Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods (MJLTM)

INVESTIGATING THE IMPACT OF GENDER ON

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING ANXIETY OF
IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS

Ali Taghinezhad
Department of English Language, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
(Corresponding author email: taghinezhad1@gmail.com)

Pegah Abdollahzadeh
Department of English Language, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran

Mehdi Dastpak
Department of English Language, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran

Zohreh Rezaei
Department General of Fars Province Education, Fars, Iran

ABSTRACT
THIS STUDY AIMED AT INVESTIGATING THE IMPACT OF GENDER ON FOREIGN LANGUAGE
LEARNING ANXIETY. TO THIS END, A QUESTIONNAIRE NAMED FOREIGN LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM ANXIETY SCALE WAS ADMINISTERED TO STUDENTS. IN TOTAL, 305
STUDENTS OF JAHROM, KAZERUN, AND SHIRAZ UNIVERSITIES PARTICIPATED IN THIS
STUDY, 74 MALE STUDENTS AND 231 FEMALE STUDENTS RANGING FROM 18 TO 30 YEARS
OF AGE. THE DATA WERE ANALYZED USING STATISTICAL PACKAGE FOR THE SOCIAL
SCIENCES (SPSS) VERSION 19. STANDARD MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS WAS
CONDUCTED TO INVESTIGATE WHETHER STUDENTS' GENDER CAN PREDICT THEIR
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING ANXIETY. THE RESULTS SHOWED THAT THERE WAS NO
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES REGARDING
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING ANXIETY. THEREFORE, GENDER COULD NOT PREDICT
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING ANXIETY. THE IMPLICATIONS ARE DISCUSSED AT THE
END OF THE STUDY.

KEYWORDS: GENDER, FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY, ANXIETY SCALE

1. Introduction
Since foreign language learning is a stressful activity (Hewitt & Stefenson, 2011), many researchers
have investigated the role of anxiety in learning a foreign language (e.g., Phillips, 1992). Foreign
language anxiety has been defined as negative emotional reaction that is caused when using or
learning a foreign or a second language (MacIntyre, 1999). Several studies have been carried out on
language anxiety. Although few of them have revealed that there is a positive relationship between
language anxiety and language achievement (e.g., Liu, 2006; Oxford, 1999), most of them have shown
that language anxiety and language achievement are negatively related (e.g. Horwitz, 2001,
MacIntyre, 1999, MacIntyre, Noels, Clement, 1997). Put it another way, learners who are more
proficient in a foreign language, experience less anxiety in learning it in comparison with other
learners who are not that proficient. Foreign language learning anxiety is a great barrier to foreign
language achievement (Young, 1991), so the low achievement of learners can be attributed to negative
effects of anxiety (Horwitz, 2000, 2001; MacIntyre, 1999, 2002; Tóth, 2007).
1.1 The role of gender

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Gender has been considered as a significant factor in SLA. There are some discrepancies between men
and women with regard to second language learning which cannot be fully erased through education.
According to gender theory proposed by Baumeister and Sommer (1997), gender stereotypes are the
expectations which are shared culturally for gender appropriate behaviors. Individuals learn the
appropriate behaviors from the culture and the family they grow up with. Therefore, non-physical
gender differences are the result of socialization (Eagly, 1987). Also, males and females differ
biologically with regard to their learning style and cognitive ability. These differences result from
their differences in their brain and their higher-order cortical functions (Keefe, 1982). In terms of
lateralization, there are differences between males and females, with males having more left-
hemisphere dominance than females (Banich, 1997). Research studies have shown that gender
differences affect students’ academic interest, needs, and achievements (Halpern, 1986).
Anxiety, as an important affective factor, influences second language learning particularly speaking
skill. Males and females have different levels of anxiety and it might delay the development of their
speaking ability. Therefore, learners have to make use of some learning strategies to overcome this
problem. Oxford (1990) maintains that learning strategies are the specific actions which are taken by
the learners to make learning easier, faster, more effective, more enjoyable, and more transferable to
new situations (p. 8). Language teachers try to find the main sources of students’ language learning
anxiety in order that they organize their class in a way which minimizes their students’ anxiety.
Gender is one of the factors that affect the anxiety in second language learning particularly second
language speaking skill.
1.2 Causes of foreign language anxiety
Although all aspects of using and learning a foreign language can cause anxiety, listening and
speaking are regularly cited as the most anxiety provoking of foreign language activities (MacIntyre
and Gardner, 1994; Horwitz, Horwitz & Hope, 1986).
The causes of foreign language anxiety have been broadly separated into three main components:
communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. Communication
apprehension is the anxiety experienced when speaking to or listening to other individuals. Test-
anxiety is a form of performance anxiety associated with the fear of doing badly, or indeed faili ng
altogether. Fear of negative evaluation is the anxiety associated with the learner's perception of how
other onlookers (instructors, classmates or others) may negatively view their language ability.
Sparks and Ganschow (1991) asked a question which drew attention to the fact that anxiety could
either be a cause of poor language learning or a result of poor language learning. If a student is
unable to study as required before writing a language examination, the student could experience test
anxiety. In this context anxiety could be viewed as a result. In contrast, anxiety becomes a cause of
poor language learning when due to anxiety that student is unable to adequately learn the target
language. There can be various physical causes of anxiety (such as hormone levels) but the
underlying causes of excessive anxiety whilst learning are fear and a lack of confidence. Lack of
confidence itself can come from various causes. One reason can be the teaching approach used.
1.3 Effects of foreign language anxiety
The effects of foreign language anxiety are particularly evident in the foreign language classroom,
and anxiety is a strong indicator of academic performance. Anxiety is found to have a detrimental
effect on students' confidence, self-esteem and level of participation (MacIntyre & Garnder, 1994).
Anxious learners suffer from mental blocks during spontaneous speaking activities, lack confidence,
are less able to self-edit and identify language errors, and are more likely to employ avoidance
strategies such as skipping class (Gregerson, 2003). Anxious students also forget previously learned
material, volunteer answers less frequently and tend to be more passive in classroom activities than
their less anxious counterparts (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986). The effects of foreign language
anxiety also extend outside the second language classroom. A high level of foreign language anxiety
may also correspond with communication apprehension, causing individuals to be quieter and less
willing to communicate (Liu & Jackson, 2008). People who exhibit this kind of communication
reticence can also sometimes be perceived as less trustworthy, less competent, less socially and
physically attractive, tenser, less composed and less dominant than their less reticent counterparts. This
study attempts to answer the following question:
Can foreign language learning anxiety be predicted by students’ gender?

2. Literature Review

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Over the past decades, several researchers have investigated the relationship between language
learning anxiety and beliefs about language learning (e.g. Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986; Lan, 2010;
Wang, 2005; Young, 1991). Studies have shown that most language learners experience anxiety in the
process of language learning (e.g. Andrade & William, 2009; Marwan, 2007). Having realized the
existence of foreign language anxiety in the process of language learning, researchers have
endeavored to decrease its harmful effects. For instance, Young (1991) suggested that learners’ beliefs
about language learning can contribute to foreign language learning anxiety.
In another study, Wang (2005) found that students who had a higher aptitude in language learning
tended to have a lower level of language learning anxiety. Also, Lan (2010) in her study found that
there was a significant negative correlation between language learning beliefs and foreign language
learning anxiety.
In the Iranian context, Toghraee and Shahrokhi (2014) conducted a similar study and found a positive
and statistically significant correlation between Iranian university students’ beliefs about language
learning and their level of language learning anxiety.
2.1 Anxiety in Second Language Acquisition
In second language research, anxiety is considered as an affective variable (Dörnyei, 2005; Horwitz et
al, 1986). Anxiety is composed of some parts which have different features (Dörnyei, 2005).
According to Dörnyei (2005), there are different categorizations for anxiety. Two of the most popular
classifications of anxiety are debilitating-facilitating (Scovel, 1978) and state-trait (Speilberger, 1983)
views of anxiety. In the former dichotomy, the facilitating or beneficial anxiety does not hinder
performance but it can facilitate it whereas debilitating anxiety can deter performance when an
individual is under excessive worry. In the latter classification, trait anxiety is rather stable with the
passage of time, whereas state anxiety is a transitory and changing feeling (Dörnyei, 2005).
Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) identified three types of foreign language anxiety: test anxiety,
communication apprehension, and fear of negative evaluation. In order to measure foreign language
classroom anxiety, they developed a 33-item questionnaire. Several studies have been done on
language anxiety most of which have shown a negative relationship between language learning
anxiety and language achievement (e.g., Horwitz, 2001; MacIntyre, 1999;; MacIntyre, Noels, Clement,
1997) and only a few of them have shown that language achievement is positively related to language
learning anxiety (e.g., Liu, 2006a; Oxford, 1999). Put it another way, the more proficient the learners,
the less anxious they become.
According to Dornyei (2005), trait anxiety is related to an individual’s anxiety in different situations.
He maintains that this is because of the disposition of the individual. MacIntyre (1999) believes that
situation-specific anxiety is similar to trait anxiety for both of them refer to the possibility of being
anxious in a specific situation. For example, language learners might have situation-specific anxiety
when a teacher calls them to speak English in the classroom. Another kind of anxiety is state anxiety
which is the emotional reaction to the present situation and is considered as a moment-to-moment
experience (MacIntyre, 1999; Dornyei, 2005). MacIntyre (1999) differentiates situation-specific anxiety
and trait anxiety from state anxiety. Situation-specific anxiety and trait anxiety refer to the possibility
of getting anxious in a specific situation, while state anxiety refers to the way an individual
experiences anxiety. MacIntryre (1999) suggests that state anxiety has impacts on cognition, emotions,
and behavior. An example for state anxiety can be a person who tries to abandon a situation and the
bodily effects including a rapid heartbeat and a seating palm. This might result when making a
speech in front of a large number of people. Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) maintained that
language anxiety is an identifiable variable in foreign language learning. Krashen (1988) discussed the
influence of affective filter in second language acquisition with regard to input. He suggested that
when the affective filter is high, an individual is less likely to process the input. The affective filter
involves emotional reactions like language anxiety.
Many studies have been done investigating the relationship between anxiety and language learning
indicating that anxiety can have an adverse effect on the performance of those who speak English as a
foreign language (e.g., Chen & Lee, 2011, Stroud & Wee, 2006). Some studies related to the scope of
the present study are reported here. In a study by Liu (2006b), it was revealed that students who had
advanced English language proficiency had less anxiety. In a recent study, Chakrabarti and Sengupta
(2012) studied the language learning anxiety of Indian students. They found that the students’ test
anxiety was high among other components of anxiety.

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Rezazadeh and Tavakoli (2009) conducted a study in Iran investigating the relationship among
academic achievement, gender, years of study, and levels of test anxiety. One hundred and ten
Iranian EFL students participated in that study. The findings showed that the female students had a
higher level of anxiety. And there was no relationship between years of study and test anxiety. In
another study by Sadighi, Sahragard and Jafari (2009) on eighty Iranian EFL learners, it was found
that there was no statistically significant relationship between years of study and the level of anxiety.
In a recent study by Mesri (2012a), it was shown that there was a statistically significant relationship
between gender and Foreign Language Class Anxiety (FLCA). According to these studies, language
learning anxiety of EFL learners was on a high range. However, since the number of participants in
the Iranian context is low (n=52), more research on this issue should be done.
2.2 Gender and Second Language Acquisition
Gender has been considered as a significant factor in SLA. Males and females are biologically
different in terms of their mental abilities and their learning styles. These differences arise from the
development of brain and also from higher order cortical functions (Keefe, 1982). Regarding
lateralization, males are more left brain dominant than females (Banich, 1997). Research shows that
gender differences affect students’ needs, academic interests, and achievements. SLA theorists believe
that females have superiority in their L2 process (Ehrlich, 2001).
As Jiménéz-Catalán (2000) states, individual differences such as learning style, age, motivation,
aptitude, learning style and motivation are well discussed in many SLA research studies. However,
little attention has been paid to gender in the field of second language learning and teaching (Catalan,
2003; Nyikos, 2008; Sunderland, 1994). In addition, as Ehrlich (1997) and Sunderland (2000) mention
in their studies, in research studies on gender and SLA, the role of gender is discussed in an
oversimplified manner.
2.3 Studies on Gender in Second Language Acquisition
Ellis (2008) in his scholarly work The Study of Second Language Acquisition has allocated just a few
pages on gender and second language acquisition. First, he explained the distinction between gender
and sex. Then, he mentioned some studies conducted on this issue. Two of the studies belong to
Burstall (1975) and Boyle (1987) showing that female students outperform their male counterparts in
the examinations applied. However, Ellis does not reach any conclusive results regarding these
findings. He maintains that such generalizations may be misleading as Boyle’s study showed that
male students had a higher achievement in listening tests and the findings of Bacon and Finnemann
(1992) indicated that there was no significant difference between females and males. Ellis discusses
learning strategies and attitudes towards learning which are directly related to gender. Regarding the
attitude, he refers to some studies which are related to motivational orientations. For instance,
Ludwig (1983) found that male students were more instrumentally motivated than females, and
based on a study done by Gardner and Lambert (1983), female students of French were more
motivated than males. According to Ellis (2008), there was no unanimity in research studies regarding
gender differences in SLA in terms of attitudes, achievement, and strategy use at that time. Therefore,
he concludes that sex interacts with other variables in determining second language proficiency. So, it
is not always the case that female students perform better than males.
In another study, Coates (1986) showed that girls acquire language better than boys. However, Xin
(2008) maintained that several factors influence the acquisition of a language among which she lists
the personality of the learners from which motivation is derived. She mentions that the role of gender
in language acquisition has been played down by researchers. Therefore, it is too difficult to perceive
the distinctions between men and women in learning a foreign language. Findings of the study
showed that girls tend to learn English better than boys. The girls gave some explanations for their
tendency to learn English. They said that they learn English to acquire knowledge, improve their
communicative ability, and to improve their social status. On the other hand, just a small number of
boys acknowledged that English is important for them. The analysis revealed that girls are more
motivated than boys in learning English as a foreign language.
2.4 Gender and Language Learning Anxiety
Some studies have been done regarding the relationship between gender and language learning
anxiety. Chang (1997) concluded that females had higher level of anxiety than males. In another
study, Ezzi (2012) investigated the relationship between FL anxiety and gender among male and
female students with regard to their educational level, age and residence and found that females had
a higher level of anxiety than males.

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In the Iranian context, Rezazadeh and Tavakoli (2009) investigated the relationship between gender
and language learning anxiety and found that females have a higher level of test anxiety in
comparison with their male counterparts. In another study in Iran, Mesri (2012a) arrived at the same
conclusion. However, Fariadian, Azizifar and Gowhary (2014) investigated the role of gender in
speaking anxiety of EFL Iranian learners and found that boys showed higher levels of language
learning anxiety in comparison with female students.
In another study, Aida (1994) found no statistically significant relationship between language
learning anxiety and gender. Tahernezhad et al. (2014) investigated the degree of anxiety among
Iranian intermediate EFL learners and its relation to their motivation and reached the same result.
3. Method
3.1 Participants
In order to collect the required data, three Iranian universities were selected using cluster sampling.
The universities included Shiraz, Jahrom, and Salman Farsi Universities in Shiraz, Jahrom and
Kazerun, respectively. The participants were female and male students of English language. In total,
305 students participated in this study, 74 male students and 231 female students ranging from 18 to
30 years of age. All of them were native speakers of Persian studying English as a foreign language at
university.
3.2 Instruments
A questionnaire was used in this study namely, Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)
The items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5). This
questionnaire was designed by Horwitz et al. (1986) consisting of 33 items on a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (5). It aimed at examining students’ anxiety
pertaining to foreign language learning in classroom contexts. One of the reasons for using this scale
was that it has been one of the most comprehensive and valid instruments for measuring students’
anxiety in classroom contexts. Another reason was that it showed favorable reliability coefficients
with the samples of population to which it had been administered (Horwitz, 1991). Nowadays, it is a
frequently used scale which is often shortened or adapted in studies which are concerned with similar
purposes. This scale is a self-report measure which assesses the level of anxiety, as indicated by social
comparisons and negative performance expectancies, psycho-physiological symptoms and avoidance
behaviors.
Nakayama (2007) reported the Cronbach’s alpha of this questionnaire as follows: Future Use Anxiety
(a= .929) and In Class Anxiety (a= .770). The reliability coefficient of the FLCAS in this study was .918.
3.3 Data Collection and Analysis Procedure
First, the students were informed about the objectives of the study. Then, they were given the
instructions regarding how to answer the items of the questionnaire. They were asked to answer
open-ended questions such as gender and academic level as well. They were also assured about the
confidentiality of the information that they were supposed to provide.
Having received the questionnaire from the students, the researchers scored, and entered the data
into a spread sheet in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 19. Then, descriptive
statistics were computed and reported. The data underwent some descriptive statistics such as
frequencies, mean, and standard deviation together with correlational analyses. Then, further
inferential analyses were performed to find answers to the research question.
4. Results
Standard multiple regression analysis was conducted to investigate whether students' gender can
predict their foreign language learning anxiety. The results are presented in Table 4.9. As observed in
the table, only 0.1 % of variance is explained by the model (R2 = .001). Hence, gender does not predict
language learning anxiety because no statistically significant relationship was found between gender
and language learning anxiety (B = -.033, t = -.583, Sig = .560). This finding is in contrast to that of
Öztürk and Gürbüz (2012) who found that female students had a higher level of anxiety than their
male counterparts while speaking English in the class. However, it is in line with the finding of
Nahavandi and Mukundan (2013) who investigated the effect of gender on Iranian EFL learners’
anxiety and found that gender did not affect learners’ anxiety significantly.
Table 1. Model Summary for Standard Multiple Regression
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 .033a .001 -.002 .47589

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a. Predictors: (Constant), Gender

Table 2. ANOVAa Results for Standard Multiple Regression

Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression .077 1 .077 .340 .560b
1 Residual 68.620 303 .226
Total 68.697 304
a. Dependent Variable: Language Learning Anxiety
b. Predictors: (Constant), Gender

Table 4.11 Coefficientsa for Standard Multiple Regression

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig.
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 2.987 .114 26.252 .000
1
Gender -.037 .063 -.033 -.583 .560
a. Dependent Variable: Language Learning Anxiety

5. Conclusion
Thus far, an overall picture of the study has been presented. Now, it is time to recapitulate briefly on
the research questions and the findings derived from the data. Regarding gender difference in terms
of language learning anxiety, it was found that there was no statistically significant difference
between males and females with respect to their language learning anxiety. Although this finding is
contrast to the findings of previous studies (e.g. Chang, 1997; Felson & Trudeau, 1991) who found that
females had higher levels of language learning anxiety than their male counterparts, it is in line with
that of Aida (1994) and Tahernezhad (2014). Examining these conflicting studies shows that some
other intervening variables may account for such inconsistency. For example, in different studies, in
addition to gender variable which is the major focus of studies, there are some discrepancies in the
type of language the students are acquiring; moreover, the participants come from different cultures.
9. Implications
Findings of this study can be beneficial for teachers and learners as well as educational psychologists.
The findings of this study can prove helpful for teachers to pay more attention to the affective factors
of learners. These findings can also help instructors to predict their learners’ anxiety, beliefs, and
behaviors. Teachers can adjust their teaching plans according to their students’ characteristics to
facilitate their learning.
10. Limitations and suggestions for further research
There were some limitations to this study. Inferences drawn from the results of this study cannot be
generalized to other contexts because of cultural differences. Another limitation was that the sample
was not evenly distributed since there were 74 males and 231 females and this could affect the results
of the study. Therefore, generalizing the findings of this study to other contexts and situations should
be exercised with caution. Since this study was a quantitative one and just made use of
questionnaires, more longitudinal and qualitative studies with in-depth interviews are needed to
understand individual differences in greater detail.

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Appendix
Appendix I: Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale
SA A NI D SD
1 I never feel quite sure of myself when I am
speaking in my foreign language class.
2 I don’t worry about making mistakes in
language class.
3 I tremble when I know that I’m going to be
called on in language class.
4 It frightens me when I don’t understand
what the teacher is saying in the foreign
language.
5 It wouldn’t bother me at all to take more
foreign language classes.

6 During language class, I find myself

thinking about things that have nothing to
do with the course.
7 I keep thinking that other students are better
at languages than I am.
8 I am usually at ease during tests in my
language class.
9 I start to panic when I have to speak without
preparation in language class.
10 I worry about the consequences of failing
my foreign language class.
11 I don’t understand why some people get so
upset over foreign language classes.
12 In language class, I can get so nervous when
I forget things I know.
13 It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in
my language class.
14 I would not be nervous speaking in the
foreign language with native speakers.
15 I get upset when I don’t understand what
the
16 Even if I am well prepared for language
class, I feel anxious about it.
17 I often feel like not going to my language
class.
18 I feel confident when I speak in foreign
language class.
19 I am afraid that my language teacher is
ready to correct every mistake I make.
20 I can feel my heart pounding when I’m
going to be called on in language class.
21 The more I study for a language test, the
more confused I get.
22 I don’t feel pressure to prepare very well for
language class.

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