Design of Structures II Assignment

By

Name: Ibrahim Salim Kobi

(EU 150302-583)

This is the a document submitted which contains the second Assignment for
Structural Design and is submitted to
Dr.Eng Ikumapayi Mayowa.

Course code: CVE 407

Submitted on
15-01-2019
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER 1
Question 1 (15 marks)
a. Write a short note on irrigation and drainage. (8 marks)
b. Water flows in a rectangular concrete open channel that is 12.0 m wide at a depth
of 2.5 m. The channel slope is 0.0028. Find the water velocity and flow rate. (7
marks)
Question 2 (15 marks)

a. Write a short note on relationship between soil and water. (8 marks)

b. A trapezoidal channel, bottom width 6 m and side slopes 450 , flows 1.2 m deep
on a slope of 0.0009. For a value of n = 0.025, what is the uniform discharge? (7
marks)
Question 3 (15 marks)

a. Explain in detail the term water quality and SAR for irrigation. (7 marks)
b. Soil samples from a farm land were analyzed the results are as follows:
i. sand 58%, silt 34%, clay 6%;
ii. 25% clay,13% silt, 62% sand;
iii. 23% clay,21% silt, 56% sand; and
iv. 21% clay, 30% silt, 49% sand.
Use these results to classify the soil texture based on US Department of Agriculture
(USDA) classifications. (8 marks)

Question 4 (15 marks)

A stream size of 150 l /sec was released from the diversion headwork to irrigate a
land of area1.8 hectares. The stream size when measured at the delivery `to the field
channels is 120 l/sec.The stream continued for 4 hours. The effective root zone depth
is 1.80 m. The applicationlosses in the field are estimated to be 440 m3. The depth
of water penetration was 1.80 m and 1.20 m at the head and tail of the run
respectively. The available water holding capacity of the soil is 21cm/m and
irrigation was done at 60% depletion. The stream size delivered to the plot was 100
l /sec. Determine:
i. Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed),
ii. Field Canal Efficiency (Eb)
iii. Water storage efficiency (Es)
iv. Water application Efficiency (Ea)
v. Water Conveyance efficiency (Ec) (10 marks)

Question 5 (15 marks)

a. Explain in detail various components of irrigation and irrigation efficiency. (10

marks)
b. A farm has a total area 1000 m2 . The 30 cm layer is a clay loam texture and the
actual water content is 5% by weight. Find the required amount of water to increases
the water to the level of available water. (5 marks)

Question 6 (15 marks)

a. Explain in detail term water quality for irrigation. (5 marks)
b. Explain the methods that you would use to determine the moisture content of soil.
(5 marks)
c. Discuss in detail the various type of irrigations and their setback. (5 marks)
CHAPTER 2
(a)Drainage and irrigation
The primary reason for irrigating and draining land is to improve or sustain
agricultural productivity in area where surface soils are naturally dryer or wetter
than desired. Semiarid often have higher agricultural productivity if irrigated,
while naturally wet regions are often habitable at a higher density, accessible with
less effort, or have higher agricultural productivity when drained. The
sustainability of these irrigation and drainage systems however is questionable if a
sound operation and maintenance program is not carried out or if poor irrigation
and agronomic practices have led to salinity, sodicity and water logging, which
affects about 40 – 50 percent of the 270 million hectares of land currently under
irrigation, Richard Davis and Rafik Hijri (2005).
In agriculture, artificial watering of the land. Although used chiefly in regions with
annual rainfall of lessthan 20 in. (51 cm), it is also used in wetter areas to grow cer
tain crops, e.g., rice. Estimates of total irrigated land in theworld range from 543 to
618 million acres (220 to 250 million hectares), almost half of them in India, Pakis
tan, and China.The United States had almost 60 million acres (23.8 million hectare
) of irrigated farmland in 1991.Methods of applying water include free-
flooding of entire areas from canals and ditches; check
flooding, in which water flowsover strips or checks of land between levees, or ridg
es; the furrow method, in which water runs between crop or tree rows,penetrating l
aterally to the roots; the surfacepipe method, in which water flows in movable slip-
joint pipes; sprinklers,including large-scale center-pivot and other self-
propelled systems; and a variety of waterconserving drip and tricklesystems.
J. Keller and R. D. Bliesner (1990).

um 2 / 3 1/ 2
(b) V   Rh  S
n
n = 0.013
s = 0.0028
A= 12 x 2.53 = 30m2
P = 12 + 2 x 2.5 = 17m
R = A/P = 30/17 = 1.765m
V = 1/0.013 x (1.765) 2/3 x (0.0028) ½
= 5.945 m3/s
Q=AxV
= 30 x 5.945 m3/s
= 178.3m3 /s

CHAPTER 3

Soil Water Potential: The soil water potential (also called soil water tension) is the amount of work
required to move (extract) water from the soil. Differences in potential energy of water from one point in
the soil to another are responsible for the tendency of water to flow within the soil. Water always moves
from higher to lower potential (energy status) and not necessarily from higher to lower water content.
This concept is important for non-uniform (layered) soils. Adhesion, surface tension, and cohesion at the
air/water interface in unsaturated soil pores result in capillary suction and cause the water to be held
tightly within the soil. Note that capillary suction increases as pore size decreases, which is why water is Commented [s1]:
held more tightly in microspores present in clay-dominated soils. Total water potential consists of three
forces acting on the water: total water potential = matric potential + gravitational potential + pressure
potential. Units of the potential depend on how a unit quantity of water is specified. The soil water content
is the amount of water held in the soil at any given time and can be expressed as volumetric or gravimetric
water content. Volumetric water content is the volume of water per unit volume of dry soil and is the
most useful way of expressing water content for developing a water budget, which is discussed in the next
section. Gravimetric water content is the mass of water per unit mass of dry soil. The volumetric water
content (percent, unitless) is equal to the gravimetric water content (in cm3 per gram) multiplied by the
soil’s bulk density (in grams per cm3 ), Zachary M. Easton and Assistant Professor (2016).
 CHAPTER 4
What is Water Quality?
Water Quality can be defined as the chemical, physical and biological characteristics
of water, usually in respect to its suitability for a designated use. As we all know,
water has many uses, such as for recreation, drinking, fisheries, agriculture and
industry. Each of these designated uses has different defined chemical, physical and
biological standards necessary to support that use. For example, we expect higher
standards for water we drink and swim in compared to that used in agriculture and
industry.
What is Water Quality Analysis?

Water quality standards are put in place to ensure the efficient use of water for
a designated purpose.Water quality analysis is to measure the required parameters
of water, following standard methods, to check whether they are in accordance
with the standard. Roy R. (2019)

Why Water Quality Analysis is required?

Water quality analysis is required mainly for monitoring purpose. Some
importance of such assessment
includes:
1. To check whether the water quality is in compliance with the standards, and
hence, suitable or not for the designated use.
2. To monitor the efficiency of a system, working for water quality maintenance
3. To check whether upgradation / change of an existing system is required and to
decide what changes should take place.
4. To monitor whether water quality is in compliance with rules and regulations
Most of human activities including agriculture need ample quantities of water.
Increasing demands of food grain by ever increasing population has resulted in the
over utilization of water resources. Irrigation water quality refers to the kind and
amount of salts present in the water and their effects on crop growth and
development. High salt concentrations influence osmotic pressure of the soil
solution and affect the ability of plants to absorb water through their roots (Glover,
1996). However, an appropriate evaluation of the water quality prior to its use in
irrigation will help in arresting any harmful effect on plant productivity and ground
water recharge. The suitability of water for irrigation is determined in several ways
including the degree of acidity or alkalinity (pH), EC, Residual Sodium Carbonate
(RSC), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Permeability Index (PI) and Total
Hardness (TH) along with the effects of specific ions (Yidana et al., 2008). The
assessment of water quality criteria for irrigation is based on the consideration of the
related aspects like the possible effects on the physico-chemical properties of the
soil and the impact on crop yield (Srinivasamoorthy et al., 2009). When the
concentration of sodium ion is high in irrigation water, Na tends to be adsorbed by
clay particles, displacing magnesium and calcium ions. This exchange process of
sodium in water for Ca and Mg in soil reduces the permeability and eventually
results in soil with poor internal drainage. Sodium concentration also plays an
important role in evaluating the ground water quality for irrigation because sodium
causes an increase in the hardness of soil as well as a reduction in its permeability
(Tijani, 1994)

(b)
i. sand 58%, silt 34%, clay 6% = sandy loam
ii. 25% clay,13% silt, 62% sand = sandy clay loam
iii. 23% clay,21% silt, 56% sand = sandy clay loam
iv. 21% clay, 30% silt, 49% sand = loam

*
 CHAPTER 5
i. Ec = wf/wd x100 = 120lit/sec x 100 = 80%
150lit/sec
ii. Ef = wp/wf x100 = 100lit/sec x 100 = 83.3%
120lit/sec
Water delivered to the plot = 100 x 60 x 60 x 8 = 2880m3
1000
Water stored in the root zone
= 2880 m3 – Application loses
= 2880 – 440 = 2440 m3
iii. Ea = ws/wp x100 = 2440 x 100 = 84.7 %
2880
Total A.m = 21cm/m x 1.8m = 37.80cm
RAM = 60 x 37.8cm = 22.68cm
100
In volume, RAM = 22.66 x 1.8 x 104 = 4082.4 m3
100
iv. Es = ws/ wn x 100 = 2440 = 59.8%
4082.4
Average water penetration d = 1.8 + 1.2 = 1.5m
2
Numerical deviation at upper end = 1.8 – 1.5 = 0.3m
At lower end = 1.5 – 1.2 = 0.30m
Average numerical deviation = 2 x 0.3 = 0.3m
2
Ed = 100 x (1-y/d) = 100 x (1 – 0.3/1.5) = 80%
 CHAPTER 6

(a) The conveyance efficiency is typically defined as the ratio between the water
that reaches a farm or field and that diverted from the irrigation water
source.[1,3,4] It is defined as
Ec = 100Vf/ Vt
 Fig1. Illustration of the various water transport components needed to
characterize irrigation efficiency.
where Ec is the conveyance efficiency (%), Vf is the volume of water that
reaches the farm or field (m3), and Vt is the volume of water diverted (m3)
from the source. Ec also applies to segments of canals or pipelines, where the
water losses include canal seepage or leaks in pipelines. The global Ec can be
computed as the product of the individual component efficiencies, Eci, where
i represents the segment number. Conveyance losses include any canal spills
(operational or accidental) and reservoir seepage and evaporation that might
result from management as well as losses resulting from the physical
configuration or condition of the irrigation system. Typically, conveyance
losses are much lower for closed conduits or pipelines[4] compared with
unlined or lined canals. Even the conveyance efficiency of lined canals may
decline over time due to material deterioration or poor maintenance

(b) Actual field status:

Total soil mass = 1000 m2 X 0.3m X 1200 kg/m3 = 360,000 kg Actual water
content = 360,000 X 0.05 = 18,000 kg The soil layer of 30 cm contains 18,000 kg
water = 18,000 Litter = 18 m3
Level of available water
From the table AWC for clay loam 0.15 m/m For 0.3 cm = 0.3 X 0.15 = 0.045 m
Water volume for the field (1000 m2) = 0.045 m X 1000 m2 = 45 m3 The required
amount of water = 45 -18 = 27 m3
 CHAPTER 6
Water quality is the basic to judge the fitness of water for its proposed
application for existing conditions. The current information is required, provided
by water quality monitor for optimum development and management of water for
its proficient uses (Haydar et al., 2009)

Water Quality Indices

The water quality indices /parameters that describe the quality of water which are
given below
pH of Water
The pH is the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-) in
the water. It is used to determine the acidic, basic or neutral behaviors of water.
The pH values ranges from 1 to 14, which means, if pH of water is less than 7 then
it is called acidic water whereas, pH equal to 7 as neutral and more than 7 is
called the basic nature water. The pH of water and soil could not harm the
plant growth directly (Tahir et al., 2003). pH highly affects the efficiency of
coagulation and flocculation process (Kahlown et al., 2006).
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
The salinity behavior of water is indicated by total dissolved solids (TDS).
TDS contain the anions (negatively change ions) and cations (+ve changes ions).
Total dissolved solids change the color and properties of water. The relationship
between total dissolved solids and EC is:
TDS (mg/L) = EC (dS/m) × K (1)
Where, K = 640 in most cases (for EC: 0.5 -5 dS/m) or
K = 735 for mixed waters or
K = 800 for EC > 5 dS/m
The above relationship in most cases is applied for EC ranging from 0.5 to 5
dS/m and not applicable for wastewater (Kahlown and Khan, 2002). TDS is the
measure of the amount of material dissolved in water including carbonate,
chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate, sulfate, nitrate, sodium, calcium, magnesium,
organic ions etc. The density of the water, can be harmful due to increase in TDS
concentrations, determined the flow of water into and out of an organism's cells.
Moreover, the high concentrations of TDS may also reduce water clarity,
contribute to a decrease in photosynthesis, combine with toxic compounds
and heavy metals, and lead to an increase in water temperature. Flat insipid
taste because of extremely low TDS level was also unacceptable (Kahlown et al.,
2006)