Elements

of
Urban Stormwater
Design

by
H. Rooney Malcom, P.E.

North Carolina State University

Copyright 0 1989 North Carolina State University and H. Rooney Malcom, P.E.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
Engineering Extension Education
Box 7902
North Caroiina State University
Raleigh, NC 27695-7902
 PREFACE
These notes are intended as the basis for teaching the elements of urban stormwater design to
engineering students and practicing professionals. Students and readers are assumed to have a
basic understanding of hydraulics and hydrology. As there is considerable local and regional
variation in accepted practices, particularly in the determination of system design loadings, it will
be necessary for designers to modify the methodology from time to time and place to place. The
ideas presented have been distilled over some years by the author and a good many colleagues and
students to become comfortable tools to use in routine component selection and preliminary design
of more complex systems.
The fundamental process of engineering design is one in which the engineer selects one or
more mathematical models to represent a physical system, manipulates the system components to
acheive some desired response under loadings of interest, and specifies the system to be
constructed in the field. The process is dominated by judgments to be made by designer and
reviewer. Is the model valid and appropriate? Are the assumptions inherent in the model justified
in the case at hand? Are the design loads prudent? Have the worst cases been identifed? Has the
system been defined with adequate precision? Can the results be verified? Will the system
perform as expected? This manual, together with the course that it supports, explores these issues
in the common elements of stormwater management systems.
The manual and lectures have evolved since 1975 from an early set of notes prepared for a
workshop series by the author with Vemon New. Since then, the author has taught more than fifty
short courses nationwide: from 1979 through 1983 with Bruce Bradford using extensions of the
1975 notes and from 1984 through 1987 in the APWA Urban Drainage Workshops. These were
enriching experiences in that they brought together designers and reviewers from many semngs to
consider the issues of nutsy-boltsy design of storm drainage systems. The author fully enjoys
these opportunities to interact with practicing professionals.
 DISCLAIMER
To the best of his ability, the author has insured that the methods and procedures included
herein are valid and reliable. The manual is intended for educational purposes. The execution of
an engineering design or analysis, however, involves the judgment of the engineer, and only he or
she can determine whether a technique or procedure is correctly applied to a given purpose.
Therefore, neither the author nm the lndusmal Extension Sewice accepts responsibility for real or
alleged error, loss, damage, or injury resulting from the use of this manual.

iii
 SECTION 1
STORMWATER COLLECTION SYSTEMS

GENERAL
The term "stormwater collection system'' applies to the set of inlets and pipes used to drain an
area of interest, such as a subdivision, parking lot or street. The design storm used varies from
region to region, but it is usually in the range of the two- to twenty-five year storm, with the
ten-year storm predominating. In most cases, the selection of a design storm that recurs fairly
frequently reflects a judgment that the consequences of a system overload are minor -- usually the
nuisance of a flooded yard or intersection for a few minutes.
The design storm is stated in terms of the return period, given in years. A ten-year storm has a
retum period of ten years. The ten-year flood is expected to be equaled or exceeded, on the
average, once in ten years. It has a probability of Occurrence in a given year of ten percent, or 0.1.
It is incorrect to t h i i that ten years will transpire between ten-year floods. In a ten-year period, one
such flood is expected, but more than one can occur.
Certain conventions, judgments and assumptions have emerged over the years to simplify what
would otherwise be an impossibly complex system to design. The first of these is the use of the
Rational Equation as the model of choice in setting design discharges at points of interest in the
system. The second is to select pipes such that they will flow just full in uniform steady flow at the
peak of the design storm. The system thus obtained is likely to be conservatively designed.
It has become conventionaldto separate the design into two fairly independent operations -- inlet
location and pipe sizing. Inlets are located such that they will perform at or near the "threshold of
misbehavior" in the design storm. The threshold of misbehavior exists when the highest level of
flow is reached, beyond which some adverse behavior takes place such as:
a. Flow is too deep; something is flooded.
b. Flow is too fass something is eroded.
c. Flow is too wide; it bypasses an inlet, or it becomes a barrier.
An inlet, is placed to relieve the surface channel of flow that it could not handle acceptably.
The texts have not generally dealt with inlet location as extensively as they might have, but the
performance and economics of the stormwater collection system are significantly affected by
decisions made in the inlet-location process.
Pipes are sizcd to flow just full according to the Manning Equation. The discharge into each
pipe is computed by the Rational Equation, with the runoff coefficient composited of all
contributing drainage areas, and with the time of concentration based upon the overland flow time
to the most remote inlet plus the lime of flow in the pipe or pipes upstream of the pipe under
consideration. This is less than the flow one would get by adding all inlet inflows.
In recent years, designers have been advised to become more sensitive to the major-minor storm
concept (APWA, 1981). The design storm for which system sizes are set is the minor storm having
a typical rem period of ten years. The probability is greater than 90percent that such a storm will
be exceeded at least once in a 25-yearperiod. It is prudent therefore to provide for the major storm
an emergency route along suets and between structures to minimize property damage. For some
systems the major storm may be routed intuitively or by inspection. For others, quantitative
routing is justified.

I-1
 Elements of the Model
The Rational Equation is given as:
Q=CM
in which:
Q = The estimated design discharge (cfs).
C = The composite runoff coefficient (dimensionless) for the watershed.
I = Rainfall intensity (in/hr) for the designated return period and the time of
concennation.
A = Watershedarea(ac).
Observe the units carefully. The left and right sides of the equation are essentially equal, because
one acre-inch per hour is very nearly one cubic foot per second.
The limit of application of the Rational Method is much in debate. Various writers will
recommend as an upper limit of applicability anywhere from zero to two square miles of watershed
area. Your author has had acceptable results up to two square miles when compared to statistical
analysis of gaged floods.
Following the steps given above:
1. Delineate the Watershed: Normally this is done on a topographic map. Detennine the area
of the watershed by using a digitizer, a planimeter, an overlaid grid or other suitable
device. Remember to put the watershed areain acres. Question the applicability of the
Rational Method if the watershed area exceeds 1300 acres.
2. The time of concentration is interpreted as the
longest time of flow from points on the watershed ridge to the outlet of the watershed.
There are several recognized ways to estimate time of concentration. One way is to use the
Kirpich Equation, which is widely recognized (Bureau of Reclamation, 1974, p 71):

in which:
= Time of concentration (min).

L = Hydraulic length of the watershed (ft). Hydraulic length is the length of the longest
flow path from the most remote point on the watmhed ridge to the outlet.
H = The height (ft) of the most remote point on the watershed ridge above the watershed
outlet It is the elevation difference, or fall, along the hydraulic length.
Another efficient method is that given by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS, 1986). the
expressions given there are suitable for spreadsheet analysis.

1-3
 Z (Ci Ai) (1-4)
cc=
ZAi
in which:
Cc = The composite runoff coefficient (dimensionless).
Ai = The area taken by an individual category of composition.
Ci = The runoff coefficient for the individual area.

The units of the areas are immaterial as long as they are the same in numerator and
denominator.
5. Auulv the Rational Eauation: Substitute the values for C, I and A into Equation 1-1, taking
c&e that the values are expressed in the correct units.

INLET LOCATION
Basic Approach
Inlets capture all or most of the water coming to them from the contributing drainage area.
The inlet is placed such that the inlet or its delivery channels will just reach the threshold of
misbehavior in the design storm. If the discharge associated with the threshold is known, the
allowable watershed area contributing flow to the inlet may be determined from the Rational
Equation:

in which:
A = Allowable drainage area (ac)
Q = D ischarge at threshold of misbehavior (cfs).
I = Rainfall intensity ( i n h ) for the time of concentration, tc, which is based on the flow
time to the inlet. This is usually taken to be 5 minutes, but that assumption may be
verified by using Eguation 1-2.
C = Runoff coefficient (dimensionless) for the inlet drainage area.
In order to set the inlet capacity, Q,conditions around the inlet must be analyzed against design
judgments as to the nature of the misbehavior. Both the inlet and the approach channels are
involved. For example:
a. It may be judged in the case of a curb inlet that water may not spread into the street more
than eight feet. The allowable discharge, Q, may be found by applying the Manning
Equation to the gutter cross section.
b. It may be decided in a parking lot that water should not stand around an area inlet at a
depth greater than three inches. The weir and o s i c e equations may be invoked to find
Q.

1-5
The basic weir equation is:

Q = Cw L H3'2
where:
Q = Discharge (cfs).

Cw = Weir coefficient (dimensionless).

Length of weir (ft), measured along the crest. i

I\

L = 4,'' '

H = Driving head (ft), measured vertically from the crest of the weir to the water
surface at a point far enough upstream to be essentially level.
For the case of the free overfall, use Cw = 3.0.
Grated inlets
A grated inlet is the familiar inlet found in most parking lots. The behavior of the inlet at low
head is a complex weir action in which the weir length varies as head increases in the storm. As
water runs farther out on the inlet, the weir length is longer because more bar length is involved. At
some point the entire inlet is submerged, and it acts as an orifice for all higher heads. Most
designers default to the orifice action for design. The driving head, or standing water depth should
be two inches or more for this assumption.
To test whether an inlet is acting as an orifice or a weir, calculate the discharge capacity both as
an orifice and as a weir with water surface at the level of interest. The lesser of the two discharges
will indicate the prevailing condition.
The basic equation for orifices is:

Q=CCIA- (1-7)
where:
Q = Discharge (cfs).
Cd = Coefficient of discharge (dimensionless). See below. (. L ]O
A = Cross-sectional area of flow at the orifice enhance (sq ft).
g = Acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec*).
h = Driving head (ft), measured from the centroid of the orifice area to the water
surface. In a grating, the centroid is usually in the plane of the surface of the
grating.
When using the d i c e equation with a grating, the orifice area is the sum of the areas of the
holes in the grating. The driving head is measured from the top of the grating.

i2Uulh
If curb inlets are placed at the sag points of vertical curves, they may be analyzed adequately by
the weir and orifice equations. However, inlets placed at the curb on a grade are. generally analyzed
by using experientially derived charts. Such inlets are curb-opening inlets, grating inlets or a

1-7
 8. The pipe slope is selected based on profile constraints.
9. The pipe diameter is determined from Manning Equation for the pipe to flow just f u l l
10. The full-flow velocity is computed and used to find the flow time in the pipe for use in
the next section downstream.
11. Continue at step 2 with the next pipe to be designed. Always work downstream, being
sure that all pipes conmbuting flow to the pipe of interest have been sized and located
in the proffie.
12. At the bottom of the system, check for a high tailwater situation that may consrain the
system to a flow less than that designed for. In such a case, apply the energy equation
to estimate water levels and surcharge pressures in the system. This operation is
referred to as plotting the hydraulic grade line through the system. If no resniction of
flow exists, the hydraulic grade line follows the top of the pipe.

Practical Constraints
Note the following:
1. If pipe sections are designed to flow under surcharge, care should be taken to insure
that the hydraulic grade line does not rise above ground level, and special attention
should be given to prevention of leakage at joints.
2. In the event that further development is anticipated upstream of the system being
designed, consider placing a stubbed-out pipe of sufficient depth and capacity to
accept flow from the future development.
3. To reduce clogging problems, the minimum size for storm drainage should be 15
inches. There should be no reduction in pipe size in the downstream direction, even if
steeper slopes would seem to permit a smaller pipe.
4. Manholes should be provided at pipe junctions, bends, and in straight sections such
that the maximum distance between points of access is 400 feet.
5. At all smctures, the invert of the mainline should be dropped to offset minor losses.
These may be computed or convenient rules of thumb may be used:
a. If there is an increase in pipe size at the structure, align the tops of the pipes.
b. Drop the invert of the mainline through the structure one tenth of a foot for each
incoming flow stream, whether from a pipe or from the inlet.
6. Pipes should be laid at least as steeply as the slope that will provide flow at a
self-scouring velocity at or near design discharge. That velocity is usually taken to be
three feet per second. See Exhibit 7.
7. M i n i u m cover should be three feet to the top of the pipe.

1-9
The pipe diameter obtained should be rounded up to the nearest standard pipe size. Standard pipe
sizes (diameter in inches) used in drainage systems are 15, 18, 21*, 24,27*, 30, 33*, 36, 42, 48,
54,60, 66, and 72. Sizes larger than 72 inches are available, but sometimes require special order.
Those marked (*) are not available in all locations and all materials.
For circular uipes flowing iust full, the average cross-sectional velocity of flow can be found by
another reformulation of the Manning equation:

(1-10)

where:
V = Full-flow velocity (fdsec).
D = Pipe diameter (in).
s = Longitudinal slope (fdft).
n = Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless).

A Tabular Approach
The procedure given above, together with consideration of the profile consaaints is conveniently
executed in a tabular format. Many texts suggest a format, and most jurisdictions adopt a standard
format. One that the author prefers is shown in Table 1-1. Structures are identified by numbers
prefixed by “I”for inlets and “M” for manholes. Drainage areas are given unique designations.
Then the table can be filled in the stepwise procedure.

NOTES ’79.

1-11
The columns of Table 1 are treated as follows:
1. FROM - The designation of the structure at the upper end of the pipe.
2. TO - The designation of the structure at the lower end of the pipe.
3. AREAS - The drainage areas contributory to the upstream end of the pipe, listed by
designation (conveniently the designations of the inlets conhibuting flow).
4. TOTAL AREA - The total area (ac) draining to the upstream end of the pipe.
5. INLET TIME - Flow time (min) on the ground to the most remote inlet on the longest
flow path (in terms of time) to the pipe being sized.
6. PIPE TIME - Sum of the flow times (min) in pipe along the longest flow path (in
terms of time) to the pipe being sized.
7. TIME OF CONC - Col5 + (316. This is the longest flow time of all possible paths
from the most remote point in the system to the upstream end of the pipe being sized.
It is the time of concentration (min).
8. INTENSITY - The rainfall intensity (in/hr) for the design storm of interest and the
time of concentration (Col7), taken from the applicable Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Chart (e&, Exhibit 3). or computed from an IDF equation.
9. RUNOFF COEFF - The composite runoff coefficient for the areas in Col3.
10. DISCHARGE - The design discharge (cfs). Q = CIA. (Col9)*(Col8)*(Col4)
11. SLOPE - Invert slope of pipe (fdft), as decided within profile constraints.
12. Dtheo - Theoretical minimum pipe diameter (in), from Equation 1-9.
13. SIZE - Standard pipe size (in), as selected.
14. Vfull - Full-flow average cross-sectional velocity (fusec), computed from Equation
1-10.
15. LENGTH - Length (ft) of the pipe segment of interest, from map or given data.
16. SEGMENT TIME - Flow time (min) through pipe segment of interest, (Col 15)/((Col
14)*60).
17. -
UPPER INVERT Invert elevation of the upper end of the pipe of interest, set by
reference to upstream pipes and cover requkements.
18. -
LOWER INVERT Invert elevation of the lower end of the pipe of interest, set equal
to (Col 17)-((CoI 1 l)*(Col 15)). Check for adequate cover; revise slope (Col 11) if
necessary.
19. -
TOP ELEV Ground elevation at upstream end, for reference.

1-13
Friction Losses
Several experientially derived expressions exist for estimating pipe-friction losses. Among
these, the Darcy-Weisbach and Manning equations are most useful in stormwater applications.
Each of the equations is reformulated for efficient application in commonly encountered units.
Darcy-Weisbach equarion:The equation is usually presented in a form similar to:

L vz
h f = f -- 0-12)
D 2g
One can reformulate and convert units to arrive at:

6264 f L Q2
hf= 0-13)
D5
in which
hf = Head loss due to pipe friction (ft)

f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (dimensionless)

L = Pipe length (ft)

Q = Discharge (cfs)

D = Pipe diameter (in).

The friction factor may be estimated by reference to a Moody diagram, available in most
hydraulics references, or it may be computed from the Colebrook formula, or one of a number of
other approximations. The value of the friction factor is usually about 0.020.
Manning equation: The Manning version is useful for applications in corrugated-metal pipe and
other materials for which the specific roughness is not readily available. The Manning equation is
usually presented in a form similar to:

(1-14)

The head loss term is embedded in the friction slope (s). The equation m y be usefully reformulated
as:
LQ2n2
hf = 2,660,000 D 5 ~ 3 (1-15)
in which
hf = Head loss due to pipe friction (ft)

L = Pipe length (ft)

Q = Discharge (cfs)
n .= Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless) (See Exhibit 8.)

D = Pipediameter (in).

1-15
For bends and fittings, estimates can be based on the following (Perry, 1950):
Fittine ke

45-degree bend 0.3

90-degree sharp bend 1.3
90-degree medium bend 0.6
90-degree long bend 0.46
Open gate valve 0.13

For the exit from the pipe system, as a practical matter, the exit loss coefficient may be taken to
be either 0 or 1. If the water exits unrestrained at the pipe velocity, use 0; there is no exit loss. If
the water exits to a stillwater container, or if it exits perpendicularly to the flow downstream, use 1;
the exit loss is one velocity head.
For the exit, in the case where flow continues to another pipe, the equation for a sudden
enlargement may be used

Ke = [l -($r (1-20)

where:
ke = the exit loss coefficient (dimensionless).

DA = the smaller of the two diameters.

D g = th e larger of the two diameters.

NOTES

1-17
 5. Compute the elevation (Za)of the HGL at the upstream end of the pipe section.
6. Proceed upstream in a similar fashion.
Occasionally, one will find that the head loss incurred between structures is unsatisfactorily
large. Note that head loss is very sensitive to pipe diameter, as evidenced by the large exponent on
diameter in the head loss equations. Increasing the pipe diameter a size or two.will greatly reduce
head loss in a section.

NOTES

1-19
1-21
1-23
1-25
I L2

0.44

I s4

1-27
 SECTION iI
CHANNEL DESIGN

GENERAL
Artificial stormwater channels are critical components of the stormwater management system.
Three prime concerns govern their design: that they cany their design storm flows without
overtopping, that they carry those flows without being excessively eroded, and that they are
economically constructed and maintained. The consequence of failure to provide sufficient capacity
is flooding. The consequences of excessive bank erosion are eventual undermining of facilities near
the channel and abnormally high conmbutions of sediment to downstream channels and lakes.
The design of two frequently encountered channel types is treated here. One is the common
trapezoidal channel, and the other is the triangular swale. The latter is a subset of the former.
Triangular swales are usually used for smaller design discharges than trapezoidal channels.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The Manning equation is the model of choice for many design and analysis applications in which
the channel or conduit is flowing under the influence of gravity. Its mathematical flexibility makes
it a powerful tool in a wide variety of conditions. One should take care, however, to apply the
equation in circumstances where its fundamental assumptions are satisfied.
The Manning equation is applicable where flow is steady and uniform. Steady flow means that
discharge does not vary with time. Uniform flow means that velocity does not vary with distance
at an instant of time. Although discharge does vary in a channel during the passage of a flood wave,
during the time around the peak, the time of interest in channel design, flow is essentially steady.
Uniform flow generally requires channel cross-sections to be the same along the channel length,
and it requires a straight alignment. But it is reasonable to apply the Manning equation to most field
cases where channel segments are practically prismatic and straight.
The Manning equation is well-suited to the task of determining the configuration of the cross
section for the channel. Other models, such as water-surface profile computation come into play
after design when analyzing specific conditions of flow near obstructions, constrictions and other
discontinuities.

II-1
In the sketch,
W = Top width of flow (ft).
B = Bottom width of the channel (ft)
y = Depth of flow [ft).
M = Side slope ratio (ft horizontal/ft vertical). (For a 2-to-1 side slope, the value of M is
2.)
Section Relationships
The following equations are derived geometrically, and the units of the variables are consistent
with those given above:

A = BY+ a-2)

P=Bi2y d1+M2 (II-3)

W=B+2My m-4)

R = -A (11-51
P
The variable P represents wetted perimeter.

Four Main Procedures

Four main design tools are considered here. Each is an extension of the Manning equation and
is subject to the same assumptions of the existence of steady, uniform flow. The tools are
developed as the following procedures:
1. Best hydraulic section procedure.
2. Velocity-limited procedure.
3. Normal-depth procedure.
4. Depth-limited procedure.

Using these, singly or in combinations, one can quickly arrive at a cross section appropriate to
the design objectives.
Best Hvdraulic
The best hydraulic section is that cross section which simultaneously minimizes cross-sectional
area and wetted perimeter. Minimizing cross-sectional m a minimizes the quantity of excavation.
Minimizirrg wetted perimeter minimizes the quantity of lining. These are the two principal cost
sources in channel construction. Land taken by the channel is another cost source, and land quantity

II-3
 If one is preparing a spreadsheet or a program for channel analysis, the full equations on
which Exhibit 9 is based are to be prefemed. These were derived by Vemon E. New for use in the
previous version of this manual. The value k is only a function of sideslope:

k=2[- -M) (n-8)

Once k is known, the depth of the best hydraulic section can be found from:

The bottom width of the best hydraulic section is:

B = kv (II-lo)
In these equations,
M = Horizontal component of side slope (for 2/1, M=2)
Q = Design discharge (cfs)
n = Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless)
s = Longitudinal channel slope (fdft)

y = Depth of best hydraulic section (ft)

B = Bottom width of best hydraulic section (ft)

Velocitv-Limited Procedu rs
Frequently, in the design of trapezoidal channels, the ve-.city expected for :best hydraulic
section is too great for the lining of interest. The following procedure, worked out by a visiting
colleague, Ray Walton, will avoid a laborious mal-and-emr exercise:
1. Insure that the assigned velocity, Va, is less than the velocity of flow computed for the
best hydraulic section (the channel will not flow any faster).
2. Compute the required cross-sectional area:

(11-11)
where
A, = Required cross-sectional area (sq ft)

Q = Design flow (cfs).

Va = Assigned (desired) velocity (ft/sec)

11-5
Normal-Deuth ProcedurG
The problem of finding the normal depth of flow in a trapezoidal channel is very frequently
encountered. It is necessarilv a trial-and-error urocedure. To find normal depth is to find the depth
of flow, y, that satisfies the Manning equation. Usually one is asked for the expected depth when a
certain flow occurs, given the dimensions of the channel, including bottom width.
An efficient manual procedure for fmding normal depth follows.
Rearrange the Manning Equation as:

(II-16)

In this form, the right-hand side contains knowns, and the left- hand side contains unknowns.
When the values of B and y, and thus A and R, are chosen correctly, the left-hand side will equal
the right-hand side and Manning is satisfied. So, think of the right-hand side as a required quantity,
Zreq. It can be computed as a single value at the beginning of the problem:

z = Qn
01-17)
req 1.49 (z
Think of the left-hand side as the quantity available in a given section, Zav:

213
Zav= A R (II-18)
Now, select y such that Zav is tolerably close to Gq and that y is the depth at v ..ich the c iannel
will flow.
It is reasonable to carry out the computation in a table:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

B Y A P R G V Remark

To begin the computation, the value of is computed by Equation 11-17.Then one proceeds
line by line through the table working across the columns as folIows:

(1) Enter the known bottom width, B. This value will be entered in all lines in col. (1).
(2) On the first line, guess at the depth, y. On subsequent lines, enter an improved estimate.
h.
This is essentially an assumption that will be validated if Z,is tolerably close to

(3) Compute the cross-sectional area, A, by Equation 11-2,using B and y from Col. (1) and (2),
and the side slope.
(4) Campute the wetted perimeter, P, by Equation 11-3, using B and y from Col. (1) and (2),
and the side slope.

11-7
 2
1.21Va4(1+M)
Ad = (11-19)
CIM
in which
Ad = Allowable drainage area (ac) for the point of interest along the channel.
I = Applicable rainfall intensity (in/hr) for the storm of interest (usually the 5-min. storm
of an appropriate return period.
C = Rational runoff coefficient (dimensionless), composited for the drainage area.
n = Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless) for the channel lining.
s = Longitudinal channel slope (dimensionless) at the point of interest along the channel.
Va = Allowable velocity of flow (fvsec) for the channel lining.
Once these parameters have been set for the point of interest, for detailing purposes, the
following can be computed for conditions of full allowable flow:
The allowable discharge is:

Q = C I Ad = Va M$ Cn-20)

The depth of flow at allowable discharge is:

I Ad (II-21)
= [%TI
The top width (for setting the required width of lining at allowable flow) is:

W=2My (II-22)
The equations are most useful in a spreadsheet or in a program for a programmable calculator.
Their best use is to move along a channel on the site plan, selecting points of interest and
comparing the allowable to the actual drainage area. By mal and e m , points may be found below
which the channel would be overloaded. At such points, an inlet may be placed to relieve the load
on the channel, or the channel may be b e d as a concrete swale below that point.
The equations also may be used to determine the extent and width of lining material to protect the
channel against erosion just after construction until grass is established.

Reference Data for Channels

Typically, experiential information is needed to set the Manning roughness coefficient and to set
limits on velocity of flow to preclude excessive bank erosion. The author has collected some
defensible values for Manning roughness coefficients in Exhibit 8. Suggested values for allowable
velocities for various linings appear in Exhibit 10.

II-9
 Practical Considerations
The following are suggestions collected by the author from a number of practioners:
1. Fine materials in the soil underlying a stone lining tend to migrate through the stone into
the channel during high-flow events. A filter fabric placed between the stone lining
and the bank material should be considered.
2. The depth of stone lining should be two to three stone diameters.
3. In some cases, designers line the banks, but not the bed. The bed is subjected to greater
erosive stresses than the bank. If the bed is not lined, the designer should insure that the
bed material is sufficiently robust.
4. Give special consideration to points of heaviest stress. These are the center of the
bottom, on the bank about one fifth to one third of the depth up from the bottom, and
along the outside of bends.
5. In the design process, account for the projected maintenance policy for the channel
lining. If weeds will be allowed to grow on the banks, they must be considered in
setting the section dimensions.

11-11
A: L I ~ E U 45 750 At
 b d"

198.00 44.25

2@.50 5o.qLr 5qlS

SlO.SO 55.43

5.41
 SECTION ID[
STORMWATER IMPOUNDMENTS

GENERAL
Stormwater impoundments serve several purposes in urban watersheds. Impoundment types
include flood-control reservoirs, stormwater detention ponds, aesthetic or recreational ponds,
sediment-control basins, water-quality-conuol ponds, and even culverts. Multipurpose facilities
are common, and there are many variations on the theme. Irrespective of purpose, impoundments
are subjected to flood-wave loading. The elementary design of impoundments for the control or
passage of flood waves is treated in this section.
The process of design and analysis of stormwater detention systems has emerged as a routine
activity in stormwater management in recent years. Stormwater detention is essentially flood control
at small scale. Flood water is stored temporarily in an impoundment and released such that the
maximum release rate is reduced to some satisfactory level below that which would have been
expected without the detention facility. The design objective in a typical stomwater detention
regulation might require that the ten-year peak discharge from a site after development be no greater
than the ten-year peak discharge from the same site prior to development. The design storm for
detention varies from place to place, but the ten-year storm seems to predominate. Application of
detention policy on a watershed basis requires careful consideration of whether to dismbute control
facilities widely at small scale or to develop larger scale flood-control reservoirs at strategic points in
the stream system.
Facilities take several forms. The larger scale ponds usually involve placing flood storage above
a normal pool. Smaller scale facilities may use normally dry ponds designed in conjunction with
other uses: storage on parking lots, in parks, perhaps behind culverts. Rooftop storage, though
sometimes used, seems to the author rarely justifiable.
The design process includes formulation of the inflow hydrograph, selection of the size and
shape of the storage container, and selection of the type and size of the outlet device.
For an impoundment, there are virtually always two design storms to consider. One is the
control storm for which the principal spillway is designed. The other is the emergency storm, a
large storm for which an emergency spillway is designed to pass the excess discharge without
overtopping the dam.In some facilities the principal spillway incorporates the emergency capacity.
The basis for analyzing detention facilities is the flood-routing algorithm. It derives f ” the
continuity principle which states that, at every instant during the passage of a flood, the rate of
change of storage in the reservoir is equal to the rate of inflow minus the rate of outflow. There are
several procedures available for executing the routing algorithm. All involve a numerical solution of
the differential equation:

where:

a
dt
= Rate of change of storage with respect to time.

I = Rateofinflow.
0 = Rate of outflow.
m-1
Alternate Hvdroerauh Formulation Methods
Methods exist in large variety. Perhaps the most detailed are the computerized watershed models
such as HECl of the Corps of Engineers and TR-20 of the Soil Conservation Service. For smaller
watersheds, the methods of TR-55 are useful (SCS, 1986). Desktop methods, such as
unit-hydrograph synthesis, are described in most hydrology texts. Many of these require a heavy
investment of time and effort in field data gathering and data set preparation. Such precision may
not be justified for small facilities and early feasibility studies.
Small-Watershed Hvdromph-Formulation Method
The author has proposed a method for use in routine design of small systems and for feasibility
studies and site selection studies of larger watersheds (Malcom, et al, 1986). A variation of the
method was adopted for use in design of facilities in the Houston area (Harris County, TX, 1984).
The method is based upon the observation that there are three important aspects of the
hydrograph on which the design will depend. These are the peak discharge, the volume of water
under the hydrograph, and the shape of the hydrograph. Separate decisions may be made regarding
these, and the hydrograph will be determined. The necessary decisions, and the author's
suggestions are:
1. Accept as a pattern function a step-function approximation to the SCS dimensionless
unit hydrograph (see McCuen, 1982, for a listing and discussion). The step-function
devised by the author is
For 0 I t 5 1.25Tp /ppQIPr'5
d
Q =1[ ITPI
3.LQ P 1-cos

For t > 1.25 Tp . / '

>

, . : .,!. t:, , , '

in which

Qp = Peak discharge of the design hydromph

Tp = Time to peak of the design hydrograph, measured from the time of significant rise of
the rising limb to the time at which the estimated peak occurs
t = Time of intenst at which the discharge is to be estimated.
The argument of the cosine is in units of radians.
The volume of water under this hydrograph is. in consistent units,
Vol = 1.39 Qp Tp

m-3
 In many cases, the detention storage container is a natural stream valley, a ravine or a draw that
has evolved to its current topographic shape over time. The source of information for the
stage-storage function is usually a topographic map.
A representative set of storage volumes can be computed by applying the average-end-area
method vemcally from contour to contour. A conventional stage-storage curve may thus be plotted.
If one plots storage versus stage on log-log axes, the resulting line is usually remarkably straight,
suggesting that the reservoir stage-storage function may be adequately represented by a
power-curve fit of the form

s=Kszb @I-7)
in which
S = Storage volume (cu ft)

Z = Stage (ft) referred to the bottom of the reservoir

The computation of such a function is perhaps best illustrated by an example. Figure ID-1shows
the contours digitized from city toPo for a location in piedmont North Carolina. The site is just
upstream of a road crossing thought to be suitable as a detention basin. The computation is carried
out in Table lII-I.

700 - EL 700,702. 710

600 -

0
'Ioo 1
0 0.2 0 4

East
0.6

CTmusamsl
CWQ U t 3
O B 1 1

~~

Figure m-1

m-5
 There are two reasonable ways to determine the values of Ks and b of Equation 111-7. Both
depend upon the assumption that the logarithm of storage is linear with the logarithm of stage. The
first few times one does the calculation, it is insmctive to plot storage versus stage on log-log axes;
or, if a spreadsheet program is being used, to plot In S versus In Z, as in Figure III-2.
It is usually true that the lowest point lies somewhat off the line of best fit. The purists among
the readers will argue rightly that the fit would be improved by computing the lowest incremental
volume by a pyramidal approximation (volume being estimated as one-third of the base area times
the height). The author observes that the lowest increment trivially influences the the outcome of the
routing, and that it is reasonable to disregard the lowest point in subsequent computations. (We're
not making watches; we're merely toting water.)
Algebraic Estimation of Stage-Storage Parameters: One may select two representative points on the
curve, preferably in the upper end of the range of stage, and compute values of Ks and b. Writing
the logarithmic form of Equation III-7 for two pints and solving simultaneously yields

and

Linear-Regression Estimation of Stage-Storage Parameters: Many spreadsheet programs and

programmable calculators have built-in procedures for regression analysis. For the fundamentals of
regression analysis, the reader is referred to any basic statistics text. To cany out the operation in a
spreadsheet or on a programmable calculator,refer to the operating manual.

NOTES

m-7
 STAGE-STORAGE FUNCTION

0 200 400 600 e

(Tmusands)
5toraQe (CU f t )
0 Furrtlon + s w c e data

Figure III-3
The stage-storage function may be put to other uses:
1. It is useful early in the design process to consider the impoundment to be a vemcal-sided
reservoir. To do so, set b equal to one and Ks equal to the surface area in square feet.
2. A stage-area function may be obtained from the stage-storage function by taking the
fust derivative if storage with respect to stage. The results may be used to determine the
area of inundation at a given stage, or to fmd the stage for a desired surface area. See the
example problem.
3. Sometimes the average waterde th is of interest. Using the definition of average depth
UK
as the volume divided by the s ace area, average depth is Zlb.

Stage-Discharge Function
The stage discharge function nprcsents the most important of the hydraulic performance
of the outlet device in its influence on the shape of the outflow hydrograph. The stage-discharge
function may be presented as a graph of stage ( n f d to the same datum as the stage-storage
function) versus discharge, or reservoir outflow.
The stage-discharge function is derived by hydraulic analysis of the set of outlet devices
comprising the spillway system of the reservoir. Usually, these devices can be adequately analyzed
by considering the individual outlets as orifices and weirs. For a sample of stages throughout the
m-9
Qrifices
The basic equation for orifices is:

@I-12)
where:
Q = Discharge (cfs).
CD = Coefficient of discharge (dimensionless). See below.
A = Cross-sectional area of flow at the orifice enmance (sq ft).

g = Acceleration of gravity (32.2 fUsec2).

h = Driving head (ft), measured from the centroid of the orifice area to the water surface.

An idealized sketch of a culvert under inlet control illustrates the orifice application.

--Q

Ei

Figure III-5 Schematic section through an orifice.

Table III-2
Values of Coefficient of Discharge, Cd
Entrance Condition cd

Typical default value 0.60

Square-edged entrance 0.59
Concrete pipe, grooved end 0.65
Corr mtl pipe, m i d to slope 0.52
Corr mtl pipe, projecting from fill 0.51

Source: These values were back-calculated from the inlet-control culvertcapacity charts of
Exhibits 11 and 12 for HW/D = 2.

m-11
 STAGE-DISCHARGE COMPARISON

o , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Discnarpe ( c t s )
- OT(fIce-ba5iS + C u l v e r t COD cMrt

Figure III-6
c p s
The typical case to be routed involves combinations of the fundamental orifices and weirs. The
composite stage-discharge function can be prepared by applying the fundamental relationships to the
outlet components and combining the results as the system behaves. Frequently encountered cases
are the overtopped roadway at a culvext, and various combinations of pond spillways, including the
riserbanel spillway.
Culverr and Overtopped Rood: The case of a pipe or pipes under a road or dam is illusmted in the
schematic section of Figure III-7. For upstream water levels at or below the crest of the weir (top
of road), outflow is computed for the pipe acting under inlet control. After the crest of the weir is
overtopped, the outflow below the facility is the sum of the flow through the pipe and the flow over
the broadcrested weir.Thus for any upstream water level, the outflow can be determined.
 It is instructive to picture the behavior as water rises. To begin, water drops over the rim of the
riser. The riser rim acts as a weir with length equal to its circumference and driving head equal to
the water-surface elevation minus the elevation of the crest of the riser. As the head increases, one
would likely observe a vortex to form as control makes the transition from riser acting as a weir to
riser acting as an orifice. The orifice is f m e d by the top entrance of the riser, the area being the
cross-sectional area of the riser. The driving head is measured from the water surface to the
horizontal plane of the crest of the riser. These behaviors may be separately computed, as in Table
HI-3, and p1otted;as in Figure DI-9.In the figure, the action of the riser as a weir is indicated by
the plus signs, and that of the riser as an orifice by the diamonds. Independently of the action at
the top of the riser, there is the action of the barrel, which is behaving as a culvert under inlet
control. In order to drive the flow through the barrel, water backs up in the inside of the riser. If the
barrel is small relative to the riser, the water may rise to submerge the crest of the riser, superseding
the action of the riser as a weir. If the barrel is relatively large, the action at the top of the riser may
go through the transition from weir to orifice conaol before barrel conwl asserts itself. In Figure
III-9, the barrel action is plotted with triangles.

COMPOSITE STAGE-DISCHARGE PLOT

800 -
700 -

600 -
500 -
400 -

Figun m-9
The thrrc behaviors of the barrel may be computed scparatcly. but at a given stage one will
control. At a given stage, choose the least of the discharges. At a given discharge, choose the
highest of the thrce stages.
When the emergency weir is ovutopjxd, the contribution ofthe weir is added to the contribution
of the riserbanel. In Figun III-9, the values used in the composite function are enclosed in
rectangles. The net stage-discharge function is shown in Figure III-lo, plotted with stage on the
vertical axis and discharge on the horizontal axis as is more conventional.

III- 15
 NET STAGE DISCHARGE F U N C T I O N

'i
2

0 100 200 300 400

O I S C M T p (CfS)

Figure III- 10

ROUTING PROCEDURES
Two routing procedures will be discussed. The most widely recognized routing procedure is
called the storage-indication method. A second method, devised by the author, is included for its
inherent simplicity and efficiency. Several names have been suggested for it: Chainsaw Routing
(it's rough and quick), California Routing (it does have its faults). Some of the author's students
have given it clever names that arc regrettably inapproPriate for public documentation. Ofthem all,
the author currently prefers Chainsaw Routing as a reminder of the coarseness of the information on
which analysis and design of these systcms arc based. Our tools arc like chainsaws, and we aren't
making watches.
To execute either of the methods, one first formulates the three sets of source data described
above.
Routing of the flood proceeds by time steps. At each step in time during the passage of the
inflow hydrograph through the reservoir, the outflow is computed. The result is a fist of values of
-
outflow at stated times the outflow hydrograph.

III-17
 significant rise of the rising limb to the time at which the peak occurs. In this case the time to peak
is 36 minutes, so the time increment was conveniently selected at 4 minutes. Note that in calcula-
tions the time increment was expressed in seconds.
Table Ill-4
CHAINSAW ROUTING APPLIED TO A SITE WITH CULVERT AND OVERFLOW WEIR
Input data:
Qp 368
Tp 36
RESULTS
dT 4
OUTFLOWPEAK 173
Ks 284 MAX STAGE 8.94
b 3.3
N 1
Cd 0.65
D 48
zi 0
cw 3
L 120
zcr 10
Routing:
~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
TIME INFLOW STORAGE STAGE OUTFLOW CULVERT WEIR
[cfsl [cfsl

0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0
4 11 0 0.00 0 0.0 0.0
8 44 2718 1.98 32 32.4 0.0
12 94 5484 2.45 44 44.1 0.0
16 155 17396 3.48 80 79.7 0.0
20 219 35378 4.31 100 99.7 0.0
24 279 64046 5.17 117 116.6 0.0
28 328 103103 5.97 130 130.5 0.0
32 358 150432 6.69 142 141.9 0.0
36 368 202386 7.32 151 151.1 0.0
40 354 254328 7.84 158 158.4 0.0
44 320 301293 8.26 164 163.9 0.0
48 277 338670 8.56 168 167.8 0.0
52 239 364822 8.75 170 170.2 0.0
56 207 381358 8.87 172 171.7 0.0
60 179 389740 8.93 172 172.5 0.0
64 154 391210 8.94 173 172.6 0.0
68 133 386828 8.91 172 172.2 0.0
72 115 377506 8.84 171 171.4 0.0
76 .loo 364032 8.75 170 170.2 0.0
80 86 347094 8.62 169 168.6 0.0
84 74 327290 8.47 167 166.6 0.0
m-19
 Sometimes this method is subject to numerical instability. It will occur if the outlet system is of
high discharge capacity and the storage container is of low storage capacity. In the real situation, the
outflow hydrograph is tracking closely the inflow hydrograph. The effect ohtorage upon outflow
is negligible. In the routing table, it will present itself when oufflow exceeds inflow on the rising
limb of the inflow hydrograph. In the extreme,khange in storage becomes negative and large,
perhaps large enough to make total storage go negative, and the computation of stage becomes
impossible. Should this happen, it may be corrected by re-initializing the system on the line where
the fault occurs as follows:
1. Set oufflow (Col5) equal to inflow (Col2).
2. Set Stage (Col 4) equivalent to outflow (Col 5), by reference to the stage-discharge
function.
3. Set Storage (Col3) equivalent to stage (Col4), by using the stage-storage function.
4. Restart the routing, repeating the re-initialization if necessary until the system behaves.

If instability occurs while stage is low in a multiple pipe outlet, it is reasonable to re-initialize where
stage is near the top of the pipe. If instability persists to the inflow peak, it indicates that storage
is ineffective in the system -- there is no detention effect.
The dry pond routed here would thus reduce the peak of the hydrograph from 368 cfs to 173 cfs
by storing water to just under nine feet deep. The hydrographs are shown in Figure IU-11. In
Figure III-12, the stage-dischargefunction is plotted showing the points used in the routing.

ROUT I NG RESULTS
CMiwaw wutiw
400

Figure III-1 I

III-21
The incremental change in storage can be estimated as the area of a fzapezoidal element:

A si = (1-b)AT^ (In-19)

in which:

ASij = change in storage in the time increment i to j

-
I = Average inflow from time i to time j
-
0 = Average outflow from time i to time j

Aqj = Time increment

Equation III-19can be manipulated algebraically to obtain the following basis for taking a time step
in this procedure:

in which:
Ii = Inflow at the beginning of the interval

Ij = Inflow at the end of the interval

Si = Storage at the beginning of the interval

Sj = Storage at the end of the interval

Oj = Outflow at the beginning of the interval

Oj = Outflow at the end of the interval

AT= Tmeincranent
fh ,, iA- ,,J ~~)irt)13'

The equation is put in this form to collect on the left side the variables known at the beginning of
the interval. From these, the sum on the right side may be computed. Note that that the right side
has a storage term tied up with the outflow.The outflowmay be determined from the value of the
right side by means of a chart, or function, prepared from two of the Sets of source data, stage-
storage and stage-discharge. This chart iskalled the storage-indication curve. It is a curious function
when first viewed, but its uscfulmu btcomes clear in the tabular computations of the routing. The
storage indication curve is a plot of a certain exjmssion, twice the storage divided by the time
increment to which is added the outflow. V ~ U the S outflow.

The timi:inmment must be selected prior to formulatirig the storage indication c w e .

ID-23
 STORAGE-INDICATION CURVE
f w emwle Site
7 ,

0 200 400 f
OUtf low Ccfs)

Figure III-13
The routing is carried out in a table such as that in Table III-6. The columns of the table are
selected for efficient application of Equation IU-20.
Initialization of the Roun'ng Table: As in all such methods, the state of the system must be set at the
beginning of the storm. On Line 1, the table is initialized as follows (note the similarity to the
previous method):
Col2: Set initial inflow from hydrograph. Here, at rime zero, inflow is zero.
Col5: Set initial outflow q u a l to initial inflow.
Col3: Compute the value of twice the initial storage divided by the time increment (here
240 sec), minus initial outflow. In this case. since at time zero both storage and
outflow arc zero,the result is zero.If there is a normaIly wet reservoir, or if initial
outflow were non-zcro, then a non-zcro result would be expected.
C o l 4 This cell of the table is not used.

ILI-25
Tuking u Time Step: A time step follows Equation HI-20, followed by use of the storage-indication
curve. Let us take as an example the ennies on Line 3, the time step from time 4 to ime 5 min. Line
2 contains values for time i; Line 3 contains values for time j.
On Line 3:
Col 2: Enter the computed inflow for the time of Col 1. Here, the value was computed by
the step function (Equations III-I and -2). (Differences between inflow values in
this table and the chainsaw table are due to the use of rounded values for Qp and Tp
in this table, whereas quite precise values were used in the chainsaw table. Again --
a manifestation of the spreadsheet.)
Co14 Compute the value of the right side of Equation 20. Inflow at time i (4 cfs) plus
inflow at time j (8 cfs) plus the value in col3 at time i (-7 cfs) is entered in col4 at
time j (47 cfs). (Again, the numbers may not add exactly due to rounding of the
spreadsheet values.)
Col5: Enter the storage-indication curve with the value in Col4, time j (47 cfs), and find
the associated outflow (28 cfs).
Col3: Compute this value from the values at the same time in Cols 4 and 5. Co14 (47 cfs)
minus twice Col 5 (28 cfs) yields the value for Col 3 (-9 cfs),
The routing continues line by line until the response of interest is obtained.
Note that the peak outflow of 173 cfs obtained by chainsaw routing agrees closely with the 171
cfs computed here. The two sets of rtsults of the two methods are plotted in Figure ID-14.

ROUTING COMPARISON
stwape I m c c a t i o n v s C M I n s a r
400

350

300

250

200

'150

100

50

0
20 60 EO 100 ,
T i m Cmln)
0 S t Ind + Chainsow - I"f 101

Figure Ill-14
ID-27
111-31
A=
c0''s4QI'
eo o=

III- 33
RWTINC SPREADSHEET: EXAUPLE 111-1

INPUT DATA:

QP = 430 c f s
Tp = 37 min
dT = 3 min

Ks = 332
b = 3.15
20 = 241.17 f t ( R f )

Dr = 72 i n Yksht assums
r i s e r acts as u e i r .
cu = 3.3
Zcr = 252 f t
Db = 36 i n
Zi = 241.17 f t
Cd = 0.59

0 0 6.03E+05 252.00 0 nn na Norm Surf Area = 4.03 ac

3 7 6.03E+05 252.00 D 0.0 102.2 Peak wtflw = 118 c f s
6 27 6.04E*05 252.01 0 0.0 102.2 Peak stage = 255.21 f t , d
9 60 6.09E*05 252.03 0 0.4 102.4
12 102 6.20E+05 252.10 2 1.8 102.7
15 152 6.38E+05 252.20 5 5.4 103.2
18 206 6.64E*05 252.34 12 12.2 104.0
21 260 6.WE*05 252.52 23 23.4 105.0
24 312 7.42E105 252.74 39 39.3 106.1
27 357 7.91Ec05 252.97 60 59.8 107.4
30 393 8.44€+05 253.22 84 84.0 108.7
33 418 9.00€*05 253.47 110 110.7 109.9
36 429 9.55E+05 253.70 111 138.4 111.1
39 427 1.01€*06 253.94 112 167.8 112.3
42 411 1.07E*06 254.16 113 197.5 113.4
45 382 1.12E106 254.36 114 226.0 114.4
48 346 1.17E*06 254.54 115 251.9 115.3
51 311 1.21E*W 254.69 116 274.3 116.0
54 280 1.25E46 254.81 117 293.4 116.6
57 252 1.28E46 254.91 117 309.4 117.1
60 227 1.30E*06 255.00 117 322.6 117.4
63 204 1.32E*06 255.06 118 333.3 117.8
5.6 184 1.34€+06 255.11 118 341 .8 118.0
69 165 1.35E+06 255.15 118 348.2 118.2
72 119 1.36€+06 255.18 118 352.8 118.3
75 134 1.ME*06 255.20 118 355.8 118.4
78 120 1.36€*06 255.21 118 357.3 118.5
81 108 1.37€+06 255.21 118 357.5 118.5
84 98 1.36€+06 255.20 118 356.5 118.4
e7 ea 1.36€+06 255.19 118 354.5 118.4
9:: 79 1.35€+06 255.17 118 351.5 118.3
93 71 1.35€*06 255.15 118 347.6 118.2
96 64 1.34E*06 255.12 118 343.0 118.0
99 58 1.33Ei06 255.09 118 337.7 117.9
102 52 1.32E46 255.05 118 331.8 117.7
105 47 1.31€+06 255.01 118 325.3 117.5
108 42 1.29E+06 251.97 117 318.3 117.3

III-35
 SECTION IV
SEDIMENT BASIN DESIGN

GENERAL
Sediment basins, as treated in this section, are used for two main purposes. One is the
entrapment of sediment particles eroded from construction sites. The other is the entrapment of
particles suspended in stormwater flowing from urban catchments. In both, the principle is the
same -- provide a storage container of sufficient volume and surface area to settle a design particle
in the design storm.
Construction sediment control consists fundamentally of measures taken to reduce sediment
production (by controlling erosion), and those taken to control sediment discharge (by entrapment
of waterbome sediment. The channel design portion of this manual deals in part with minimizing
sediment production, and the techniques discussed therecan be applied to temporary and permanent
channels on construction sites to minimize scour of exposed channel banks.
There is an emerging interest in treating urban stormwater to remove suspended pollutants. Since
many pollutants ride "piggyback on sediment particles, one of the indicated treaanent processes is
plain sedimentation. Hence, with reconsideration of the design storm and the design panicle size,
the procedures described here may be applied in configuring the sediment basin.
Construction sediment basins are usually crude, temporary devices. Stormwater settling ponds
are likely to be permanent facilities that should be integrated into their surroundings with careful
consideration of appearance, safety and convenient maintenance. Compared to sedimentation tanks
in wastewater ueament plants, these devices rarely can be expected to operate with high efficiency.
Applicable research is scant on the subject of basins subjected to unsteady flow. All this leads one
to realize that watchmaking precision is not to be expected in this design. However, the analytical
approaches can support design decisions.
Good judgmental and experiential shortcut design procedures have been published by Soil
Conservation Service and regulatory agencies in several states. These have been adopted as
acceptable for design submission in the various jurisdictions. The criteria and procedures given
here are suggested to augment others, especially for unusual circumstances, such as the design of a
basin whose watershed is partially disturbed, or to consider remedial action for a basin that is
performing unacceptably.
The design of a sediment basin is mated here as sequence involving the arrangement of the major
basin components: the settling zone, the sediment storage zone, the inlet zone, the outlet zone, the
dam or dike and the set of outflow devices. The design involves fundamental applications of
discrete settling theory, the hydraulics of weirs and orifces, and the muting procedures described
in Section III.

DESIGN CRITERIA
The critical design condition for the usual basin occurs a little before and a little after the time of
the outflow peak. It is during this time when settling efficiency reaches its minimum, and inflow
sediment concentration is likely to be highest. It is not economically feasible to design for highly
improbable storms. Neither is it reasonable to attempt to settle very small particles. The selection
of the design storm and the smallest particle to be settled with a given efficiency together determine

Iv-1
 Settling Zone
The settling zone is the "working unit" of the sediment basin. Detailed discussions of ideal and
real settling theory, appear in most texts of wastewater engineering. For a real settling basin
subject to stray currents having various causes, Allen Hazen developed about the year 1900 an
equation to describe the mechanics of settling of discrete particles [Fair,Geyer and Okun, 19681.
The required surface area of a settling basin is related to the discharge, settling velocity of the
design particle and the nature of the basin performance with respect to short circuiting of flow.
Hazen's eauation can be written

[
E = 1- 1 + 0
IL3"
in which

E = Settling efficiency of a particle

having settling velocity vo.

A = Surface area of the settling zone.

N = Effective number of cells in the settling zone.
Q = Flow through the basin
Solving for area yields a useful design expression:

., in which
A =Required surface area (sq ft)
N = Effective number of cells
Q = Basin outflow (cfs)
vo = Settling velocity of design particle (fused

E = Settling efficiency of design particle.

The N value is treated as an indicator of settling performance as follows:
N=Infinity Best performance
N=8or5 very good performance
N=3 Good performance
N=2 Poorperformance
N= 1 Very poor performance.
The effective number of cells is not precisely equal to the number of real cells in the basin,
according to Hazen and his followers, but if inlet and outlet baffles are provided, the effective
number of cells can be estimated as the number of real cells into which the settling zone is divided
(not counting inlet and outlet zones as cells). For instance, setting off inlet and outlet zones with
baffles, &d installing another baffle across the basin near the center of the settling zone, justifies
setting N = 2, at the level of precision of this work. It would be difficult to justify a value larger
than N = 2 for a construction settling basin.

Iv-3
emergency spillway as the flow overtops the riser. It can be shown that this distinction of
confining settling performance to flow through perforations is unnecessarily restrictive. Settling
can take place adequately when flow overtops the riser, if the system is carefully designed.
Settling EnveloDe: In configuring the outlet device, satisfactory settling performance can be
assured by c o n f i i n g that the stage-discharge function is within bounds as estimated by a "settling
envelope." The settling envelope is a function that may be derived from Hazen's Equation and the
stage-storage function. Hazen's Equation solved for discharge yields

voA
Q = N[(l-E)-lM - 13 W-5)
Restating the stage-storage function in general form (see Section m):

S = KsZb W-6)
\
Differentiation of Equation N-6 results in an expression for surface area at a given stage:

As = b&Z'-') W-7)
Substitution of the surface area expression (Equation N-7)into Equation IV-5 and rearranging
provides an expression for the settling envelope:

Q=
[N[ (1vo
-E)-"] 1 Z(b - 1)
W-8)
A convenient restatement of Equation N-8 is

Q = C,Z@.') W-9)
in which
Q = Discharge limit (cfs) at stated stage
2 = Stage (ft above pond invert)
and
c, = b & vo
N [(1 - E)." - 11 W-10)
where
v,, = Settling velocity of design particle [fdsec]
Ks,b = Constants from stage-storage relation
N = Number of effective cells
E = Settling efficiency, expressed as a decimal fraction

CS =The settling constant of Equation N-9.

IV-5
 3.65
5= 1-381 z

N-7
i

Iv-9
IV-13
BASIN DATA: STORM DATA:

13.1 = Ks
3.05 = b
100 = Invert e l pond 2 = di 1min1
3.3 = Cu r i s e r
72 = Dia riser l i n l EFFICIENCY DATA:

Time l n f l o u Storage Stage Outflow Surf Area S e t Env Set E f f

Ininl tcfsl t c u f t l 1ft.nsll tcfsl tsqftl Icfsl 1x1 L ' l T o W - CUDI-U

0 0 8.WE*02 104.00 0.00 685 na

2 0 8.WE*02 104.00 0.00 685 1
4 1 9.18E+02 104.03 0.00 695 2
6 1 9.97EiO2 104.14 0.00 7-55 2
8
10
3 1.17€+03 104.36 0.00 819 2 ERR 183 emu S-\
4 1.48Ei03 104.71 0.00 958 2
12 5 1.95E+03 105.15 0.00 1152 3 ERR
14 7 2.60€*03 105.67 0.00 1401 3 ERR
16 9 3.47E+03 106.23 0.00 1699 4 ERR
18 11 4.56E*03 106.81 0.00 2041 4 ERR c wutne OWWLO- =a
20 13 5.88E*03 107.41 0.00 2422 5 ERR
22 15 7.43E+03 108.00 0.00 2835 6 ERR
24 17 9.22E*03 108.58 0.00 3276 7 ERR
26 18 l.l2E+04 109.15 0.00 3739 8 ERR
28 20 1.34E+04 109.71 0.00 4217 9 ERR
30 21 (.%E44 110.24 0.00 4706 10 ERR
32 22 1.83E+04 110.75 0.00 5198 11 ERR
34 23 2.1OE+04 111.23 0.00 5690 12 ERR
M 23 2.37E104 111.69 1.72 6176 13 98.2
38 23 2.62E*04 l12.W 12.64 6615 14 73.5
40 23 2.75E+04 112.27 12.74 6824 15 74.1
42 22 2.86€*04 112.45 12.83 7020 15 74.6
44 21 2.97E+04 112.60 12.91 7200 16 75.1
46 20 3.07E+04 112.73 12.99 7358 16 75.5
48 18 3.15E+04 112.84 13.04 7489 16 75.8
50 17 3.22E*04 112.93 13.09 7593 17 76.1
52 16 3.27€+04 113.00 13.12 7671 17 76.3
54 15 3.30E+04 113.04 13.15 m 7 17 76.4
56 14 3.33E*04 113.07 13.16 mi 17 76.5
58 13 3.34E*04 113.08 13.17 7776 17 76.5
60 12 3.33E104 113.08 13.17 7n3 17 76.5
,62 11 3.32E+04 113.06 13.16 m3 17 76.5
64 11 3.30E+04 113.03 13.14 7718 17
66 10 3.27E*DC 112.99 13.12 7669 17

N-15
13.1 = Ks 23 = ap t c f s i
3.05 = b 37 = Tp t c f s l
100 = I n v e r t e l Dwd 2 = dl tminl
3.3 =
72 =
111 =
Cw r i s e r
Oia r i s e r tin1
Crest e l r,iser T -Y
E F F I C I E N C Y DATA: ___ O
l
d'
.( G.U&OGt Foo1* P G e 4 I 6 M .

0.59 = Cd b a r r e l 70 = Desired e f f i c i e n c y
12 = Oia b a r r e l [in] 2 = No. o f e f f e c t i v e c e l l s
100 = Invert e l barrel 0.08715 ==> Cs

0 0 8.WE*02 104.00 0.00 685 na na

2 0 8.WE42 104.00 0.00 685 1 ERR
4 1 9.18E42 104.03 0.00 695 2 ERR
6 1 9.97E102 104.14 0.00 735 2 ERR
8 3 l.l7E*O3 104.36 0.00 819 2 ERR
10 4 1.48E*03 104.71 0.00 958 2 ERR
12 5 1.95E+03 105.15 0.00 1152 3 ERR
14 7 2.60E*03 105.67 0.00 1401 3 ERR
16 9 3.47E*03 106.23 0.00 1699 4 ERR
18 11 4.56E+03 106.81 0.00 204 1 4 ERR
20 13 5.BBE*03 107.41 0.00 2422 5 ERR
22 15 7.43E+03 108.00 0.00 2835 6 ERR
24 17 9.22E+03 108.58 0.00 3276 7 ERR
26 18 l.l2E*04 109.15 0.00 3739 8 ERR
28 20 1.34E*04 109.71 0.00 4217 9 ERR
30 21 1.58E+04 110.24 0.00 4704 10 ERR
32 22 1.83E+04 110.75 0.00 5198 11 ERR
34 23 2.10E+04 111.23 7.02 5690 12 83.5
36 23 2.28E+04 111.55 12.34 6027 13 71.7 c -.
38 23 2.41E*04 111.76 12.46 6251 14 72.4
40 23 2.54E*04 111.96 12.57 6469 14 73.1
42 22 2.66€+04 112.11 12.67 6674 15 73.7
44 21 2.77E+04 112.31 12.76 6862 15 74.2
46 20 2.87E*04 112.45 12.83 7026 15 74.6
48 18 2.95E104 112.57 12.w 7163 16 75.0
50 17 3.02E+04 112.66 12.95 7272 16 75.3
52 16 3.07E104 112.73 12.98 7355 16 75.5
54 15 3.llE104 112.78 13.01 7414 16 75.6
56 14 3.13E104 112.81 13.03 7452 16 75.7
58 13 3.14€+04 112.83 13.04 7470 16 75.8
60 12 3.14E+04 112.83 13.04 7169 16 75.8
'62 11 3.13E+04 112.81 13.03 7452 16 75.7
64 11 3.11E+04 112.79 13.01 7419 16 75.7
66 10 3.08E+04 112.74 12.w 7371 16 75.5
IV-19
 SECTION V
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Concrete Pipe Association (1985), Concrete P

2- i m Manual, ACPA, Vienna, VA.
American Iron and Steel Institute (1971), findbook of Steel Drain= and Hiyhwav Construction
Products, AISI, New York, NY.
American Iron and Steel Institute (1980). Modern Sewer Desia,AISI, Washington, DC.
American Public Works Association (1981), !Jr ban Stormwater Managem - , APWA, Chicago.
Bedient (1988), P.B. and W C. Huber, 1 and Floodplain Analv&, Addison-Wesley.
Bureau of Public Roads (1965), "Hydraulic Charts for the Selection of Highway Culverts,"
Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 5 , U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, DC.
Bureau of Reclamation, 1974, Besien of S mall D m , USGPO, Washington, DC.
Chow (1959). Ven Te, Open Channe1 Hvdraulics, McGraw-Hill.
VQ E
Chow (1964), Ven Te, Ed., - i ,McGraw-Hill.
Chow (1988), V.T., D.R. Maidment and L.W. Mays, Applied Hvdroloey,McGraw-Hill.
Fair (1968) G.M., J.C. Geyer and D.A. Okum, Waterand Wastewater Enplneen'ng, v. 2,
John Wiley.
Fair(1971)G.M.,J.C.GeyerandD.A. Okum, f
1 W i
w r ,
2d ed., John Wiley.
Federal Highway Adminiswtion (1979), "Design of Urban Highway Drainage -- State of the
Art," Report FHWA-TS-79-225, US. Dept of Transportation, Washington, DC.

Federal Highway Administration (1985). "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts," Hydraulic

Design Series No. 5 , Report FHWA-IP-85-15, U.S.Dept. of Transportation, Washington,
DC.
Frederick (1977), R.H., V.A. Myers and E.P. Anciello, "Five to 60 Minute Precipitation
Frequency for the Eastem and Central United States," NOAA Technical Memorandum N W S
HYDRO-35, National Weather Service, N O M , U.S. Dept of Commerce, Silver Spring,
MD.
French (1985) R.H., @en- ' ,McOraw-Hill
Harris County Flood Conml District (1984), "Criteria Manual for the Design of Flood Control
and Drainage Facilities in Harris County, Texas," Houston, TX.
King (1963), Horace W., and E.F. Brater, Handbook of Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill.
Malcom (1973), HR.,"Economic Incentives in Urban Sediment Control," Doctoral dissertation,
North Carolina State University.
Malcom (1977). H.R. and Smallwood, C., "Sediment Prediction in the Eastem United States,"
n, ASCE, v. 103, no. WR2.

v- 1
 SECTION VI
EXHIBITS
The following exhibits were collected for the purpose of illustrating the concepts taught in the
presentations.
Sources and Credits
1. Taken from various sources as referenced.
2. Computed by Malcom from data given in USWB, 1961, and N O M , 1977.
3. Computed by Malcom from Exhibit 2.
4. Taken from FHWA, 1979.
5. Taken from Bauer and Woo (1964), "Hydraulic Design of Depressed Curb Opening Inlets,"
Highway Research Record, Highway Research Board, No. 58.
6 . Same as 5.
7. Computed by Malcom using Manning Equation.
8. From Chow, 1959, and common citings.
9. Computed by Malcom.
10 Based on similar information in Bureau of Public Roads (1965). "Design of Roadside
Channels," Hydraulic Design Series No. 4, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, DC.
11. through 21. Federal Highway Administration (1985), "Hydraulic Design of Highway
Culverts," Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, Report FHWA-IP-85-15, U.S. Dept. of
Transportation, Washington, DC.

VI-1
 Exhibit 2 by H. R. Malcom, P.E.
C. E. Dept, NCSU
Depth-Di. ition-Frequency Table Raleigh, NC
Locati +. Raleigh-Durham,NC

RetumPeriod>-.
Duration 2-yr 5-yr 10-yI 25-yr 50-yr 100-yr
[in1 GI ri1 [GI [in3 [in1
5 min 0.48 0.55 0.60 0.68 0.75 0.81
10 min 0.79 0.92 1.02 1.17 1.28 1.40
15 min 1.01 1.18 1.31 1.51 1.66 1.81
30 min 1.35 1.64 1.85 2.16 2.40 2.64
60 min 1.70 2.12 2.41 2.84 3.17 3.50
2hr 1.91 2.40 2.74 3.23 3.61 4.00
3hr 2.12 2.68 3.07 3.62 4.06 4.49
6hr 2.65 3.38 3.90 4.62 5.19 5.75
12 hr 3.13 4.02 4.64 5.52 6.20 6.88
24 hr 3.60 4.65 5.38 6.41 7.21 8.00

Intensity-Duration-FrequencyTable

Location: + Raleigh-Durham, NC
> :
~~

RetumPericd
Duration 2-yr 5-yr 10-yr 25-j~ 50-yr 100-jT
[in/hrI li&I rim1 [i&l [i&l [in/hrl
5 min 5.76 6.58 7.22 8.19 8.96 9.72
10 min 4.76 5.54 6.13 7.01 7.71 8.40
15 min 4.04 4.74 5.25 6.03 6.64 7.24
30 min 2.10 3.28 3.7 1 4.32 4.80 5.28
60 min 1.70 2.12 2.41 2.84 3.17 3.50
2hr 0.95 1.20 1.37 1.62 1.81 2.00
3hr 0.71 0.89 1.02 1.21 1.35 1.50
6hr 0.44 0.56 0.65 0.77 0.86 0.96
12 hr 0.26 0.33 0.39 0.46 0.52 0.57
24 hr 0.15 0.19 0.22 0.27 0.30 0.33
Input Data: IDF Equations:
I = e/Ol+T)
Location: + Raleigh-Durham, NC for 5; T < 120 min
R P h
Duration 2-yr P 100-yrP Source n .I
L IJL IO
rim1 [in1
5 169 21
5 min 0.48 0.81 NOAA HYDRO-35 10 195 22
15 min 1.01 1.81 N O M HYDRO-35 25 232 23
“in . 1.70 3.50 NOAA HYDRO-35 50 261 24
24-hr 3.60 8.00 USWB TP-40 100 290 25
 to
EO W
-I
I IO01
PO
O
. w-
W-
PO 0.-
01 -
O
, om -
om-
LO 001 -
mo .
01
02
Or'
.__----
0,'
09'
OW oooc
01'
OW
07

-1
OOOL
Ooom
ooom
OOOU
0.1
S l 3 N N V H 3 k J V l f l 9 N V l k J l NI M o l 3 kJ03 HdV89OWON
P FlIrPrEl
 Exhibit 6
10 ft opening length, n = 0.016, W = 2.0 ft,
a greater than or equals 2 inches Qi
INLET INTERCEPTIONFATE,
minimum height of curb opening = TS,
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

2 3 4 6
5 7 8 9 10
GUTTER FLOW SPREAD, T (FT.)
..-
15 ft opening length, n = 0.016, W = 2.0 ft,
a greater than or equals 2 inches Qi
minimum height of curb opening = TS, INLET INTERCEPTIONFATE, y

2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10 VI-I
GUTTER FLOW SPREAD, T (FT.)
 Exhibit 9
Best Hydraulic Section Coefficients

M Cm k Comment
0 11 0.790 2.000 Vertical sides
0.5 I 1 0.833 1.236
0.577 I 1 0.833 1.155 &degree sides
1 /1 0.817 0.828 45-degree sides
1.5 11 0.715 0.606
2 /1 0.729 0.472
2.5 I 1 0.688 0.385
3 11 0.653 0.325 Steepest to mow
3.5 I 1 0.622 0.280
4 11 0.595 0.246
5 11 0.552 01198
6 11 0.518 0.166
7 11 0.490 0.142
8 11 0.467 0.125
9 /1 0.447 0.111
10il 0.430 0.100
11/1 0.415 0.091
12 /1 0.402 0.083

VI-9
 Exhibit 11

E 10,Ooo
0
8.Ooo EXAMPLE
- 6.
156

144
- 6.
- 5.
r 6,

- 5.
132
- 5. -
--
4.
:4.
120
- ;
108
--4.
-- 3. -- 3.
- -
- 3. - -
,/'
- --+ ----
-
- e.-=
-
e-
/' e -e.
400 /
300 Em :- - 1.5 - 1.5
/ a -
s - 1.5
E~ [ 7 2
SO E
W .
-
s
4 -
a
-
I - -
I-
C .
a
W
- 1.0 - 1.0

40 nw0 SCALE ENTRANCE

TYPE
0
a - 1.0 - -
W
t -
- .e - .9
g- .e - -
4
W -
I
- .e
- .e - .e
-.I
-.I
,
- .r

- I5 Le
IL IC
t 1.0
HEADWATER DEPTH FOR
HEADWATER SCALES 2 6 3
CONCRETE PIPE CULVERTS
llEWSED YAVR64 WITH INLET CONTROL
*u(EEw w M L l C 101m y* Iw3
VI-11
 Exhibit 13

5.-
4.000

Ill 1.10 2.0

1.000
I
4 1.1s 1.1
no0 IJI 1.22 2.2

600 *D 11 1-1
SO0
400

300

200

v1 /'
U 100 /
0
z
-
0
W
m 60 /
K /
4
I /
0 '0 /
: /

/ !O
-
:
' SCALE ENTRANCE
TYPE

i
v

,o
B

.6
.s
*ACQITIONAL WZES HOT OIMEWSIONED A M
HEADWATER DEPTH FOR
LISTLD' I N CAORICATOR'S CATALOG
C. M. PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS
W-bU OF W I C mYDI JAN t W WITH INLET CONTROL

VI-I3
 Exhibit 15

0
-
I

-:1000
-- 800 - 120
- 600 - 108
- 500 - 96
y 400

- 300
-
-84
- 72
- 66
/*'

1?',
O'A'

1
-
1.0

:200 - 60 w -2
W
m -
u -
0 - - 54
u -
z-
-- _
z :.
a 7100
m
w
X
0
-40-1
/-
0.48
I
1
1-3
-

*-
.
0 .
-42
W w -4
1

I. 0 -36 -5
-60
Y -
o -50
2I- - 3 3 -6

-40 = -30
W

i
0 -27
- 30 - 24
- 20 -el

-18

-
-10 -I5

-8
-
-6 --It

HEAD FOR
CONCRETE PIPE CULVERTS
FLOWING FULL
n = 0.0 12
VI-15
 Exhibit 17

t
360

260

8
W
?!
L
X
I
2
s
W
N
0

-HEAD FOR
STANDARD C M. PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS
FLOWING FULL
UUIV 0 U I C - O M JAa. Du
1180.024

VI-17
 Exhibit 19

F...
SO00

16.6 110.1

- ISS I 9.2

- 12.9 I 0,s

- I L4 I 7 . 2

- 9.5 I L 4

t LI I 4.6

HEAD FOR
ST R U CTU R AL P LA1E
CORRUGATED METAL
P I P E ARCH CULVERTS
18 IN. CORNER RADIUS
TLOWING FULL
11.0.0327 TO 0.0306

VI-19
 Exhibit 21
Ennance Loss Coefficients

V2
Coefficient k, to apply to velocity head -for determination of head loss at entrance to a structure,
2E-
such as a culvert or conduit, operating full or partly full with control at the outlet.
V2
Entrance head loss H, = k, -
2g
Type of Structure and Design of Entrance Coefficient ke
Pipe, Concrete
Projecting from fdl, socket end (groove-end) 0.2
Projecting from fill, sq. cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls
Socket end of pipe (groove-end) 0.2
Square-edge 0.5
Rounded (radius = 1/12D) 0.2
Mitered to conform to fd slope 0.7
*End-Section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Pipe, or Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Metal
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls
Square-edge 0.5
Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
*End-section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Box, Reinforced Concrete
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)
Square-edged on 3 edges 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension 0.2
Wingwalls at 30' to 75' to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.4
crown edge rounded to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension 0.2
Wingwalls at 10' to 25' to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.5
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides
Square-edged at crown 0.7
*Note: "End Section conforming to fill slope", made of either metal or concrete, are the sections
commonly available from manufacturers. From limited hydraulic tests they are equivalent in
operation to a headwall in both inlet and outlet control. Some end sections, incorporating a closed
taper in their design have a superior hydraulic performance.

VI-21
 Elements of Stormwater Design
Schedule
Day One Day Tbo
____-______-__-_-__-------_----_--------
-__--------_-_--_----------------------- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time Topic Time Topic
-____---_-_-___-___---_-_----_----------
- _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - -.-.-.-. -. -. .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
08:30 Introduction 0830 Stormwater impoundments (cont.)
Welcome Chainsaw routing
Course history Storage-indication routing
Schedule Preliminary design
Set informal tone 10:00 Break
O8:SO Srormwater collection 1015 Stormwater impoundments (cont.)
General Example 111-1
Inlet location The DSC problem
Pipe sizing A parking lot case
1O:OO Break 1200 Lunch
1O:lS Stormwater collection (cont.) 01:OO Sediment basin design
Example 1-1 General
Example 1-2 Design criteria
Hydraulic-grade-line check Basin components
11:OO Stormwater channels Settling model
General Sizing sediment storage
Best-hydraulic-section procedure Preliminary suing of the riserbarrel
Velocity-limited procedure Dike configuration
Normal-depth procedure a30 Break
Depth-limited procedure 0245 Sediment basin design (cont.)
Triangular swales Example IV-1
12:OO Lunch A water-quality variation
O1:OO Stormwater channels (cont.) 04:W Concluding discussion
Example 11-1 0430 Adjourn
Example 11-2
Examples with program and spreadsheet
O2:3O Break
O2:45 Stormwater Impoundments
General
Analysis vs design
Flood-routing algorithms
Source data
Inflow hydrograph
Stage-storage function
Stage-discharge function
0430 Adjourn
G <
P
 DEPTH-DURATION-FREQUENCY TABLE by H.R. Malcwn, P.E.
C.E.Dept, NCSU
LOCATION:--------.Yiimington, NC Raleigh, NC

5 min 0.47 0.54 0.60 0.69 0.75 0.82

10 min 0.76 0.89 0.99 1.14 1.25 1.36
15 min 0.97 1.14 1.26 1.45 2.59 1.74
30 min 1.31 1.61 1.82 2.13 2.37 2.61
60 min 1.67 2.10 2.41 2.84 3.18 3.52
2 hr 1.87 2.35 2.68 3.16 3.53 3.90
3 hr 2.07 2.59 2.95 3.47 3.88 4.29
6 hr 2.59 3.20 3.64 4.28 4.77 5.26
12 hr 3.04 3.75 4.26 4.99 5.56 6.13

.. 5 min 5.88 6.63 7.23 8.15 8.87 9.60

10 min 4.59 5.37 5.95 6.82 7.50 8.18 10 min 5.06 5.76 6.30 7.13 7.79 8.45
15 min 3.88 4.55 5.05 5.79 6.38 6.96 15 rain 4.36 4.97 5.45 6.17 6.75 7.32
30 m i n 2.63 3.22 3.65 4.26
~~ 4.75 5.22
~ . - ~ 30 min 3.17 3.79 4.25 4.92 5.44 5.96
60 min 1.67 2.10 2.41 2.84 3.18 3.52 60 min 2.10 2.58 2.92 3.41 3.80 4.18
2 hr 0.94 1.17 1.34 1.58 1.77 1.95 2 hr 1.18 1.47 1.67 1.96 2.19 2.41
3 hr 0.69 0.86 0.98 1.16 1.29 1.43 3 hr 0.88 1.10 1.25 1.47 1.65 1.82
6 hr 0 0.53 0.61 0.71 0.79 0.88 6 hr 0.55 0.70 0.80 0.95 1.07 1.18
12 hr 0.25 0.31 0.36 0.42 0.46 0.51
 INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY FUNCTIONS
vilmington. w
10

7
0 20 40 60 BO 100 124
Time of Q u a t i o n Cmln)
0 2 + 5 0 10 n 25 X 50 v 100
 TECHNICAL PROGRAM ON

BASIC STORMWATER DRAINAGE DESIGN

8:OO - 8:15 Check-i n

8:15 - 8:30 Introduction and Announcements

8:30 - 9:45 I. Background Concepts

A. Flow Estimation

1. Description of Various Methods

2. Development of the Rational Method

B. Elements of the Stormwater Drainage Systbm

Coffee/Coke and Conversation Break

11. Stormwater Collection Systems

A. Basis f o r the Procedure

8. Inlet Location

C. Pipe Sizing

12:oo- l:oo Lunch and Conversation

1:00 - 3:OO 111. Channel Design

A. Basic Concepts

B. Trapezoidal Channels

C. Triangular Swales

3:OO - 3:15 CoffeeICoke and Conversation Break

3:OO - 4:30 IV. Culvert Design

A. Basic Concepts

B. Inlet Control Case

C. Outlet C o n t r o l Case

4:30 - 5:QO V. A. Some Examples of Good and Bad Drainage Practices

B. Summary and Questions and Answers

 TECHNICAL PROGRAM ON

BASIC STORMWATER DRAINAGE DESIGN

8:OO - 8:15 Check-in

8:15 - 8:30 Introduction and Announcements

8:30 - 9:45 I. Background Concepts

A. Flow Estimation

1. Description of Various Methods

2. Development of the Rational Method

B. Elements of the Stormwater Drainage System

9:45 - 1o:oo Coffee/Coke and Conversation Break

1o:oo - 12:oo 11. Stormwater Collection Systems

A, Basis for the Procedure

B. Inlet Location

C. Pipe Sizing

12:oo - l:oo Lunch and Conversation

1:OO - 3:Q0 111. Channel Design

A. Basic Concepts

B. Trapezoidal Channels

C. Triangular Swales

3:OO - 3:15 Coffee/Coke and Conversation Break

3:OO - 4:30 IV. Culvert Design

A. Basic Concepts

B. Inlet Control Case

c. Outlet Control Case

4:30 - 5:OO V. A. Some Examples of Good and Bad Drainage Practices

B. Summary and Questions and Answers

c

BASIC STORMWATER DRAINAGE DESIGN

by H. Rooney Malcom, Ph.D., P.E.

Associate Professor of Civil Engineering
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC

Notes prepared in support of a one-day workshop

co-sponsored by the Transportation Technology Transfer
Service, Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson
University and the Technology Transfer Program,
Institute for Transportation Research and Education,
University of North Carolina.

May 1988
 TABLE OF' CONTENTS

=.====================~=======================
ITEM FAGE
_-----___-------__-_________________I___-----

I. Stormwater C o l l e c t i o n Systems 1-1

The R a t i o n a l Method 1-3

I n l e t Location 1-0
Fipe Sizing 1-13
H y d r a u l i c Grade L i n e A n a l y s i s I-20
, Examples 1-26

11. Channel Design 11-1

Best H y d r a u l i c S e c t i o n 11-4
V e l o c i t y - L i m i t e d Procedure 11-7
Normal-Depth P r o c e d u r e 11-0
Depth-Limi t e d Procedure 11-9
T r ia n g u l a r Swales 11-11>
P r e l i m i n a r y Cost E s t i m a t e s 11-12
Esamplee 11-14

111. C u l v e r t Design I XI-1

Use of C h a r t s 111-2
I n l e t Control I 11-2
Outlet Control I 11-2
Examples III'-.Z

1
 SEC'TION I

STORMWATEK COLLECTION SYSTEMS

GENEfiAL

The term "stormwater c o l l e c t i o n system" a p p l i e s t o t h e set

0 . f i n l e t s and p i p e s used t o d r a i n an a r e a o f i n t e r e s t , s u c h as a
s u b d i v i s i o n , parl.::ing l o t o r s t r e e t . The d e s i g n storm used v a r i e s
from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n , b u t i t i s u s u a l l y i n t h e range of t h e t w o -
t o t w e n t y - f i v e year storm, w i t h t h e ten-year s t o r m p r e d o m i n a t i n g .
I n most cases, t h e s e l e c t i o n of a d e s i g n s t o r m t h a t r e c u r s f a i r l y
frequently r e f l e c t s a judgment t h a t t h e consequences of a !system
o v e r l o a d a r e minor -- u s u a l l y t h e nuisance o f a flooded yard or
i n t e r s e c t i o n f o r a few minutes.

The d e s i g n .storm i s s t a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e r e t u r n period.

given i n years. 4 t e n - y e a r s t o r m has a r e t u r n p e r i o d 0.f t.en
years. The ten-year f l o o d i s expected t o be equaled o r exceeded,
on the average, once i n t e n years. I t has a p r o b a b i l i t y o f
occurrence i n a g i v e n year o f t e n percent, or 0.1- I t is
i n c o r r e c t t o t h i n k t h a t t e n y e a r s w i l l t r a n s p i r e between ten-year
floods. I n a ten-year p e r i o d , one such f l o o d i s e:.:pected, but
more t h a n one can occur.

C e r t a i n conventions, judgments and assumptions have @merged

over t h e y e a r s t o s i m p l i f y what would o t h e r w i s e be an i m p s s s i b l y
comples system t o design. The f i r s t of t h e s e i s t h e use O f the
Rational E q u a t i o n as the model of c h o i c e i n s e t t i n g d e s i g n
d i s c h a r g e s a t p o i n t s o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e system. The second i s t o
s e l e c t p i p e s such t h a t t h e y w i l l j u s t f u l l i n u n i f o r m steady f l o w
at t h e peak o f t h e d e s i g n storm. The system t h u s o b t a i n e d is
l i k e l y t o be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y designed.

I t has become c o n v e n t i o n a l t o s e p a r a t e t h e d e s i g n i n t o two

. f a i r l y independent o p e r a t i o n s -- i n l e t l o c a t i o n and p i p e s i z i n g .
I n l e t s are l o c a t e d such t h a t t h e y w i l l p e r f o r m a t o r near the
" t h r e s h o l d of m i s b e h a v i o r " i n t h e d e s i g n storm. The t h r e s h o l d o f
misbehavior esi'sts when t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l of f l o w i s reached,
beyond which some adverse b e h a v i o r t a k e s p l a c e such as:

a. Flow i s t o o deep; something i s f l o o d e d .

b. Flow i s t o o f a s t : something i s eroded.
c. Flow i s t o o wide; i t bypasses an i n l e t , o r i t becomes a
barrier.

An i n l e t , then, i s p l a c e d t o r e l i e v e t h e s u r f a c e channel o f f l o w
t h a t i t could n o t handle acceptably.

'The t e x t s have n o t g e n e r a l l y d e a l t w i t h i n l e t l o c a t i o n as
e x t e n s i v e l y as t h e y m i g h t have, b u t t h e performance and economics
o f t h e stormwater c o l l e c t i o n system a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by
d e c i s i o n s made i n t h e i n l e t - l o c a t i o n process.

1-1
 Pipes are sized t o flow j u s t . f u l l according t o t h e Manninq
Equation. The d i s c h a r g e j . n t o each p i p e i s computed by t.he
R a t i o n a l Equation, w i t h t h e r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t c o m p o s i t e d of a l l
c o n t r i b u t i n g d r a i n a g e a r e a s 1 and w i t h t h e t i m e o f concentration
based upon t h e o v e r l a n d f l o w t i m e t o t h e most r e m o t e i n l e t plus
. t h e t i m e o f f l o w i n t h e p i p e o r p i p e s u p s t r e a m of t h e p i p e u n d e r
consideration. This i s l e s s t h a n t h e f l o w one would get by
adding a l l i n l e t inflows.

I n recent years, d e s i g n e r s have been a d v i s e d t o become more

s e n s i t i v e t o t h e major-minor s t o r m concept. The d e s i g n s t o r m . f o r
which system s i z e s a r e s e t i s t h e minor s t o r m h a v i n g a t y p i c a l
return p e r i o d of t e n y e a r s . The p r o b a b i l i t y i s g r e a t e r t h a n 90
I p e r c e n t t h a t s u c h a s t o r m w i l l b e exceeded a t l e a s t once i n a 2 5 -
year period. I t i s p r u d e n t t h e r e f o r e t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e fna-jor
s t o r m an emergency r o u t e a l o n g s t r e e t s and between s t r u c t u r e s t.0
m i n i m i z e p r o p e r t y damage. F o r some s y s t e m s t h e m a j o r s t o r m may
b e r o u t e d i n t u i t i v e l y o r by i n s p e c t i o n . For others, q u a n t i t a t i v e
routing i s justified.

MATHEMATICAL MODELS

The p r i n c i p a l mathematical models used i n t h e design of

stormwater c a l l e c t i o n systems a r e :

1. R a t i o n a l Method --used f o r e s t i m a t i n g d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e
a t a p o i n t o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e system.

2. Weir e q u a t i o n s -- used f o r s i z i n g i n l e t s t h a t behave a s

weirs.

.,.
7 Orifice equation -- used f o r s i z i n g i n l e t s j u d g e d to
behave a s o r i f i c e s .

4. Manning e q u a t i o n -- used t o r e p r e s e n t t h e b e h a v i o r of
flow i n pipes.

5. Energy b a l a n c e --u s e d t o compute t h e approximate

p o s i t i o n of t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d e l i n e I n systems having
high tailwater to insure a g a i n s t an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
backup o f w a t e r i n t h e system.
 'THE RRTIONAL. ME'IHOD

LS
' aCA-KLQU.L!-d_

There a r e many methods a b r o a d . f o r e s t i m a t i n g flood peal.::

d i s c h a r g e s where n o measurements o f f l o w are available. .I 1
1
stormwater collection systems, i n d i v i d u a l drainage areas are
q u i t e small, and o f a l l methods a v a i l a b l e t h e Rational Method
r e m a i n s t h e method of c h o i c e .

The Rational Method, though w i d e l y used, i s quite

controversial. I t s t h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o r t i s none t o o f i r m , so many
writers would have i t abandoned. The d i f f i . c u l t y i s t h a t no
method o f s i m i l a r e f f i c i e n c y h a s g a i n e d a c c e p t a n c e , nor has any
been o f . f e r e d b y t h o s e who w o u l d eliminate Rational ilethod.
I n practice, t h e method h a s e n j o y e d s u c c e s s b o r n e of e x p e r i e n c e
and efficiency. It y i e l d s a crude e s t i m a t e o f t h e peak
discharge, but t h e p r e c i s i o n i s j u s t i f i e d b y t h e o b v i o l t s need
only t o be w i t h i n a p i p e s i z e o r t w o i n t h e t h e d e s i g n . For a
d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e R a t i o n a l Method, see APWA, 1981.

The f o l l o w i n g a r e t h e s t e p s t o b e t a k e n i n d e t e r m i n i n g the
peak d i s c h a r g e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t o f i n t e r e s t :

1. Delineate the watershed c o n t r i b u t o r y t o t h e p o i n t of

interest, and determine t h e drainage area i n acres.
(The terms "watershed" and "drainage area" are
synonymous. )

2. D e t e r m i n e t h e t i m e of concentration for t h e watershed.

-.
.i Determine t h e rainfall intensity for the designated
r e t u r n period a t t h e time of concentration.

4. Determine t h e composite r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t .

5. A p p l y t h e R a t i o n a l E q u a t i o n t o o b t a i n t h e peal:.
 Elements of t h e Model

The R a t i o n a l E q u a t i o n i s g i v e n as:

c! = C I A

i n which:

c! = The e s t i m a t e d d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e ( c f s ) .

C = 'The composite r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t (dimensionless)

f o r t h e watershed.

I = Rainfall intensity (in/hr) for t h e designated

r e t u r n p e r i o d and t h e t i m e of concentration.

A = Watershed area ( a c ) .

Observe the u n i t s carefully. The l e f t and r i g h t s i d e s of

the e q u a t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l l y equal, because one a c r e - i n c h per
hour is v e r y n e a r l y one c u b i c f o o t per second.

The l i m i t o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e R a t i o n a l Method is much i n

debate. Various writers w i l l recommend as an upper l i m i t of
a p p l i c a b i l i t y anywhere f r o m z e r o t o two square m i l e s o f watershed
area. Your a u t h o r has had a c c e p t a b l e r e s u l t s up to two square
m i l e 5 when compared t o s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of gaged f l o o d s .

F o l l o w i n g t h e s t e p s g i v e n above:

1. D e l i n e a t e t h e Watershed: Normally this i s done on a

topographic map. Determine t h e a r e a o f t h e watershed by
using a d i g i t i z e r , a planimeter, an o v e r l a i d g r i d or o t h e r
s u i t a b l e device. Remember t o put t h e watershed area in
acres. C h e s t i o n t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e R a t i o n a l Method if
t h e watershed area exceeds 1300 acres.

1-4
2. Determine the 'Time of Concentration: The time , of
concentration i s i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e l o n g e s t t i m e of flow
f r o m p o i n t s on t h e watershed r i d q e t o t h e o u t l e t o f t h e
watershed.

There a r e s e v e r a l r e c o g n i z e d ways t o e s t i m a t e t i m e of
concentration. One way i s t o use t h e K i r p i c h Equation, which is
widely recognized ( H u r e a ~ io f Reclamation, 1974, p 7 1 ) :

[$J0'3'5
-
4c =
I qk
(1-2)

i n which:

t c = Time o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n (min).

L = H y d r a u l i c l e n g t h o f t h e watershed ( f t ) . Hydraulic
l e n g t h i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e l o n g e s t f l o w path from
t h e most remote p o i n t on t h e watershed r i d g e t o
the outlet.

H = The h e i g h t ( f t ) o f t h e most remote p o i n t on t h e

watershed r i d g e above t h e watershed o u t l e t . It i s
the elevation difference, or fall, along the
hydraulic length.

Time o f concentration can also be e s t i m a t e d in field

reconnaissance by dividing the stream length into
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e segments and e s t i m a t i n g t h e b a n k f u l l v e l o c i t y
of each section by a p p l y i n g t h e Manning e q u a t i o n t o a
crudely estimated cross section. Flow t i m e s t h r o u g h the
stream segments a r e computed from segment length and
v e l o c i t y and summed t o y i e l d t h e t i m e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n . Be
s u r e t o i n c l u d e t i m e e s t i m a t e s f o r f l o w a l l t h e way from t h e
most remote p o i n t on t h e r i d g e t o t h e o u t l e t .
...
.1 . Determine Rainfall Intensitv: Rainfall intensity .is
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a i n f a l l at
t h e d e s i g n :Location. 'The N a t i o n a l Weather S e r v i c e p u b l i s h e s
s ~ i c t id a t a f o r t h e n a t i o n . A t y p i c a l form o f presentation 1%
t h e Intensity-Duration-Frequency Chart, an example 0.f w h i c h
i s g i v e n f o r F7aleigh-Durtiam. NCI i n E x h i b i t 3 .

T o use such a c h a r t f o r f i n d i n g rainfall intensity,

duration i s set equal to time of concentration, and
i n t e n s i t y i s read a t t h e designated r e t u r n perlad.

Alternatively, one may u s e an e q u a t i o n t h a t r e p r e s e n t s

the same r e 1 a t i o n s h i p . F a r N a l e i gh-Durham a s a t i s f act.ar-y
5e.t o f e q u a t i o n s i s o f t h e form:

I = g/(h+T) i I-::)

i n which I = Rain.fal1 i n t e n s i t y ( i n / h r )

T = Time o f d u r a t i o n ( m i n )

and the values o f g and h f o r v a r i o u s r e t u r n periods are a%

f o l l o w s ( f o r Raleigh-Durham o n l y ) :

R 9 h
____--___----__---
---
____________-_____=-__
3
L 1.32 le
5 169 21
10 195 22
25 233 23
50 26 1 24
1 oc) 29 1 25
=====I======P======P==

l h i s e q u a t i o n a p p l i e s o n l y when t h e t i m e o f d u r a t i o n i s i n
the r a n g e of 5 t o 120 m i n u t e s . For t i m e s of concentration l e s s
than 5 minutes. use 5 minutes.

1-6
4. Q e t e r m i n e .the Composite Runoff C o d f icient.: The run0f.f
coefficient must b e e s t i m a t e d b a s e d on ei:perience. Such
experience as is a v a i l a b l e h a s been captured in tables
widely pctb%i,shedo r a d o p t e d i n c e r t a . i n j u r i s d i c t i o n s . The
t a b l e i n E x h i b i t 1 i s t y p i c a l and r e a s o n a b l e . I t compares
. t a v o r a b l y w i t h t a b l e s i n s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s (Chow, 1964, f o r -
example.).

Usually, t h e d r a i n a g e a r e a o f i n t e r e s t w i l l crrr1sis.t 0.1:

s e v e r a l d i . f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s ot- composi t i a n , and these m u s t
b e combineti t o o b t a i n a c o m p o s i t e r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t . The
accepted procedure i s simply to weight the individual
c o e f f i c i e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a r e a t a k e n b y each c a t e g o r y :

z (C; A i )
-
Lc -
(1-4)
2 A i
i n which:

Cc = The composi t e runoff c o e f f ic i e n t

.
( d i m e n s i o n 1e s s )

A i = The a r e a t a k e n b y a n i n d i v i d u a l c a t e g o r y of
composi t i on.

C i = The r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t f o r the individual

area.

The u n i t s o f t h e a r e a s a r e i m m a t e r i a l as l o n g a s they are

t h e same i n numerator and d e n o m i n a t o r .

5. Apply t h e R a t i o n a l Eauation: S u b s t i t u t e t h e v a l u e s f o r C, I
and A i n t o E q u a t i o n 1-1, t a k i n g care that t h e values are
expressed i n the c o r r e c t units.

1-7
 INLET LOCATION

Basic Anoroach

I n l e t s cap,tLire a l l o r most o f t h e water coming t o them from

t h e c o n t r i b u t i n g d r a i n a g e area. The i n l e t i s p l a c e d such that
t h e i n l e t o r i t s d e l i v e r y channels w i l l j u s t r e a c h t h e threshold
o f misbehavior i n t h e d e s i g n storm. I f t h e discharge associated
with the threshold i s known, the allowable watershed area
contributing flow t o the i n l e t may b e determined from the
R a t i o n a l Equation :

Q
A = (1-5)

i n which:

A = A l l o w a b l e d r a i n a g e area ( a c ) .

G! = Discharge a t t h r e s h o l d o f misbehavior ( c f s ) .

I = Rainfall intensity (in/hr) for the time of

concentration, tc, which i s based on t h e f l o w t i m e t o
the i n l e t . T h i s i s u s u a l l y t a k e n t o be 5 minutes, b u t
t h a t assumption may be v e r i f i e d by u s i n g E q u a t i o n 1-2.

C = Runoff coefficient (dimensionless) for the inlet

d r a i n a g e area.

I n o r d e r t o s e t t h e i n l e t c a p a c i t y , Ls!, c o n d i t i o n s around t h e
inlet must be analyzed a g a i n s t d e s i g n judgments as t o t h e
. nature of t h e misbehavior. Both t h e i n l e t and t h e approach
channels a r e i n v o l v e d . For example:

a. I t may be judged i n t h e case o f a c u r b i n l e t t h a t water

may n o t spread i n t o t h e s t r e e t more t h a n e i g h t feet.
The a l l o w a b l e d i s c h a r g e may be found by applying the
Manning E q u a t i o n t o t h e g u t t e r c r o s s s e c t i o n .

b. I t may be decided i n a p a r k i n g l o t t h a t water should

n o t s t a n d around an area i n l e t a t a depth g r e a t e r than
three inches. The w e i r and o r i f i c e e q u a t i o n s may be
i n v o k e d t o f i n d G!.

c. It may be decided t h a t f l o w i n a g r a s s - l i n e d swale

l e a d i n g t o an i n l e t s h o u l d n o t exceed f o u r feet per
second i n o r d e r t o a v o i d e r o s i o n o f t h e l i n i n g . Ls! may
be found by Manning Equation.

Frequently several such judgments need t o be made. The

effective allowable discharge i s t h e l e a s t of those identified,
and i t becomes t h e t h r e s h o l d o f misbehavior. The inlet i s
located so t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t o r y area does n o t exceed t h a t
computed by E q u a t i o n 1-5.

1-8
 W o r k i n g f r o m t h e u p l a n d a r e a s of t h e s i t e t o w a r d t h e l o w l a n d
areas, i n l e t s a r e l o c a t e d so a s t o d r a i n a c c e p t a b l y t h e e n t i r e
site.

Stormwater I n l e L z

Stormwater i n l e t s o f t h e t y p e c a l l e d a r e a i n l e t s o r y a r d
i n l e t s c a n b e m o d e l e d a s weirs o r o r i f i c e s . Some a c t almost
e x c l u s i v e l y like w e i r s . O t h e r s may a c t a s weirs a t l o w h e a d s a n d
change t o o r i f i c e ' a c t i o n at h i g h e r heads. T h e s e i n l e t s are
u s u a l l y p l a c e d i n low s p o t s w h e r e water w o u l d p o n d i f t h e i n l e t s
were n o t t h e r e . Inlets placed along a sloping gutter, called
curb i n l e t s i , u s u a l l y act d i f f e r e n t l y .

Wr-tvDe inlets

T h e i n l e t is c o n s t r u c t e d as a n o p e n box w i t h r i m f l u s h w i t h
the ground. Water a p p r o a c h e s o n e t o f o u r s i d e s a n d f a l l s i n .
T h e w e i r l e n g t h i s t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e i n l e t over w h i c h water
flows. T h e w e i r c o e f f i c i e n t is 3.0, c o n s i d e r i n g i t t o b e a f r e e
overfall. To c a l c u l a t e t h e f l o w c a p a c i t y of the inlet, a
judgment i s made of t h e a l l o w a b l e d e p t h of + t . a n d i n g water a t t h e
i n l e t , and t h i s becomes t h e d r i v i n g head.

5EC b-A
The b a s i c w e i r e q u a t i o n i s :

where:

L! = Discharge ( c f s ) .

Cw = Weir c o e f f i c i e n t (dimensionless).

L = Length o f w e i r ( f t ) ,measured a l o n g t h e C r e s t .

H = Driving head ( f t ) , measured v e r t i c a l l y from t h e c r e s t

o f t h e w e i r t o t h e water s u r f a c e a t a p o i n t f a r enough
upstream t o be e s s e n t i a l l y l e v e l .

For t h e case of the free overfall, use Cw = .Z.(:l.

Grating inlets

A g r a t i n g i n l e t is t h e f a m i l i a r i n l e t found i n most parking

lots. The b e h a v i o r of t h e i n l e t a t low head i s a complex weir
action i n which t h e w e i r l e n g t h v a r i e s as head i n c r e a s e s i n t h e
storm. A s water r u n s f a r t h e r o u t on t h e i n l e t , t h e weir length
i s l o n g e r because more bar l e n g t h i s i n v o l v e d . A t some p o i n t t h e
entire inlet i s submerged, and i t a c t s as an o r i f i c e f o r a l l
higher heads. Most d e s i g n e r s d e f a u l t t o t h e o r i f i c e a c t i o n f o r
design. The d r i v i n g head, o r s t a n d i n g water d e p t h s h o u l d be two
i n c h e s o r more f o r t h i s assumption.

To test whether an i n l e t i s a c t i n g as an
orifice o r a weir, calculate the discharge
c a p a c i t y b o t h as an o r i f i c e and as a w e i r w i t h
water surface a t the l e v e l of i n t e r e s t . The
l e s s e r of t h e t w o d i s c h a r g e s w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e
p r e v a i l i n g condition.

I - 10
 'The b a s i c e q u a t i o n f o r o r i f i c e s i s :

where:

G2 = Discharge ids).

C d = C o e f f i c i e n t of discharge (dimensionless) I See below.

A = Cr-oss-,eectional ai-ea 0.F flow a t the o r i f i c e entrant!?

(sq f t ) .

g :: A c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i . t y ( 9 2 . 2 .ft/sec."7'
2)"

h = Driving head ( f t ) , measured from t h e c e n t r o i d o f the

o r i f i c e area .to t h e water s u r f a c e . I n a grating, the
centroid i s u s u a l l y i n t h e p l a n e of t h e s u r f a c e of the
q r a t ing.

When u s i n g t h e o r i f i c e e q u a t i o n w i t h a g r a t i n g , the o r i f i c e
area i s t h e sum o f t h e a r e a s o f t h e h o l e s i n t h e grating. The
d r i v i n g head i s measured f r o m t h e t o p o f t h e g r a t i n g .

Curb i n l e t s

If c u r b i n l e t s a r e p l a c e d a t t h e sag p o i n t s o f vertical
curves) t h e y may be analyzed a d e q u a t e l y by t h e w e i r and o r i f i c e
equations. However, i n l e t s p l a c e d a t t h e c u r b on a grade a r e
g e n e r a l l y analyzed by e x p e r i e n t i a l l y d e r i v e d c h a r t s . Such i n l e t s
a r e curb-opening i n l e t s , g r a t i n g i n l e t s o r a combination. lhe
c h a r t s p u b l i s h e d u s u a l l y r e l a t e f l o w c a p t u r e d by t h e inlet to
g u t t e r slope, c r o s s s l o p e and t h e d i s t a n c e f l o w spreads i n t o t h e
street. Frequently, a significant fraction of the flow
approaching the curb inlet passes on to the inlet below.
Judgments of t h e d e s i g n e r , o r t h e d e s i g n standard, a r e needed t o
decide the e x t e n t t o which water i s a l l o w e d t o spread i n t o t h e
street and t h e a l l o w a b l e f r a c t i o n o f f l o w t o be passed t o the
inlet below. The f l o w t h a t passes must be accounted f o r in
placing t h e i n l e t downstream. When g u t t e r f l o w becomes l a r g e ,
particularly on s t e e p slopes, c u r b i n l e t s must be p l a c e d very
c l o s e together t o capture t h e flow. It i s t h i s fact that leads
t o t h e judgment t h a t stormwater s h o u l d b e c a p t u r e d i n a r e a i n l e t s
to the extent p o s s i b l e b e f o r e i t reaches t h e street. The
p r a c t i c e o f u s i n g t h e s t r e e t g u t t e r as a stormwater collection
conduit for adjacent p r o p e r t i e s can l e a d t o frequent street
f loading.

E:tamples of curb-opening-inlet design c h a r t s a r e given as

E x h i b i t s 5 and 6.

1-11
 Other c h a r t s have been p u b l i s h e d and a d o p t e d f r o m p l a c e to
p l a c e as s t a n d a r d s . Clear-ly, t h e c h a r t s a r e s p e c i f i c t o cer.tain
i n l e t geometries. Some m a n u f a c t u r e r s p u b l i s h c h a r t s f o r their
stocl:: i n l e t s . F o r m a t s v a r y w i t h t h e soctrce, b u t t h e I.nput d a t a
d e s c r i b e d above a r e r e p e a t e d i n most c h a r t s .

Hoof d r a i n a q . g

Roof d r a i n s a r e h a n d l e d q u i t e l i k e s t o r m w a t e r i n l e t s , except
they are smaller. Some a c t a s o r i f i c e s and some as w e i r ' s .

1-12
 PIPE SIZING
Basic Procedure

Pipe sizing i s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y done i n d e p e n d e n t l y of inlet

location. A suggested s e t o f s t e p s f o l l o w s :

1. Determine t h e d r a i n a g e a r e a s f o r each inlet to be

connected t o t h e d r a i n a g e system.

7
A. Proceeding from upstream toward t h e downstream, select
a p i p e f o r design. Determine t h e i n l e t t i m e f a r the
most remote i n l e t upstream o f t h e p i p e of interest.
This i s t h e t i m e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r t h a t i n l e t . It
i s popular t o assume t h a t i n l e t t i m e i s 5 minutes,
which i s the minimum t i m e of d u r a t i o n g i v e n i n the
Intensity-Duration-Frequency charts. The assumption
may be' v e r i f i e d by computing o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e actual
time o f concentration.
.
.> . If t h e r e a r e p i p e s upstream of t h e p i p e of
compute the flow time i n pipe a l l the way
interest,
to the
upstream end o f t h e p i p 6 o f i n t e r e s t .

4. The t i m e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s t h e sum o f t h e i n l e t time

of t h e most remote i n l e t and t h e f l o w t i m e s a l o n g the
longest path ( i n terms o f f l o w t i m e ) t o t h e upstream
end o f t h e p i p e of i n t e r e s t .

5. The r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t i s composited f o r a l l drainage

areas c o n t r i b u t i n g f l o w t o t h e p i p e o f i n t e r e s t .

4. The r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y i s determined f o r the design

s t o r m a t a d u r a t i o n equal t o t h e t i m e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n
found i n s t e p 4.

7. The d i s c h a r g e i s computed b y t h e Rational Equation

u s i n g t h e composite C o f s t e p 5 , t h e I of s t e p 6, and
the t o t a l drainage area c o n t r i b u t i n g f l o w t o t h e pipe
of interest.

a. The pipe slope i s selected based on profile

c o n s t r a i nt s .

9. The p i p e diameter i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m Manning Equation

f o r the pipe t o flow j u s t f u l l .

IO. The f u l l - f l o w v e l o c i t y i s computed and used t o f i n d t h e

flow time i n t h e p i p e f o r use i n t h e n e x t section
downstream.

11. C o n t i n u e a t s t e p 2 w i t h t h e n e x t p i p e t o be designed.
Always work downstream, being sure that a l l " pipes
contributing flow t o the p i p e of i n t e r e s t have been
s i z e d and l o c a t e d i n t h e p r o f i l e .

1-13
12. H t t h e b o t t o m of: t h e system, check f o r a h i g h t a i l w a t e r
s i . t u a t i o n t h a t may c o n s t r a i n t h e system t o a f l o w l e s s
than t h a t designed .For. I n such a case, apply the
energy e q u a t i o n t o e s t i m a t e water l e v e l s and s u r c h a r g e
p r e s s u r e s i n t h e system. This o p e r a t i o n i s r e f e r r e d t o
as p l o t t i n g the hydraulic grade l i n e through the
system. If no r e s t r i c t i o n of flow exists, the
h y d r a u l i c grade l i n e f o l l o w s t h e t o p of t h e p i p e .

Practical Constraints

Note t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1. If p i p e sections are designed t o f l o w under surcharge,

c a r e s h o u l d be taken t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e h y d r a u l i c grade
l i n e does n o t r i s e above ground level, and s p e c i a l
a t t e n t i . o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o p r e v e n t i o n of leakage a t
joints.

2. I n t h e e v e n t t h a t f u r t h e r development i s a n t i c i p a t e d
upstream o f t h e system b e i n g designed, c o n s i d e r p l a c i n g
a stubbed-out p i p e of s u f f i c i e n t d e p t h and c a p a c i t y to
accept f l o w f r o m t h e f u t u r e development.

.3 . To r e d u c e c l o g g i n g problems, t h e minimum s i z e f o r s t o r m
d r a i n a g e s h o u l d be 15 inches. There s h o u l d be no
reduction i n pipe size i n the downstream d i r e c t i o n ,
even if s t e e p e r s l o p e s would seem t o p e r m i t a s m a l l e r
pipe.

4. Manholes s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d a t p i p e j u n c t i o n s , bends,
and i n s t r a i g h t s e c t i o n s such t h a t t h e maximum d i s t a n c e
between p o i n t s o f access i s 400 f e e t .

5. I?t all s t r u c t u r e s , t h e i n v e r t o f t h e m a i n l i n e s h o u l d be
dropped t o o f f s e t minor l o s s e s . These may be computed
o r c o n v e n i e n t r u l e s o f thumb may be used:

a. If there is an i n c r e a s e i n p i p e s i z e at the
structure, a l i g n t h e t o p s of t h e p i p e s .

b. Drop t h e invert of the m a i n l i n e through the

structure one t e n t h of a f o o t f o r each incoming
flow stream, whether from a p i p e or from t h e
inlet.

6. P i p e s s h o u l d be l a i d a t l e a s t as s t e e p l y as t h e s l o p e
that w i l l provide flow a t a self-scouring v e l o c i t y a t
or near d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e . That v e l o c i t y i s usually
t a k e n t o be t h r e e f e e t per second. See E x h i b i t 7.

7. Minimum cover s h o u l d be t h r e e f e e t t o t h e t o p of the

pipe.

1-14
 A p p l i c a t i . o n o f Mann-ins Eciuation

The Manning e q u a t i o n can be s t a t e d as:

i n which

a = Discharge ( c f s ) .
n = Manning roughness c:oef 1: ic i e n t (dimensionlessj , an
e x p e r i e n t i a l l y determined v a l u e which i s a f u n c t i o n of
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e channel l i n i n g .

A = Cross-sectional a r e a of f l o w ( s q u a r e . f e e t ) , the area

t h r o u q h which .flow t a k e s p l a c e . d/<: 4-
Hydraulic radius (,ft) , found by dividing cross-
s e c t i o n a l area, A ( s q f t ) , by w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r , P ( f t ) .
Wetted p e r i m e t e r i s t h e d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e p e r i m e t e r a+
the..-dross s e c t i o n a g a i n s t which water i s f l o w i n g . It
does n o t i n c l u d e t h e f r e e water s u r f a c e .

s = Longitudinal slope of t h e water s u r f a c e (ft fall/ft

run). I f f l o w i s u n i f o r m , i t i s a l s o t h e s l o p e of t h e
i n v e r t o f t h e channel.

The c o n s t a n t , 1.486, i s f r e q u e n t l y rounded t o 1.49, respecting

t h a t o t h e r parameters, most n o t a b l y roughness, a r e r a r e l y known
t o more t h a n two s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s . The c o n s t a n t has u n i t s
associated with it. The v a l u e g i v e n h e r e r e q u i r e s t h a t the
s p e c i f i e d u n i t s be used f o r t h e v a l u e s e n t e r e d i n t o t h e e q u a t i o n .

Long p i p e segments o p e r a t i n g under gravity flow are

frequently s i z e d t o f l o w j u s t f u l l w i t h t h e Manning e q u a t i o n .
Usual source d a t a are the discharge, s l o p e and ‘roughness
coefficient. The p i p e d i a m e t e r f o r f u l l f l o w i s computed, and
average c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l v e l o c i t y i s o f t e n o f interest. Another
r e c u r r i n g problem i s t o f i n d t h e c a p a c i t y ( d i s c h a r g e ) o f a p i p e
a t a g i v e n slope.

Such problems may be s o l v e d w i t h t h e a i d o f a Manning c h a r t .

(For an example, see A I S 1 manual f o r corrugated-metal p i p e and
t h e ACPA manual f o r c o n c r e t e p i p e . ) However, s i n c e t h e advent of
electronic calculators, i t may be more e f f i c i e n t t o make d i r e c t
calculations.

1-15
 For c i r c u l . a r p i p e s f1owin.a i u s t f u l l , t h e Manning equation
can b e r e f o r m u l a t e d as:

(1-9)

w he r c : , Ac
@J l4i-i

D = T h e o r e t i c a l p i p e diameter ( i n ) f o r j u s t - f u l l ,flow.

G! = Discharge ( c f s ) .

n = Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t (dimensionless).

s := L o n g i t u d i n a l s l o p e ( f t / f t ) .

The p i p e diameter o b t a i n e d s h o u l d be rounded up t o t h e nearest

standard pipe size. Standard p i p e s i z e s (diameter i n inches)
used i n d r a i n a g e systems a r e 15, 18, 21*, 24, 27+, 30, 3 3 * , 36,
42, 48, 54, 60, 66, and 72. S i z e s l a r g e r t h a n 72 i n c h e s a r e
a v a i l a b l e , b u t sometimes r e q u i r e s p e c i a l o r d e r . Those marked ( * )
a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e i n a l l l o c a t i o n s and a l l m a t e r i a l s .

For circular Dioes f l o w i n q i u s t f u l l , t h e average c r o s s -

s e c t i o n a l v e l o c i t y o f f l o w can be found by another reformulation
o f t h e Manning e q u a t i o n :

where:

V = Full-flow velocity ( f t l s e c ) .
D = F i p e diameter (in).

s = Longitudinal slope ( f t / f t ) .

n = Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) .
A Tabular Aoproach

The p r o c e d u r e g i v e n above, t o g e t h e r w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e
p r o f i l e c o n s t r a i n t s i s c o n v e n i e n t l y executed i n a t a b u l a r format.
Many t e x t s suggest a format, and most jurisdictions adopt a
standard format. One t h a t t h e a u t h o r p r e f e r s i s shown i n T a b l e
1. Structures are i d e n t i f i e d by numbers p r e . f i x e d by "I" f o r
i n l e t s and "M" f o r manholes. Drainage areas a r e g i v e n u n i q u e
designations. Then t h e t a b l e can be f i l l e d i n t h e stepwise
procedure.

1-16
Table I. 1 pipe-sizing table.
 The columns of Table 1 a r e t r e a t e d as f o l l o w s :

FROM - The d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r e a t t h e upper end o f

t h e pipe.

TO - The d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e s t r u c t \ . \ r e a t t h e lower end of

t h e pipe.

AREAS - The d r a i n a g e areas c o n t r i b u t o r y t o t h e upstream end

of t h e pipe, l i s t e d by designation (conveniently the
d e s i g n a t i o n s of t h e i n l e t s c o n t r i b u t i n g f l o w ) .

4 ,, TOTAL HREH -
The t o t a l a r e a ( a c ) d r a i n i n g t o the upstream
end of t h e pipe.

5. INLET T I M E -
Flow t i m e (min) o n t h e ground t o the most
remote i n l e t o n t h e l o n g e s t f l o w p a t h ( i n terms of t i m e ) t o
t h e pipe being sized.

6. PIPE TIME -
Sum o f t h e f l o w t i m e s ( m i n ) i n p i p e a l o n g t h e
longest flow path ( i n terms of t i m e ) t o t h e p i p e b e i n g
sized.

7. T I M E OF CONC -
Col 5 + Col 6. This i s t h e longest f l o w time
of all p o s s i b l e p a t h s from t h e most remote p o i n t i n the
system t o t h e upstream end o f t h e p i p e b e i n g s i z e d . It i s
t h e t i m e 0.f c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m i n ) .

8. INTENSITY -
The r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y ( i n / h r ) f o r t h e design
storm o f i n t e r e s t and t h e t i m e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n (Col 7 j ,
taken from t h e a p p l i c a b l e Intensity-Duration-Frequency Chart
(e.g., E x h i b i t 31, o r computed from an IDF e q u a t i o n .

9. RUNOFF COEFF - The composite r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t for the

areas i n Col 3.

10 . DISCHCIHGE -The d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e ( c f s ) . G! CIA.

(Col 9 ) . * ( C o l 8 ) + ( C o l 4 )

11. SLOPE - Invert slope of pipe ( f t / f t ) , as decided within

p r o f i l e constraints.

12. Dtheo - Theoretical minimum pipe diameter (in), from

E q u a t i o n 1-9.

13 . SIZE - Standard p i p e s i z e ( i n ) , as s e l e c t e d .

14. V f u l l - F u l l - f l o w average
cross-sectional velocity (ft/secj,
computed f r o m E q u a t i o n 1-10.

15. LENGTH - Length ( f t ) of t h e p i p e segment o f interest, from

map o r g i v e n data.

16. SEGMENT T I M E -
Flow t i m e (min) t h r o u g h pipe segment of
i n t e r e s t , (Col 15)/ ( (Col 1 4 ) U b O ) .

1-18
17. UPPER I N V E R T - I n v e r t e l e v a t i o n o f t h e upper end of t h e p r p e
of interest, s e t by r e f e r e n c e .to upstream p i p e s and cover
requirements.

18. LOWER I N V E R T .- I n v e r t e l e v a t i o n of t h e l o w e r end of t h e p i p e

of interest, set equal t o ( C o l 17)-((Col 1 1 ) + ( C o l 15)).
Check for adequate cover; revise slope (Col 11) i.f
necessary.

19. TOP € L E V - Ground e l e v a t i o n a t upstream end, f o r reference.

There a r e a good many v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e t a b l e found i n the

references. Some t h a t have been n o t e d a r e l i s t e d :

1. Some d e s i g n e r s r e c o r d S U M ( C i * A i ) i n a column, rat.her

t h a n computing a r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t externally. Then
dischar.ge i s computed as (SUM(Ci*Ai))+I, which i s
e q u i v a l e n t t o u s i n g a composite r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t .

2. Some j u r i s d i c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t v e l o c i t y (Col 1 1 ) be
computed f o r t h e p a r t - f u l l f l o w c o n d i t i o n t h a t usually
results from the pipe-selection decision. In a
c i r c u l a r pipe, t h e f u l l - f low v e l o c i t y e x i s t s b o t h when
flow i s f u l l and when i t i s h a l f - f u l l . Between f u l l
and h a l f - f u l l , f l o w i s s l i g h t l y f a s t e r than t h e f u l l -
flow velocity, Given the imprecision of the entire
p i p e - s e l e c t i o n a l g o r i t h m , t h e use o f f u l l - f l o w v e l o c i t y
t o set i n l e t time i s j u s t i f i e d .

...
2, Some j u r i s d i c t i o n s r e q u i r e p r e c i s e c a l c u l a t i o n s t o s e t
the drop i n i n v e r t t h r o u g h a s t r u c t u r e . Again, the
overall crudeness of t h e procedure rarely justifies
watch-making p r e c i s i o n i n any element.

1-17
 U Y D R A U L I C GKADE LINE RNRLYSIS

The chief concern i n a system t h a t i s a f f e c t e d by h i g h

t a i l w a t e r a t t h e o u t l e t i s water ponding above an i n l e t . Systems
in flat t e r r a i n frequently are i n s t a l l e d with the pipe o u t l e t
below design water level i n the receiving channel. Many
j u r i s d i c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h e p l o t t i n g o f t h e h y d r a u l i c grade l i n e on
the system p r o f i l e s as an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e surcharged system
w i l l n o t misbehave.

The h y d r a u l i c g r a d e l i n e i s t h e l e v e l t o which the water

would r i s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e system ifu n c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e pipes.
The h y d r a u l i c grade l i n e i s o f p a r t i c ~ t l a r i n t e r e s t a t inlets
where water can escape from t h e system if t h e r e i s inadequate
capacity. N o t e t h a t when p i p e s a r e s e l e c t e d t o f l o w j u s t + u l l ,
and t h e r e i s no submergence a t t h e o u t l e t , the hydraulic grade
l i n e f o l l o w s t h e t o p o f t h e i n s i d e of t h e p i p e .

A p p l i c a t i o n o f Enerqv B a l a n c F

The location of t h e h y d r a u l i c grade l i n e i s computed b y

a p p l y i n g an energy b a l a n c e f r o m a known water s u r f a c e downstream,
t h r o u g h a s e c t i o n of p i p e , t o an unknown e l e v a t i o n a t an upstream
point. The i d e a i s p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n an a b b r e v i a t e d b u t useful
form. The a p p l i c a t i o n of the basic energy equation usually
indicates t h a t t h e upstream water l e v e l i s d e t e r m i n e d by a d d i n g
t h e f r i c t i o n and form l o s s e s t o t h e downstream e l e v a t i o n :

Za = Zb + hf + hm (1-11)

i n which

Za = The upstream elevation of the hydraulic grade line

(ft).

Zb = The downstream e l e v a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c grade line

(ft).

hf = The head l o s s due t o p i p e f r i c t i o n ( f t ) .

hm = The minor l o s s e s , o r form l o s s e s ( f t ) .

1-20
FLi.c.t,&OQ Losses
Several e x p e r i e n t ia l l y d e r 1 ved e x p r e s s i o n s e:.: i st ior
e s t i m a t i n g p i p e - f r i c t i o n 1o s s ~ s . Amang t h e s e , t h e Darcy-Wei sbach
and Manning e q u a . t i o n s are most u s e . f u l i n s t o r m w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n s .
Each of t h e e q u a t i o n s i s r e . f o r m u l a t e d f o r e f f i c i e n t application
i n commonly e n c o u n t e r e d u n i t s .

w - W e i s b a c h e_qLlation: T’he e q u a t i o n i s u s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d i n a
farm s i m i l a r to:

One can r e f o r m u l a t e and c o n v e r t u n i t s t o a r r i v e a t :

6264 f L Q*
(1-1.3)
Af L D5
i n which

h f = Head l o s s due t o p i p e f r i c t i o n (ft)

f = Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n factor (dimensionless)

L = Pipe length ( f t )

I
2 = Discharge ( c f s )

D = Pipe diameter ( i n ) .

The f r i c t i o n f a c t o r m a y b e . e s t i m a t e d b y r e f e r e n c e t o a Moody
diagram, a v a i l a b l e i n most h y d r a u l i c s r e f e r e n c e s , or i t may b e
computed from t h e Colebrook formula, o r one o f a number of
other approximations. The value of t h e f r i c t i o n .factor i s
u s u a l l y a b o u t 0.020.

Manninq e a u a t i m : The Manninq v e r s i o n i s u s e f u l f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s

in corrugated-metal p i p e and o t h e r materials f o r which the
specific roughness i s n o t readily available. The Manning
e q u a t i o n i s u s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d in a f o r m s i m i l a r to:

1-21
The head l o s s term is embedded i n t h e i r i c t i o n s l o p e (5). 1 he
e q u a t i o n may be u s e f u l l y r e f o r m u l a t e d as:

L nL
Af 2 2 LCO LIDO
5.13
(1-15)

i n which

h f = Head loss due t o p i p e f r i c t i o n (ft)

L = Pipe l e n g t h ( f t )

L! = Discharge ( c f s )

n = Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t (dimensionlessi

(See E x h i b i t t3.)

D = P i p e diameter (in).

Based on t h e s e two r e f o r m u l a t i o n s , t h e v a l u e s of f and n can

be r e l a t e d as:

$= 425 -nz
(1-16)

i n which

f = Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n f a c t o r (dimensionless)

n = Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s )
(See E x h i b i t 8 . )

D = F'ioe diameter (in).

Form l o s s e s

Minor losses;, o r f o r m l o s s e s , a r e t h e l o s s e s of energy t h a t

occur a t entrances, bends, fittings, and e x i t s i n t h e system
between t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s A and 6, upstream and downstream of
t h e p i p e segment o f i n t e r e s t .
 In general, the head loss due to form can be expressed as:

which may be reformulated as:

522 ICe QZ
4, =
P4
(1-18)

where:

h m = Head loss due to form (ft).

Ke = Aggregate loss coefficient (dimensionless).

L! = Dischar'ge (cfs).

D = Pipe Diameter (in).

T h e aggregate-loss coefficient, Ke, is the sum of the

individual loss coefficients, k i , for the entrance, bends,
fittings and exit, as they may exist in the system between points
A and B:

Ke = SUM(ki) (1-19)

For entrance loss coefficients, see Exhibit 2 1 .

For bends and fittings, estimates can be based on the

following (Perry, 1950):
Fitting ke
--------------
--------------E--------------

45-degree bend 0. J
90-degree sharp bend 1.3
90-degree medium bend 0.6
90-degree long bend 0.46
Open gate valve 0.13
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

For the exit from the pipe system, as a practical matter,

the exit loss coefficient may b e taken to b e either 0 o r I . If
the water exits unrestrained at the pipe velocity, use 0 ; there
is no exit loss. If the water exits to a stillwater container,
or if it exits perpendicularly to the flow downstream, use 1; the
exit loss is one velocity head.
 IFor the exit, i n t h e case where f l o w c o n t i n u e s t o another
pipe, t h e e q u a t i o n f o r a sudden enlargement may be used:

where:

ke = t h e e x i t loss c o e f f i c i e n t (dimensionless).

Da = t h e s m a l l e r o f t h e two d i a m e t e r s .

Da = t h e l a r g e r o f t h e two d i a m e t e r s .

Comb i ned Equat ions

The t e r m s of the energy b a l a n c e can i n most cases be

combined i n t o a s i n g l e e q u a t i o n w i t h t h e upstream water surface
elevation (HGL) b e i n g t h e unknown. The e q u a t i o n can be a p p l i e d
t o a l e n g t h o f p i p e w i t h appurtenances (manholes, bends, e t c . ) as
l o n g as t h e d i s c h a r g e and p i p e d i a m e t e r do n o t change.

HGL based on Darcy-Weisbach: U s i n g t h e Darcy-Weisbach .friction

factor, t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c grade l i n e a t t h e upstream
o f t h e s e c t i o n can be e,:oressed as:

rzf L
z 4 =zq 4- (1-21)

i n which

Za = The e l e v a t i o n o f t h e water s u r f a c e , or the hydraulic

grade line, at t h e upstream end of the pipe section
( f t above t h e datum)

Zb = The e l e v a t i o n o f t h e water s u r f a c e , or the hydraulic

grade line, a t t h e downstream end o f t h e p i p e s e c t i o n
( f t above t h e datum)

G! = Discharge ( c f s )

D = Pipe diameter (in1

f = Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n factor (dimensionless)

L = Pipe length ( f t ) I .~ d ’ / : ,-’

_/.
!-.
Ke = Aggregate l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t (dimensionless) I
I,

1-24
 eroar-ession t h r o u a h Svstem

To compute t h e e l e v a t i o n s 0.f p o i n t s on t h e h y d r a u l i c grade

1 ine:

1. Hegin w i t h t h e known water l e v e l a t t h e most downstream

p o i n t i n t h e system of i n t e r e s t .

2. E s t i m a t e t h e aggregate l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t (Ke) by summing

i n d i v i d u a l l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r e n t r a n c e , e x i t and any
bends o r fittings. Typically, a l l o w an e x i t loss
coefficient of 1.0 a t t h e o u t l e t , and a r e a s o n a b l e
value f o r t h e e n t r a n c e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t o f about 0.2.
The u s u a l v a l u e o f t h e aggregate l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t for
t h e most downstream segment i s about 1.2.

3. E s t i m a t e t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t and o t h e r v a l u e s f o r
t h e p i p e s e c t i o n , and compute t h e e l e v a t i o n (Za) of t h e
upstream p o i n t on t h e HGL. Let t h i s elevation become
t h e reference elevation (Zb) of t h e n e x t s e c t i o n
u p s t ream.

4. For a s e c t i o n where t h e downstream element i s a n o t h e r

pipe, compute the e x i t l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t as a sudden
espansion. If there i s no change i n p i p e d i a m e t e r ,
there i s no change i n v e l o c i t y , and the e s i t loss
coefficient i s zero. The e n t r a n c e c o e f f i c i e n t would
remain about 0.2. The u s u a l v a l u e of t h e a g g r e g a t e
loss c o e f f i c i e n t f o r an i n t e r n a l p i p e s e c t i o n i s a b o u t
0.2.

5. Compute t h e e l e v a t i o n ( Z a j o f t h e HGL a t t h e upstream

end of t h e p i p e s e c t i o n .

6. Froceed upstream i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n .

Occasionally, one w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e head l o s s i n c u r r e d

between s t r u c t u r e s i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y large. Note t h a t head
loss i s very s e n s i t i v e t o p i p e diameter, as evidenced by the
large exponent on diameter i n t h e head loss equations.
I n c r e a s i n g t h e p i p e diameter a s i z e o r two w i l l g r e a t l y reduce
head l o s s i n a s e c t i o n .

1-25
2-27
I
9 5-
I

a= 0.79 GF5
1-24
1-30
 1 i
I I
I

\
I\

I
I
\
\.

\\

f '
/-

1-31
 1.3 I 6.49

6.38
0.67

S-32
 SECTION I 1

CHHNNEL DESIGN

GENERAL

- Artificial stormwater c h a n n e l s a r e c r i t i c a l components of

t h e stormwater management system. Three p r i m e concerns govern
their design: t h a t they c a r r y t h e i r design storm ,flows w i t h o u t
overtopping, that they carry those f low!^ without being
excessively eroded, and t h a t t h e y a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y constructed
and maintained. The consequence o f f a i l u r e t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t
capacity i s f looding. The consequences o f e x c e s s i v e bank e r o s i o n
are eventual undermining o f f a c i l i t i e s near t h e channel and
abnormally h i g h c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f sediment t o downstr-eam channels
and l a k e s .

The d e s i g n o f two f r e q u e n t l y encountered channel t y p e s i s

t r e a t e d here. One i s t h e common t r a p e z o i d a l channel, and t h e
other i s t h e t r i a n g u l a r swale. 'The l a t t e r i s a subset of the
former. Triangular swales a r e u s u a l l y used , f o r s m a l l e r design
d i s c h a r g e s t h a n t r a p e z o i d a l channels.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL

The Manning e q u a t i o n i s t h e model of c h o i c e f o r many d e s i g n

and a n a l y s i s a p p l i c a t i o n s i n which t h e channel or conduit is
. f l o w i n g under . t h e influence of gravity. I t s mathematical
flexibility makes i t a p o w e r f u l t o o l i n a wide v a r i e t y of
conditions. One s h o u l d t a k e c a r e , however, t o a p p l y t h e e q u a t i o n
i n circumstances where i t s fundamental assumptions a r e s a t i s f i e d .

The Manning e q u a t i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e where f l o w i s steady and

uniform. Steady flow means t h a t d i s c h a r g e does n o t v a r y with
time. U n i f o r m f l o w means t h a t v e l o c i t y does n o t vary with
d i s t a n c e a t an i n s t a n t of t i m e . A l t h o u g h d i s c h a r g e does v a r y i n
a channel d u r i n g t h e passage o f a f l o o d wave, during the time
around t h e peak, t h e t i m e of i n t e r e s t i n channel design, f l o w i s
essentially steady. Uniform f l o w g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e s channel
cross-sections t o be t h e same a l o n g t h e channel l e n g t h , and it
r e q u i r e s a s t r a i g h t alignment. H u t i t is r e a s o n a b l e t o a p p l y t h e
Manning e q u a t i o n t o most f i e l d cases where channel segments are
p r a c t i c a l l y p r i s m a t i c and s t r a i g h t .

The Manning e q u a t i o n i s well-suited t o t h e task 0.f

determining t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e cross section for the
channel. Other models, such as w a t e r - s u r f a c e p r o f i l e computation
come i n t o p l a y a f t e r d e s i g n when a n a l y z i n g s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s of
f l o w near o b s t r u c t i o n s , c o n s t r i c t i o n s and o t h e r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s .

11-1
 DESIGN AND ANAI-YS I S PHOCEDURES

The Manning equation can be stated as:

in which
L! = Discharge ( c . f s ) .

n = Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless) an

experientially determined value which is a function of
the nature of the channel lining.

A = Cross-sectional area of flow (square feet), the area

through which ,flow takes place.

, R = Hydraulic radius (ft), found by dividing cross-

sectional area, A (sq ft), by wetted perimeter, P (ft).
Wetted perimeter is the distance along the perimeter of
the cross section against which water is flowing. It
does not include the free water surface.

s = Longitudinal slope of the water surface (ft fall/ft

run). If flow is uniform, it is also the slope of the
invert of the channel.

The constant, 1.486, is frequently rounded to 1.49, respecting

that other parameters, most notably roughness, are rarely known
to more than two significant figures. The constant has units
associated with it. The value given here requires that the
specified units be used for the values entered into the equation.
Notation

For the trapezoidal application, the i o l l a w i n g definition

s k e t c h i n d i c a t e s some o f t h e v a r i a b l e s :

I n t h e sketc'h,

W = Top w i d t h o f f l o w (ft).

H = Bottom w i d t h o f t h e channel (ft)

y = Depth o f flow (ft).

M = Side slope r a t i o ( f t h o r i z o n t a l / f t v e r t i c a l ) . (For a

2-to-1 s i d e s l o p e , t h e v a l u e of M i s 2.)

Section Relationships

The f o l l o w i n g equations a r e derived geometrically, and t h e

u n i t s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e g i v e n above:

(I
1-2)

(11-4)

The v a r i a b l e F r e p r e s e n t s w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r .

I 1-3
 Four Main Fracedures

Four main d e s i g n t o o l s a r e c o n s i d e r e d here. Each i s an

entensian of t h e Manning e q u a t i o n and i s s u b j e c t t o the same
assumptions o f t h e e x i s t e n c e of steady, uniform f l o w . The t o o l s
a r e developed as t h e f o l l o w i n g procedures:

1. Best h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n procedure.

2. V e l o c i t y - 1 i m i t e d procedure.

._..
7- Normal-depth procedure.

4. D e p t h - l i m i t e d procedure.

Using these, s i n g l y o r i n combinations, one can q u i c k l y a r r i v e a t

a cross s e c t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e design o b j e c t i v e s .

Hest H v d r a u l i c S e c t i o n

The b e s t hydraulic section i s t h a t c r o s s s e c t i o n which

simultaneously minimizes cross-sectional area and wetted
perimeter. Minimizing cross-sectional area minimizes the
quantity of e x c a v a t i o n . M i n i m i z i n g wetted perimeter minimizes
the quantity of l i n i n g . These a r e t h e two p r i n c i p a l c o s t s o u r c e s
i n channel c o n s t r u c t i o n . Land t a k e n by t h e channel i s a n o t h e r
cost source, and l a n d q u a n t i t y i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y minimized in
the best hydraulic section. B u t even when l a n d i s q u i t e
expensive, i t does n o t i n f l u e n c e g r e a t l y t h e economic c h o i c e of
s e c t i o n dimensions. Thus, the best hydraulic section i s l i k e l y
t o be t h e l e a s t expensive channel a l t e r n a t i v e , i f i t i s o t h e r w i s e
satisfactory . I f i t w i l l n o t work, i t i s u s u a l l y because i t is
too deep f o r s i t e c o n d i t i o n s , o r because f l o w w i l l be t o o f a s t
f o r the l i n i n g .

The b e s t o f a l l h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n s i s t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r c r o s s
section, but i t i s rare that i t i s practical. For t r a p e z o i d a l
cross sections, t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n i s h a l f of a r e g u l a r
hexagon -- a channel w i t h s i d e s l o p e s t o o steep f o r many l i n i n g s .
Hut even f o r t h e u s a b l e s i d e s l o p e s , those f l a t t e r than 1/1,
there i s a c e r t a i n c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t t o m w i d t h and depth that
w i l l m i n i m i z e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a and w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r , and t h u s
q u a l i f y as t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n f o r those c o n d i t i o n s .

11-4
 T'he f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e c a n b e u s e d t o compLite t h e bottom
width, B, a n d t h e d e p t h , yI of t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c . t i o n :

1. Select a c a n d i d a t e l i n i n g . and d e t e r m i n e its Manninq

r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t , n.

2. Select a s i d e s l o p e , M, suitable for the soil and

lining conditions.

T
._I . From E x h i b i t 9 f i n d t h e c o n s t a n t s I.; a n d C f o r t h e s i d e
M
slope.

4.. Find t h e depth, y. of t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n .from

E q u a t i o n 11-6.

5. Find t h e bottom width,H? of t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n

f r o m E q u a t i o n 11-7.

6. Check t h e d e p t h , y, against profile constraints.

7. Compute t h e a v e r a g e cross-sectional v e l o c i t y , V = m/O,

and check a g a i n s t t h e l i n i n g v e l o c i t y l i m i t .

8. I f t h e s e v a l u e s o f H and y are u s e d w i t h t h e o t h e r d a t a
in t h e Manning equation, it w i l l yield t h e design
d i s c h a r g e , C!.

The d e p t h , y, and bottom width, H, of t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c

section c a n b e f o u n d f r o m E q u a t i o n s 11-6 a n d 1 1 - 7 , . a n d E x h i b i t
9.
[I 'A7
'd = CM -w ( 11-6)

( 11-7)

Note t h a t t h e d e p t h a n d b o t t o m w i d t h c o m p u t e d i n E q u a t i o n s
11-6 a n d 11-7 are a " m a t c h e d p a i r . " E q u a t i o n 11-6 is n o g o o d f o r
computing t h e d e p t h of f l o w i n a channel f o r which t h e bottom
w i d t h i s known. U s e t h e Normal D e p t h p r o c e d u r e f o r t h a t .

11-5
 If one i s p r e p a r i n g a spreadsheet o r a program f o r channel
analysis, the f u l l e q u a t i o n s on which E x h i b i t 9 is based a r e t o
be p r e f e r r e d . These were d e r i v e d b y Vernon E. New f o r u s e i n t h e
p r e v i o u s v e r s i o n o f t h i s manual. The v a l u e I.< is o n l y a f u n c t i o n
of sideslope:

( I 1-0)

Once I.: i s known, t h e d e p t h of t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s ' e c t i o n can b e

found from: .

The b o t t o m w i d t h of the best hydraulic section is:

I n these equations,

M = H o r i z o n t a l component of s i d e s l o p e ( f o r 2/1, M = 2 )

0 = Design d i s c h a r g e ( c f s )

n = Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t (dimensionless)

3 = L o n g i t u d i n a l channel s l o p e ( f t / f t )

y = Depth of best h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n ( f t )

B = Bottom w i d t h o f b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n ( f t )

11-6
Velocitv-Limited F'rocedure

Frequently, i n the d e s i g n of trapezoidal channels- the

v e l o c i t y e ~ p e c t e df o r t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n i s too g r e a t . f o r
the l i n i n g of interest. The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e , worked o u t b y a
v i s i t i n g colleague, Ray Walton, w i l l avoid a laborious t r i a l -
a n d - e r r o r ex e r c is e :

1. I n s u r e t h a t t h e assigned v e l o c i t y , V i s l e s s than t h e
velocity of flow computed for t E i best hydraul-ic
s e c t i o n ( t h e channel w i l l n o t f l o w any f a s t e r ) .

2. Compute t h e r e q u i r e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area:

4
Aicr (11-11)

where
A = Required c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area (sq f t )
:<
= Design f l o w ( c f s ) .

V = Assigned (desired) v e l o c i t y (ft/sec)

a
.-..
7 Compute w o r k i n g c o n s t a n t s :

( I 1-12>

(wl i s always n e g a t i v e . )

4. Compute t h e d e p t h o f f l o w :

(11-14)

5. Compute t h e b o t t o m w i d t h :
Ax
0= -
% - 9 (11-15)

6. I f t h e s e v a l u e s o f B and y a r e used w i t h t h e o t h e r d a t a
i n t h e Manning e q u a t i o n , i t w i l l y i e l d t h e design
discharge, 12; and if v e l o c i t y i s computed, i t w i l l
~

e q u a l Va.

11-7
 ‘The V e l o c i t y - L i m i t e d procedure f r e q u e n t l y produces a channel
that i s u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y wide and s h a l l o w . T h i s w i l l happen f:i
t h e assigned v e l o c i t y , V y * i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y s l o w e r t h a n t h e b e s t -
h y d r a u l i c - s e c t i o n velociEy. I t i s u s u a l l y b e t t e r t o y o t n a more
r o b u s t l i n i n g t h a n t o p u t i n a v e r y wide channel.

Normal-DeDth Procedure

The problem of finding t h e normal depth of flow in a

trapezoidal channel i s very frequently encountered. It i s
n e c e s s a r i l v a t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r prwcedure. To f i n d normal depth i s
to find the depth o f f l o w , yI that satisfies t h e Manning
equation. U s u a l l y one i s asl::ed f o r t h e expected d e p t h when a
certain flow occurs, given t h e dimensions of thr? channel,
i n c l u d i n g bottom width.

An efficient manual procedure f o r finding nor-mal depth

follows.

Rearrange t h e Manning E q u a t i o n as:

I n t h i s form, t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e c o n t a i n s knowns, and t h e l e f t -

hand s i d e c o n t a i n s unknowns. When t h e v a l u e s o f 5 and y. and
t h u s CI and H, a r e chosen c o r r e c t l y , t h e l e f t - h a n d s i d e w i l l equal
t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e and Manning i s s a t i s f i e d . So, t h i n k o f t h e
r i g h t - h a n d s i d e as a r e q u i r e d q u a n t i t y ,
.
Zre
as a s i n g l e v a l u e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e pPoblem:
I t can be computed

f 11-17>

Think o f the left-hand s i d e as t h e q u a n t i t y a v a i l a b l e i n a g i v e n

s e c t ian, Z av:

(11-18)

11-8
 To b e g i n t h e computation, t h e v a l u e of Z is computed by
r
Equation 11-17. Then one proceeds l i n e b v l i n e Farough t.he t a b l e
worI.::ing across t h e columns as f o l l o w s :

E n t e r t h e 1::nown b o t t o m w i d t h , 8. This value w i l l be

entered i n a l l l i n e s i n c o l . ( 1 ) .

(In t h e f i r s t line, guess at the depth, y. On

subsequent l i n e s , e n t e r an improved e s t i m a t e . T h i s is
essentially an assumption t h a t w i l l be v a l i d a t e d i f Z
a
i s equal t o Z
req-
Compute t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area. A , by E q u a t i o n 11-2,
using H and y f r o m Col. ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) . and t h e s i d e
slope.

Compute t h e w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r , F, by E q u a t i o n 11-3,
using F3 and y from Col. ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , and t h e s i d e
slope.

Compute t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s , R, by d i v i d i n g t h e v a l u e
i n Col. ( 3 ) by t h a t i n Col. ( 4 ) .

Compute Z by E q u a t i o n 11-18, using t h e values from

Col. ( 4 ) afia ( 5 ) . Compare t h e v a l u e of Z i n Col. ( 6 )
with t h e computed v a l u e o f Z . I f thzv are n e a r l y
equal t h e v a l u e of y on t h e ks8e l i n e i n Col. (2) i s
t h e normal depth. I f t h e y a r e n o t c l o s e then e n t e r a
new e s t i m a t e o f y i n t h e n e x t l i n e . was too
If zav
b i g , t h e n y was t o o b i g . The r e s u l t i s t o l e r a b l y c l o s e
i f two values o f y, t h a t a r e c l o s e enough t o each
o t h e r , have a s s o c i a t e d v a l u e s of Z t h a t b r a c k e t Zre I
av
A crude p l o t o f Z versus y w i l l h e l p i n minimiziag
t h e number of trres necessary t o converge on t h e
answer.

To e n t e r a remark is h e l p f u l , b u t keep i t c l e a n .

Depth-Limi t e d Procedure

The depth-1 i m i t e d p r o c e d u r e is q u i t e u s e f u l f o r cases where

channel depth i s l i m i t e d by p r o f i l e c o n s t r a i n t s . The procedure
can be executed p r e c i s e l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e normal-depth p r o c e d u r e
detailed above. One d e c i d e s on t h e depth a t which t h e channel
should flow under t h e g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s . The bottom w i d t h i s
computed as t h e o u t p u t .

The same t a b u l a r approach can be used as shown above. The

d i f f e r e n c e s a r e t h a t depth, yI i s h e l d c o n s t a n t i n Col. ( 2 ) - and
bottom w i d t h , B, i s guessed a t and improved s u c c e s s i v e l y i n Col.
( 1 ) u n t i l Zav matches s u f f i c i e n t l y closely.
‘req

11-9
 T r i a n s u l a r Swales

Triangular swales may be t r e a t e d as trapezoidal channels

w i t h bottom width, B, equal t o zero. The f o u r a n a l y t i c a l t o o l s
d e s c r i b e d f o r t r a p e z o i d a l channels a p p l y . It i s true, however,
t h a t t h e absence of a bottom w i d t h makes i t unnecessary t o r e s o r t
t o trial-and-error s o l u t i o n s i n many cases. One can substitute
into the Manning equation directly and find solutions
algebraically.

When a t r i a n g u l a r swale i s t h e economical s o l u t i o n , a best-

hydraulic-section analysis w i l l point t o it. Bottom w i d t h , B,
w i l l compute t o a t r i v i a l l y s m a l l v a l u e . Note t h a t bottom w i d t h
can never b e e : t a c t l y zero, because depth, y , cannot be zero, and
Equation 11-10 w i l l always yield a non-zero value f o r H.
Triangular swales w i l l u s u a l l y be t h e s o l u t i o n o f c h o i c e when
s i d e s l o p e s a r e f l a t , say 4 / 1 o r f l a t t e r .

Grass-lined t r i a n g u l a r swales a r e f r e q u e n t l y used i n open-

area d r a i n a g e such as roadway mediansj, i n t e r c h a n g e s , open space
i n developments o f m u l t i - f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s , and a l o n g s t r e e t s n o t
constructed w i t h c u r b and g u t t e r . I n these a p p l i c a t i o n s , the
capacity of t h e g r a s s - l i n e d swale i s n o r m a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e
discharge at which flow approaches erosive velocity. Two
mathematical models can be combined t o compute an a l l o w a b l e
d r a i n a g e a r e a f o r a g i v e n p o i n t a l o n g a channel. I f the actual
d r a i n a g e area exceeds t h e a l l o w a b l e , one would expect t h e channel
t o erode. E q u a t i n g t h e R a t i o n a l f o r m u l a and t h e Manning e q u a t i o n
through t h e d i s c h a r g e G!, and s o l v i n g f o r t h e a l l o w a b l e d r a i n a g e
a r e a i n terms of o t h e r parameters s e t i n t h e - d e s i g n process, one
obtains:
/.ZI vr4 ( I + " ) 3
AA = CIM (11-19)

i n which

A d = Allowable drainage area (ac) f o r t h e p o i n t of interest

a l o n g t h e channel.

I = A p p l i c a b l e r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y ( i n / h r ) f o r t h e storm of
interest (usually t h e 5-min storm o f an appropriate
r e t u r n period.

C = R a t i o n a l r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) , composited
f o r t h e d r a i n a g e area .
n = Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t (dimensionless) f o r the
channel l i n i n g .

s i= L o n g i t u d i n a l channel s l o p e ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) a t t h e p o i n t
o f i n t e r e s t a l o n g t h e channel.

Va = Allowable velocity of flow (ft/sec) for the channel

lining.

11-10
 Once these parameters have been s e t for the point of
interest, f o r d e t a i l i n g purposes, t h e f o l l o w i n g can b e computed
f o r conditions of f u l l allowable flow:

The a l l o w a b l e d i s c h a r g e i s :

I 1-20)

The depth o f f l o w a t a l l o w a b l e d i s c h a r g e i s :

The t o p width (far s e t t i n g t h e required width of lining at

a l l o w a b l e flow) i s :

W =
( 11-22)

The e q u a t i o n s a r e most u s e f u l i n a,Tareadsheet or in a

program f o r a programmable c a l c u l a t o r . Thees b e s t use i s t o move
a l o n g a channel on t h e s i t e p l a n , s e l e c t i n g p o i n t s of interest
and comparing the alloyable t o the actual d r a i n a g e area. By
trial and e r r o r , p o i n t s may be found below which t h e channel
would be overloaded. A t such p o i n t s , an i n l e t may be p l a c e d t o
r e l i e v e t h e l o a d on t h e channel, o r t h e channel may be l i n e d as a
c o n c r e t e swale below t h a t p o i n t .

The e q u a t i o n s a l s o may b e used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t and

w i d t h o f l i n i n g m a t e r i a l t o p r o t e c t t h e channel a g a i n s t erosion
j u s t a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n u n t i l grass i s established.

Reference Data f o r Channels

Typically, experiential i n f o r m a t i o n i s needed t o s e t the

Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t and t o s e t l i m i t s on v e l o c i t y of
flow t o p r e c l u d e e x c e s s i v e bank erosion. The a u t h o r has
collected some defensible values for Manning roughness
caefficients i n Exhibit 8. Suggested v a l o e s for allowable
v e l o c i t i e s f o r v a r i o u s l i n i n g s appear i n E x h i b i t 10.

11-1 1
 P r e l i m i n a r v Cost E s t i m a t e s

The ' t o t a l initial c o s t o f t h e channel i s t h e sum of the

c o s t s of l a n d , l i n i n g and e x c a v a t i o n , c o n v e n i e n t l y expressed i n
dollars per f o o t l e n g t h o f channel. Component c o s t s of land,
lining and e x c a v a t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l l y determined b y t.op width,
wetted perimeter and cross-sectional area? respectively. 4
useful preliminary c o s t e s t i m a t e can be based upon t h e section
properties and estimated unit costs for land, lining and
excavation. The f o l l o w i n g u n i t c o s t s a r e d e f i n e d :

Land c o s t ($/acre)

Lining cost ($/square yard)

Excavation c o s t ($/cubic yard)

Then t h e t h r e e components o f channel c o s t can be e s t i m a t e d from

the section properties:

Land c o s t i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t o p w i d t h :

( I 1-23)

L i n i n g c o s t i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o wetted perimeter:

( I1-24)

Excavation c o s t i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o cross-sectional area:

Excavation c o s t = ( 11-23)

Each o f the c o s t s i s i n u n i t s of d o l l a r s per foot length of

channel.

One s h o u l d c o n s i d e r c a r e f u l l y t h e i n c l u s i o n of l a n d c o s t in
t h e estimate. Ifc o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t i s t h e o b j e c t , c l e a r l y land
c o s t s h o u l d be o m i t t e d . However, i f t h e t o t a l p r o j e c t c o s t i s a t
issue, and t h e object i s t o minimize t o t a l cost, then the
opportunity cost of c o m m i t t i n g l a n d t o t h e channel s h o u l d be
included.

11-12
 The crudeness o f t h i s e s t i m a t i n g approach i s i m p o r t a n t . The
q u e s t i o n a r i s e s as t o whe.ther t.o compute e x c a v a t i o n t o t h e i n s i d e
channel s u r f a c e o r t o ixllow f o r t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e l i n i n g . It
l.il:ely matters l i t t l e . Consider t h e sources o f i u n c e r t a i n t y in
the ec.timate a t such an ea.rly p l a n n i n g s t a g e f o r the channel:

i. The u n i t costs are subject t o gross error. Haul

d i s t a n c e s f o r s p o i l and l i n i n g m a t e r i a l may be unknown.
Actual c o n d i t i o n s under which e x c a v a t i o n must be done
cannot b e p r e d i c t e d .

0 The channel depth w i l l vary along t h e p r o . f i l e . Chances

a r e t h a t t h e s e c t i o n drawn i s a t a c r i t i c a l s p o t i n t h e
p r o f i l e where depth may be a minimum.

Given the uncertainty, t h e a u t h o r suggests for computational

efficiency that t h e i n s i d e channel dimensions be used i n the
estimate, and that c o n s e r v a t i v e l y h i g h u n i t - c o s t e s t i m a t e s be
used t o o f f s e t t h e u n c e r t a i n t y . Watchmaking p r e c i s i o n i s oLit of
p l a c e i n t h e mucky b o t t o m o f t h e newly excavated channel.

F r a c t I c a l Consi d e r a t ions

The f o l l o w i n g a r e s u g g e s t i o n s c o l l e c t e d by t h e a u t h o r from a
number o f p r a c t i o n e r s :

1. Fine materials i n t h e s o i l u n d e r l y i n g a stone lining

tend to migrate t h r o u g h t h e 'stone i n t o t h e channel
during h i g h - f low events. A filter fabric placed
between t h e s t o n e l i n i n g and t h e bank m a t e r i a l should
be considered.

0 The depth o f s t o n e l i n i n g s h o u l d be two t o t h r e e stone

d i ameters.
-
.2.. I n some cases) d e s i g n e r s l i n e t h e banks, but not the
bed. The bed i s s u b j e c t e d t o g r e a t e r e r o s i v e s t r e s s e s
than t h e bank.. I f t h e bed i s n o t l i n e d , t h e designer
should i n s u r e t h a t t h e bed m a t e r i a l i s sufficiently
robust.

4. Give special consideration t o points of heaviest

stress. These a r e t h e c e n t e r o f t h e bottom, on the
bank about one . f i f t h t a one t h i r d o f t h e depth LIP from
t h e bottom, and a l o n g t h e o u t s i d e of bends.
c
3. I n the design process, account for the projected
maintenance p o l i c y f o r t h e channel l i n i n g . If weeds
w i l l be a l l o w e d t o grow on t h e banks, they must be
c o n s i d e r e d i n s e t t i n g t h e s e c t i o n dimensions.

11-13
IL-I4
I' 7 . 1 0 GT 4
 4

R
= */P

4.6

4.0

4 .o

4.0

4.0 11. I 240.8 53.64

Z-lb
I
.
VI
I
I
r
n

TRY 6-54:
M= +/I
 SECTION I 1 1

CULVERT DESIGN

FCISIC CONCEPTS

Culverts a r e c o n d u i t s used t o pass streamf low under some

obstruction, usually under roadways and usually for short
diatances. , C u l v e r t s can a c t h y d r a u l i c a l l y i n a v a r i e t y o f ways.
Control can e x i s t a t t h e upstream end -- i n l e t control -- or in
the pipe or downstream -- outlet control. Inlet control
e s s e n t i a l l y i s o r i f i c e a c t i v i t y i n which t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e p i p e
i s the o r i f i c e . O u t l e t c o n t r o l i s b e s t modeled by a p p l i c a t i o n of
t h e energy e q u a t i o n .

The c h a r t procedures d e s c r i b e d h e r e a r e g e n e r a l l y s u f f i c i e n t
f o r t h e s i m p l e cases which predominate. For v e r y l a r g e systems,
f o r t h o s e i n which headwater d e p t h is c r i t i c a l , and f a r t h o s e i n
which i t i s u n c l e a r as t o whether t h e system i s under i n l e t or
outlet control, one s h o u l d a n a l y z e mare deeply. The latest
reference known to t h e author i s the Federal Highway
Administration pub1ic a t i o n "Hydraul i c Design of Highway
C u l v e r t s , " (FHWA, 1983).

Culvert Capacity Charts

I n t h e e a r l y 1966s, t h e Bureau o f P u b l i c Roads p u b l i s h e d i t s

culvert capacity nomographs. These remain t h e mast r e l i a b l e
source f o r r a p i d a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n of c u l v e r t s . They have been
widely d i s t r i b u t e d i n p u b l i c documents, and t h e y have been
included in many of .the recent publications of pipe
manufacturers. S e v e r a l a r e i n c l u d e d here, b e i n g t a k e n from t h e
o r i g i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n o f FPR.

E s t i m a t i o n o f Peak D i s c h a r g e

C u l v e r t s can be t r e a t e d h y d r o l o g i c a l l y e i t h e r as s t e a d y - f l a w
systems o r as impoundments. I f there i s substantial capacity f a r
storing water temporarily behind t h e culvert, impoundment
analysis i s justified. If l i t t l e water can be s t o r e d , the
steady-flow assumption i s valid. Steady-f 1ow analysis i s
c o n s e r v a t i v e , and i t is t h e usual approach.

I f t h e a n a l y s i s i s t o b e made under s t e a d y - f l o w conditions,

one need o n l y t o e s t i m a t e t h e peak d i s c h a r g e . I f t h e watershed
area i s l e s s t h a n about two square m i l e s , t h e R a t i o n a l Method,
detailed i n the previous section, i s t h e most p o p u l a r p r o c e d u r e
for e s t i m a t i n g peak d i s c h a r g e . For watersheds l a r g e r t h a n two
square m i l e s , mare complex procedures must be used, such as t h e
methods o f the Sail Conservation Service, unit-hydrograph
synthesis, regression-based p r e d i c t o r s such as t h o s e o f US
G e o l o g i c a l Survey o r t h e v a r i o u s computer models.

111-1
 USE UF THE CHAR'TS

I n the g e n e r a l d e s i g n case, one i s l i k e l y t o be a b l e t o

identify a maximum a l l o w a b l e headwater elevation for given
conditions of discharge and downstream water level. -rh e
approach i s t o .find a conduit, o r c o m b i n a t i o n 0.f conduits, to
pass t h e d e s i g n .flow a t an a c c e p t a b l e headwater elevation. The
system s h o u l d b e checked f o r capacit.y under b o t h i n l e t and o u t . l e t
control. I n a g i v e n d e s i g n case, s e v e r a l a c c e p t a b l e c u l v e r t s can
frequently be found. There may be h y d r a u l i c a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y
combinations i n one. two, three, .four and more b a r r e l s . 'The
selection among s e v e r a l adequate c o m b i n a t i o n s i s t h e n made on
a e s t h e t i c and economic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

E::hibits ii t h r o u g h 14 a r e f o r a n a l y s i s of systems under

i n l e t control, w h e r e i n t h e water l e v e l upstream i s d e t e r m i n e d by
energy losses that take place only a t the culvert entrance.
Eshibits 15 t h r o u g h 20 a r e f o r a n a l y s i s of systems under o u t l e t
c o n t r o l , wherein t h e water l e v e l upstream i s d e t e r m i n e d by energy
l o s s e s t h a t t a k e p l a c e a t t h e e n t r a n c e , t h r o u g h t h e b a r r e l and a t
the esit of t h e conduit. The o u t l e t - c o n t r o l c h a r t s apply to
submerged o u t l e t s , and t h e upstream water l e v e l i s i n f l u e n c e d b y
the driving head r e l a t i v e t o t h e downstream water level.
T h e r e f o r e e s t i m a t e s o f t h e downstream water l e v e l a r e c r u c i a l i n
design o r a n a l y s i s .

I n l e t Control-: The i n l e t c o n t r o l c h a r t s r e l a t e t h e s i z e o f the

conduit and t h e d i s c h a r g e t o a measure of headwater depth for
selected entrance conditions. Separate c h a r t s a r e g i v e n for
v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l shapes. A solution esists
f o r each a l i g n m e n t o f t h e l e f t t h r e e l i n e s on t h e c h a r t . On each
chart an example s o l u t i o n i s shown. Because t h e pipe-size
variable appears i n two o f t h e three lines;, pipe selection
consists of a trial-and-error exploration of solutions on the
chart.

O u t l e t Con-: The o u t l e t c o n t r o l c h a r t s m u s t t a k e i n t o account

more v a r i a b l e s t h a n t h e i n l e t c o n t r o l c h a r t s do, so t h e y appear
more comple:.:. However, t h e a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s of l e n g t h and
entrance head l o s s do n o t become u n w i e l d y . The c o n d u i t size,
length and e n t r a n c e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t d e t e r m i n e a p o i n t on the
turning line. Then selection of either discharge or head
determines t h e o t h e r . Please n o t e t h a t a t a b l e o f entrance l o s s
c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s i s g i v e n i n E x h i b i t 21. The
t a b l e i s t a k e n f r o m t h e same source.

I n either i n l e t or o u t l e t control, the charts y i e l d a single

conduit solution. For m u l t i p l e b a r r e l s , divide the discharge
among b a r r e l s and proceed.

If i t i s u n c l e a r whether t h e system i s under i n l e t o r o u t l e t

control, compute t h e headwater e l e v a t i o n b o t h ways. 'The h i g h e r
o f t h e two e l e v a t i o n s c o n t r o l s .

111-2
w
l
7
= -4'
-
3'
- 3.0
 SECTION I V

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

(American Concrete P i p e A s s o c i a t i o n (1985) Concrete F i p e Desiqn

Manual, ACPA, Vienna, VA.

American I r o n and S t e e l I n s t i t u t e (1971) ,

Handbook of 5.L.e-e-L
Q r a i n a q e and Hiqhway C o n s t r k c t i a n Produc.&, AISI, New York,
NY.

American I r o n and S t e e l I n s t i t u t e ( 1 9 8 0 ) , Modern Sewer Desisn,

A I S I , Washington, DC.

American Public Works Association (lYEI1) , Urban Stormwat-5.C.

Manaaement, APWA, Chicago.

8ureau o f Public Roads (1965), "Hydraulic Charts for the

Selection of Highway Culverts," Hydraulic Engineering
C i r c u l a r No. 5 , U.S. Dept. o f Commerce, Washington, DC.

Bureau of Reclamation, 1974, Der,icln of Small Dams, USGPO.

Washington, DC.

Chow ( 1 9 5 9 ) , Ven Te, O D e n Channel H y d r a u l i c s , McGraw-Hill.

Chow (1964), Ven Te, Ed., -book of ApDlied Hvdroloav, McGraw-

Hill.

F e d e r a l Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (1979) ,
"Design of Urban Highway
Drainage --S t a t e of t h e A r t , " R e p o r t FHWA-TS-79-225, U.S.
Dept. o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , Washington, DC.

Federal Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (1985), "Hydraulic Design of

Highway C u l v e r t s , 'I H y d r a u l i c D e s i g n S e r i e s No. 5, Report
FHWA-IP-55-15, U.S.Dept. of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , Washington, DC.

K i n g (1963), Horace W., and E. F. B r a t e r , Handbook o f Hydraulics,

McGraw-Hi 11.

Perry, (1950), John ti., Ed., Chemical Enqineers' Handbook,

McGraw-Hi 11.

Streeter (1975)- V i c t o r L. and E. B. Wylie, Fluid Mechanics,

McGraw-Hi 11.

U.S. Geological Survey (1967) Roushness C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

N a t u r a l Channels, USGS Water-Supply Faper 1849, U.S. Dept.
of I n t e r i o r , Washington, DC.

Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (c. 19/38) "Storm

Drainage Standards, 'I H y a t t s v i l l e , MD.

IV-1
 SECTION V

EXH I: B 11s

The following e x h i b i t s were c o l l e c t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e 0.f:

illustrating the concepts taught i n t h e presentations.

S o u r c e s and C r e d i t s

1. 'Tal::en f r o m v a r i o u s s o u r c e s a s r e f e r e n c e d .

2. Computed b y Malcom f r o m d a t a g i v e n i n (JSWB, 1961, and N O A A ,

177'7.

1.
._I . Computed b y Malcom f r o m E x h i b i t 2.

4. Ta!-::en f r o m FtiWA, 197Y.

9. Taken from Hauer a n d Woo (1964) " H y d r a u l i c D e s i g n o f

Depressed Curb Opening I n l e t s , " Hiohwav Research Record,
Highway R e s e a r c h B o a r d , No. 5 8 .

6. Same a s 9.

7. Computed b y Malcom u s i n g M a n n i n g E q u a t i o n .

8. From C h o w , 1959, and common c i t i n g s .

9. Computed b y Malcom.

1I:) . Based on
ilY65) ~
similar
"Design of
i n f o r m a t i o n i n Bureau of
Roadside Channels, "
Public
Hydraulic
Roads
Design
S e r i e s No. 4, U . S . D e p t . of Commerce, W a s h i n g t o n , DO.

11 through 21. From B u r e a u of Public Roads (1965),

"Hydraulic Charts for the Selection of H i g h w a y C u l v e r t s a"
Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 5, U.S. Dept. of
Commerce, W a s h i n g t o n , DC.

v- 1
 Table of Rational runoff coefficients.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Description C Source
____________________--------_-------------------------
Roof inclined .
1 00 Mal com
Street, driveway, sidewalk 0 . 95 Chow, lY64
Parking lot o .YO Malcom
Roof, flat 0.90 Mal cam
Commercial , generalized 0.85 Malcom
Apartment's, schools, churches 0. 60 WSSC, c.1968
Residences, 1 0 dwell ings/acre U.60 Mal com
Residences, 6 dwellings/acre 0. s5 Malcom
Residences, 4 dwellings/acre 0.so Malcom
Residences, 2 dwellings/acre (3.40 Malcom
Unimproved cleared a r e a 0.35 Mal com
Lawn, dense soil, steep >7% 0.35 Chow, 1964
Playground 0.35 Chow, 1964
Park, cemetery 0.25 Chow, 1964
Lawn, dense soil, avg 2-7% 0.22 Chow, 1964
Wooded, sparse ground litter 0. 20 M a l com
Lawn, dense soil, f l a t 2% 0.17 Chow, 1964
Lawn, sandy, avg 2-7% 0.15 Chow, 1964
Lawn, sandy, flat < 2 % 0.10 Chow, 1964
Wooded, deep ground litter 0.10 Malcom
----------====--------==--------------------*==------------- -------------
)34R C t'tiai~ q<

Exhibit 1
 INTENSITY- DURATION-FREQUENCY FUNCTIONS

EI
1 I I I 1 I I. I I I I
0 m 40 60 80 100 im
a 2 + 5 4
r i d cutdial
10 A 2 5
(min)
x 5 0 v 100

a - , I

,r.

E x h i b i t .3
NOMOGRAPH FOR FLOW IN TRIANGULAR CHANNELS

1.0

1.0

.a0
,TO
a0
.SO

40

LO

:t-
I-
2

. ......... .. G
a
..... .-."...-.
IU.U
u n WUI
y. 18. n" .ooo
0s". .
I I"Y LO"* I-
.007 u) IO
X W
...I#ea".*
..
. . 0 .ow a
W 00

. ..+
.
,I "W
CIYI. 'WI. W 07
u ne W I P
oa
-I
a
0 00
m
a
3
0
,008
I- oa
4
I
I- 08
a
W
.OOI 0

Onr loot i m 0.3048m

01
Onr cubic loot i a 0.0203m'

Exhibit 4
 -
STREET SIDE INLET D E S C R I P T I O N
So street s l o p e
in ft/ft
= cross slope
sx in f t / f t
L i = length of i n l e t
OEPRESSEO AREA in f t
CUR8 a = depression drop
C U R 8 OPENING
in inches
w = width i n f e e t
of depression

PLAN

5 ft
-
opening len gth, n = 0.016, W = 2 . 0 f t ,
a greater than or equals 2 inches
minlmum height of curb opening TS,
Qi
INLET INTERCEPTION R A T E . 7

CHART 4s
10 ft opening length, n = 0.016, W
a greater than or equals 2 inches
-
2.0 ft

minimum height of curb opening = TS,

INLET INTERCEPTION RATE,7)-
Oi

0 01 0 2 03 0 4 O S 0 6 01 0 8 09 I O

a greater than or equals 2 inches

minimum height of curb opening TSx
-
1 5 f t opening length, n * 0.016, V
-
2.0 ft

INLET INTERCEPTIW RATE,TOi

h
Minimum s l o p e s for pipe selection.

Exhibit 7
Abbreviated Table o f V a l u e s o f Manning Roughness C o e f f i c i e n t s .

Exhibit 8
B e s t H y d r a u l i c S e c t i o n C a e f f i ci e n t s .

Exhibit 9
 Suggested Maximum Velocities for Various Channel Linings.
.. .. .

Ex hi b i t 1(:I
 CHART 2
160 10,000
EXAMPLE
168
156

144
- 4.000 Y* HW
fed
132
7 3,000 (I) 2.5 8.8
120 -
~

(21 2.1
1.4

IO8

96
-- 1.000
-- a00
84
-
-
- 600
-- 500 /'
72
-- 400
Lt/
/
-- 300 &
u): /
60 %=-m /
54

46 ./:
/ a
=
-80
IO0

/ a -
v -- 6 0
4 2 r50 -
HW
SCALE
ENTRANCE
O - 4 0 0 TYPE

.36
- 33
- so
- 27
- 24
- 21 4

3
- I8
~ 21.0

HEADWATER DEPTH FOR

CONCRETE PIPE CULVERTS
HEADWATER SCALES 283
mwsm MAY 1964 WITH INLET CONTROL
5-22
Eshibit 11
 CHART 5
-
- 10.000
-
- 8,000
- 6.000
- 5.000
144 - 4,000
132 = 3.000
120
.
c F

-
-
2,000

-
- 1.000
-
- 800
- 600
- so0
- 400

Hw
0
SCALE

Ill
I4

(31

HEADWATER DEPTH FOR

C. M. PIPE CULVERTS
WITH INLET CONTROL

5-25

E x h i b i t 12
 (I) 1.10 2.0
t
- 1,000 (4 1.15 2.1 - 2
- 800 (3) 1.22 2.2
- 2 - 2
- 600 *o in I..*
- so0 - 1.5
400

300
- 1.5 - 1.5

200

,P
_-_- -.--

/
/ --
0
1.0
- 1.0
z:
/ \
/ - 1.0
.9 - .9
w
- .9-
a
Y
0
- .e - .8'
u)
- .e
z
E
I-
-.7 - .7
ENTRANCE 5 -
- .7-
SCALE TYPE S
I-

-
a -.e
w - .6 - .6
-- eIO 0
a
w -
- s
- 6
- 5
2
- 4
3T -.5
- .I) - .5
;3

- 2
f

22' a 13. 1.0

I
.e
.35
.35
.6 la .35
18. I I I. .5

*A.001TIONAL SIZES MOT OIYEMSIONEO ARC

HEADWATER DEPTH FOR
LISTED I M FABRICATOR'S CATALOQ C. M. PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS
WmLU W R l K l C 11010¶ ,A* 1-3
WITH INLET CONTROL

5-26
 CHART 1

HEADWATER DEPTH
FOR BOX CULVERTS
WITH INLET CONTROL

5-21

E x h i b i t 14
P

0
1
D
3J
-4
 CHART I I

r 2000

u
-
- 1000
!

-1eo0
c

t
- 600 120

- 500 ioe
7 400 96

- 300
- 200
04

72
' 7 6 6

a-
- - 60
I&-
0 - - 54
:100 u)

5- '0?: - 4 0
-_
s-00
z- 42
z-60 5
5
S--5 0
s-36
2-33
i-4Oa.,$
0---+ -__
r30 g-304$
54 7
0
- 20 - 24
-21

-IO
- -16
-0
-
-6 -I5

-5
-4
-12

HEAD FOR
STA N DA RD
C. M. PIPE CULVERTS
FLOWING FULL
n = 0.024

5-34

E x h i b i t 16
 CHART 12
300

200

- 100
- 90
- 80
0- ,
-70
-60
- so I
0
a
-40--
u)
Y 0..0-w
f
0. E
a
s -30 L
I
a-
e.
w -
e.
-
0

W 49x27'
a ?! !
4 -20
a
I - X
o: z
E - 361x224
o- 4p
u)

W
I?
u)

i:
-IO
- 9
- 8
2cx161
- 7

-6 1
90

-5

-4

-3

L 2

HEAD FOR
STANDARD C M. PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS
FLOWING F U L L
nr0.024

5-35

E x h i b i t 17
 CHART 13

5000

i
4000

3000 SUlYERGEO OUTLET CULVERT FLOIINC fVLL

F-'

1000

1
too

HEAD FOR
STRUCTURAL PLATE
CORR. METAL PIPE CULVERTS
FLOWING FULL
n = 0.0328 TO 0.0302

5-36

E x h i b i t 18
 05
001
E 002
ul
g
z
x
- 0
ul
P 0
00s I
m D
- P
c)
SI F
p oot
P ?
ji
005 0
% W
0 Y)
I 009
E
W
fi-I 008
0001
OOOE
 CHART 8

I::::
5000

kzoo0
1.0
I-

H E A D FOR
CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS
FLOWING F U L L
n = 0.012
5-31

E x h i b i t 20
 Appendix B - TABLES
Table 1. - Entrance Loss Coefficients
Coefficient k, t o apply t o velocity head
v2 f o r
- determination of head
2g
loss a t entrance t o a structure, such a s a culvert or conduit, operat-
ing full or p a r t l y full w i t h control a t t h e o u t l e t .

Entrance head loss H, = k

v2
e z i

Type of Structure and Design o f ' h t r a n c e Coefficient k,

Pipe, Concrete
Projecting from P i l l , socket end (groove-end) ..... 0.2
Projecting from fill, sq. cut end ........... C.5
Headwall o r headwdl and w i n g v a l l s
..........
Socket end of pipe (groove-end) 0.2
Square-edge .................... '3.5
.............
Rounded (radius = 1/12D). 0.2
............
Mitered t o conform to fill slope 0.7
..........
*End-Section conformiw t o f i l l slope 0.5
Pipe, o r Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Metal

...........
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
Headwall o r headvall and wingValla
Square-edge .................... 0.5
............
Mitered t o conform t o fill slope 0.7
..........
*End-Section conforming to f i l l slope 0.5

Box, Reinforced Concrete

Headwall p a r a l l e l to embankment (no wingwalls)

Square-edged on 3 edges .............. 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 b a r r e l
dimension.. ................... 0.2
Wingwalls a t 30' t o 7 9 t o b a r r e l
Square-edged a t c r m................ 0.4
C r m edge rounded to radius of 1/12 b a r r e l
dimension.. ................... 0.2
Wingwalls a t 1 ' to 25' to,b a r r e l
0
Square-edged a t crown............... 0.5
Wingvalls p a r a l l e l (extension of s i d e s )
Square-edged a t crown . . . . . . .-. . . . . . . . 0.7
*Note: "Ebd Section conforming to f i l l slope", made of e i t h e r metal or
concrete, are the sections colmponly available from manufacturers.
From limited hydraulic tests they a r e equivalent i n operation t o
-
8 headwall i n both i n l e t and outlet control. Some end sections,
incorporating a closed taper i n t h e i r design have a superior hy-
draulic performance. These latter sections can be designed using
the Information given f o r the bevelled i n l e t , p. 5-13.

5-49 E x h i b i t 21
 ADDENDUM

TO

B A S I C STORMWATER

' ' DRAINAGE DESIGN

by H.H. Malcom, P.E.

Errata:

p. 1-9: I n Sec A-A of t h e f i g u r e , a t the l e f t , the omitted

dimension i s "H," t h e d r i v i n g head an t h e w e i r .

p. 11-3: Eqn 11-3 s h o u l d read:

p= B + Z
p. 11-11: I n t h e second l i n e below Eqn 11-22, "There" should r e a d
"Their. 'I

p. 11-14: Under "Situation," t h e value of Maximum Hvailable

Depth, which i s o m i t t e d , s h o u l d be 8.0 f t .

&Id enda :

Attached a r e t a b l e s and g r a p h s o f i n t e n s i t y , duration and

freauencv far t h r e e l o c a t i o n s acrass South Car0 i n a . Be ore
usin'g t h e s e i n any d e s i g n , t h e designer should v e r i f y t h a t the
r e l a t i o n s h i p s presented adequately represent those a p p r o p r i a t e t o
t h e region. Those p r e s e n t e d a r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f d a t a g i v e n i n
USWE TP 40 and NOAA Hydro-35, f a r which t h e d e t a i l e d r e f e r e n c e s
are:

U. S. Weather Bureau, " R a i n f a l l Frequency H t l a s of t h e United

States f a r D u r a t i o n s f r o m 30 M i n u t e s t o 24 Hours and R e t u r n
F e r i o d s f r o m 1 t o i o 0 Years," U. S. Weather Bureau T e c h n i c a l
Faper 40, May 1941.

Frederick, H.H. 'I V.A. Myers, E.P. A n c i e l l o , " F i v e t o 60 M i n u t e

P r e c i p i t a t i o n Frequency f a r t h e E a s t e r n and C e n t r a l United
S t a t e s , I' NOAA T e c h n i c a l Memorandum NWS HYDHO-33, N a t ianal
Weather Service, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Silver
Spring, MD, June 1977.

VI-1
 INTENSITY- DURAT1ON-FREQUENCY FUNCTlONS
=uE. sc

0 20 40 60 80 im 120

r i ot ~ m b b n(mini
0 2 t 5 4 10 A 2 5 x s o v tm

VI-3
 INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY FUNCTIONS
COLUMBIA. sc
10

7
CI
L

f
C 6
G
h
Y
C 5
a
c
-
C

1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
hdDvrrtian(ndn)
0 2 + 5 4 10 A 2 5 x 9 0 v 1w

VI-5
 INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY FUNCTIONS
10
-=
9

1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
r i d oumtian (mh)
a 2 + 5 4 10 A 2 5 x 5 0 v 100

VI-7
 COMPARISON OF TEN-YEAR STORMS

0 20 40 60 80 100 1M

VI-8
 INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY FUNCTIONS
MMmE BEACH, SC
-__--

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time of Duration (min)
0 2 + s 0 10 A 25 x so Q 100
INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY TABLE

LOCATION: --------)MYRTLE BEACH, SC

...............................................................
Return Period -->