION OF WATER

Aim: Gather information about structures in plants that assist in the conservation of water

Method: observe a variety of plants from around the local areas. Observe each of the plant’s structures, using a
microscope if necessary. Record any structures which assist in preventing water loss in a table.

Results

Structure How Plant Example

Hairy leaves Traps a layer of humid air to decrease the amount of Callistemon: Bottle
transpiration Brush

Shiny sheen Temperature control: reflect sunlight to stop water loss Bottle Brush
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Waxy leaves Stops transpiration (water can’t penetrate wax) ● Gum Tree
● Grevillia
● Banksia

Small, woody fruit Small gumnuts means plant doesn’t need to expend a lot of Gum Tree
water

Cladodes Small leaves, reduce SA, plant still photosynthesis in places Casuarina
with less stomates

Vertical leaves Reduce SA exposed to sun Eucalypts

White underside of Stop heat absorption and as a result transpiration Banksia

leaves

Divided leaf Reduces SA:V ratio, less transpiration Grevillia