1.

6 Cell division
- The cell cycle: describes the behaviour of cells as they grow and divide.
Integrates a growth phase with a divisional phase.
- Interphase: largest phase + G1 (growth of cell), S (DNA replication), G2 (cell
growth, preparation for mitosis) + Cyclins
- Cyclins: group of proteins that control the cell’s progression through the cell
cycle. The cyclins bind to cyclin-dependent protein kinases, enabling CDKs to act
as enzymes. These activated CDKs cause the cell to move from G​1​ to S phase
(G​1​ cyclin - trigger DNA replication) and from G​2​ to M phase (mitotic cyclin -
trigger mitosis).
- DNA → solenoid (coil of nucleosomes wrapped around by DNA) → looped
domain (groups of solenoid) → chromatin (not supercoiled/unraveled form of
DNA) → chromosome (supercoiled form of chromatin)
- Cytokinesis: animals - cell membrane pinches in + cleavage furrow / plants - cell
plate → cell wall forms
- Cancer: occurs when a cell’s cycle becomes out of control.
- Primary tumor: occurs at the original site of a cancer.
- Secondary tumor (metastasis): a cancerous tumor that has spread from
the original location to another part of the organism.
- Oncogenes are genes that contribute to converting a normal cell into a
cancer cell. The oncogenes may start to change or mutated when
triggered by a mutagen (cigarette smoke).
- Proto-oncogenes (mutated or increased expression) → cancer causing
oncogenes → cancer cell.

3.2 Chromosomes
The chromosomes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes:
- Prokaryotes have one chromosome consisting of a long, continuous, circular
DNA molecule.
- Some prokaryotes also have plasmids that contain genes such as antibiotic
resistance.
- Eukaryote chromosomes are linear DNA molecules (- charged) associated with
histone proteins (+ charged).
- The wrapping or packaging of DNA regulates the transcription process. This
allows only certain areas of the DNA molecule to be involved in protein synthesis.
- In a eukaryote species, there are different chromosomes that carry different
genes.
Homologous Chromosomes
 - Homologous: same shape/size + two chromosomes carry the same sequence of
genes.
- Each chromosome carry different alleles of the gene at the same locus.
Diploid and haploid cells
- Diploid: a nucleus with pairs of homologous chromosomes.
- Haploid: a nucleus with one chromosome from each homologous pair.
- The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of the cells of a species.
Karyograms and Karyotypes
- Karyogram: a representation of the chromosomes found in a cell arranged
according to the size, shape, location of centromeres, banding patterns + shows
the chromosomes of an organism in homologous pairs of decreasing length.
- Karyotype: a property of a cell - the number and type of chromosomes present in
the nucleus.
Sex determination
- The 23rd pair of cells are called the sex chromosomes as they determine the
sex.
- Autosome: any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome.
- Autosomal genes: when their locus is on one of the 22 pairs of autosomes.
Autoradiography - Cairn’s technique
- A technique in which radiation from a substance is captured on photographic film
or by a camera sensor.
- Radioactive materials (radio markers - thymidine) are injected into the DNA
samples → the radioactive materials leave traces of their presence → traces are
captured.
Genome size
- The total length of DNA in an organism.

3.3 and 10.1 Meiosis

- One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei.
- Crossing over occurs in prophase I and allows maternal chromosomes to mix
with DNA from paternal chromosomes. This helps increase the variety among
offspring from the same two parents.
- RAndom orientation occurs in metaphase I and the homologous pairs of
chromosomes line up in random directions. This also increases variety in the
offspring.
- Obtaining cells for karyotyping:
- Amniocentesis: extracting fetal cells from the amniotic fluid using
hypodermic needle.
 - Chorionic villus sampling: extracting fetal cells from the placenta of the
fetus and grow it in the lab to make karyogram. This is less risky and can
be done early in pregnancy.
- People who are willing to do abortion or get ready for a down syndrome
baby carry out these processes.
- Crossing over = the exchange of DNA material between nonsister homologous
chromatids by intertwining and breaking the alleles. Identical breaks must occur
at exactly the same position in adjacent non-sister chromatids. Crossing over
produces new combinations of alleles on the chromosomes of the haploid cells.
- The point where the two chromosomes connect to other is called chiasma.
- Pairing up of homologous pairs = synapsis and forms tetrad
- Chiasmata forms in the process of crossing over to form bivalents.
- Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orientation of pairs of
homologous chromosomes in meiosis I.

2.8 Cell Respiration

- Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to
produce ATP because not much of heat is released so that enzymes are not
affected. Basically because release of heat is controlled, it is a controlled
process.
- ATP from cellular respiration is immediately available as source of energy in the
cell as the ATP can directly be oxidised into ADPi by releasing high amount of
energy when the phosphate groups are broken.
- Lactase production in humans which is anaerobic respiration is used to maximize
the power of muscle contractions.
- Alcoholic fermentation:
- Pyruvate → 2C + NAD​+​ + CO​2​ + ethanol
- Lactic acid fermentation:
- Pyruvate → lactate (reversible when oxygen is available)
8.2 Cell respiration
Glycolysis (sugar splitting) in cytoplasm (no oxygen is needed)
- Two molecules of ATP are used to begin glycolysis as two phosphates are added
to glucose to form fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate which is an unstable molecule
through phosphorylation.
- The 6-carbon phosphorylated fructose is split into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
(lysis).
- Each glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are oxidised reducing the NAD+ to form
NADH+H+ and one more phosphate is added using the energy released in the
process of oxidation.
- Enzymes then remove the phosphate groups to produce ATP (substrate level
phosphorylation) and two pyruvate molecules are formed.

Link reaction in matrix of mitochondria

- The pyruvate enters the mitochondria via active transport using ATP formed
previously.
- Pyruvate is decarboxylated, forming 2-carbon acetyl group and releasing CO​2​.
- The 2-carbon acetyl group is oxidized reducing NAD+.
- The acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA.

Krebs cycle in mitochondria

- If ATP levels are low, the acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle.
 - Acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon compound called oxaloacetate resulting in
citrate.
- Citrate is oxidised and decarboxylated to form 5C compound, releasing CO2 and
producing NADH.
- The 5C compound is oxidised and decarboxylated again to form 4C compound,
releasing CO2 and NADH.
- The 4C compound undergoes many changes producing FADH​2​, NADH and ATP,
becoming an oxaloacetate.
- Final products: 2 FADH​2​, 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 4CO2

Electron Transport Chain in inner mitochondrial membrane

- Molecules with different electronegativity that are easily reduced and oxidised are
embedded in the membrane (electron carriers).
- Electrons pass from one carrier to another down the electronegativity and small
amounts of energy are released.
- The sources of electrons that move down are from NADH and FADH​2​.
- Oxygen is the final electron acceptor forming water.

Chemiosmosis
- The hydrogen ions are pumped from matrix to intermembrane space using the
energy provided by the electrons.
- This creates the different hydrogen ion concentration creating potential energy.
- Due to the concentration gradient, hydrogen ions pass through the ATP synthase
into the matrix.
- When hydrogen ions pass through the ATP synthase channel, the enzyme
harnesses the available energy allowing the phosphorylation of ATP (oxidative
phosphorylation).

Structures and functions of mitochondria

- Outer mitochondrial membrane separates the contents of the mitochondria from
the rest of the cell (compartmentalization).
- Matrix contains enzymes for the link reaction and Krebs cycle.
- Cristae folded into many times increasing surface area for oxidative
phosphorylation.
- Inner mitochondrial membrane contains carriers for electron transport chain and
ATP synthase for chemiosmosis.
- Intermembrane space serves as the reservoir for hydrogen ions.

2.9 Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis = production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy.
 - Visible lights: violet (400 nm shortest) to red (longest 700 nm)
- Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively, and reflects green light
more than other colors.
- Changes to the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and rock deposition due to
photosynthesis.
- Ocean
- Earth’s oceans initially had ​high levels of dissolved iron ​→ iron +
oxygen to form iron oxide → iron used up → oxygen in atmosphere
- Atmosphere
- First 2 billion years - oxygen free → 20% currently
- Rock deposition
- Dissolved iron + oxygen gas created oceanic deposits → formation
of rock layers (reflect time) → formation of rock layers in land (due
to increase of oxygen in the atmosphere)

Action spectrum of photosynthesis

8.3 Photosynthesis
Light dependent reaction in thylakoid space
- Photosystems are regions of organization in thylakoids and include chlorophyll a
molecules (absorb photons of light), accessory pigments and a protein matrix.
- The photosystem I and photosystem II work together to bring about a non-cyclic
electron transfer (photophosphorylation).
- A photon of light is absorbed by a pigment in photosystem II and transferred to
other pigments until it reaches chlorophyll a molecules in reaction center.
- The photon energy excites one of the chlorophyll a electrons to a higher energy
statue.
- This electron is captured by the primary acceptor of the reaction center.
 - Water is split by photolysis into hydrogen ion, electron and oxygen atom using
energy from light. The electrons are supplied to chlorophyll a molecules of the
reaction center.
- The excited electrons pass from the primary acceptor down an electron transport
chain.
- The energy lost from the electrons drives chemiosmosis to form ATP.
- A photon of light is absorbed by a pigment in photosystem I and the energy is
passed to a chlorophyll a molecule resulting in an electron with higher energy
state being transferred to the primary electron acceptor.
- The electron is then passed down a second transport chain that involves the
carrier ferredoxin.
- The enzyme NADP reductase catalyses the transfer of the electron from
ferredoxin to the energy carrier NADPH (with 2 electrons).

Chemiosmosis
- The electron carriers are embedded in the thylakoid membrane.
- The hydrogen ions are pumped into the thylakoid space using the energy
supplied by the de-energization of electrons in the electron transport chain.
- The concentration of gradient forms as hydrogen ions accumulate in the
thylakoid space.
- The hydrogen ions pass through the ATP synthase down the concentration
gradient creating potential energy.
- This provides energy to ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP into ATP.

Light independent reaction - Calvin cycle in the stroma

- Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP - 5C) binds to an incoming carbon dioxide
molecule by carbon fixation.
- This fixation is catalysed by RuBP carboxylase (rubisco) resulting in an unstable
6C.
- The 6C molecule breaks down into two 3C glycerate 3-phosphate.
- The GP are acted upon by ATP and NADPH to form triose phosphate
(reduction).
- Some triose phosphate leave the cycle and become sugar phosphates or
continue in the cycle to reproduce the RuBP.
- In order to regain RuBP from molecules of TP, 6 ATPs are used.
- In total of 12 NADPH, 18 ATP and 6CO​2​ are required to form one 6C sugar.

Structures and functions of chloroplast

- Extensive membrane surface area of the thylakoids allows greater absorption of
light by photosynthesis.
 - Small thylakoids space allows for faster accumulation of protons to create a
concentration gradient.
- Stroma region similar to the cytosol of the cell allows an area for the enzymes
necessary for the Calvin cycle to work in.
- Double membrane on the outside isolates the working parts and enzymes of the
chloroplast from the surrounding cytosol (compartmentalization).

9.3 Growth in plants

Plant tissues and meristems
Three basic types of tissues (all derived from meristematic tissue):
- Dermal tissue (surface protection - pathogenic organisms, prevent water loss)
- Ground tissue (function in storage, photosynthesis, support, secretion)
- Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem, provide support)
When meristematic cells divide, one cell remains meristematic (initials) while the other
is free to differentiate (derivatives).
- Indeterminate growth: the continual pattern of growth. ex) plants
- Determinate: growth that ceases after a certain size has been reached. ex)
animals

Apical meristems
- Occurs at the tips of roots and stems.
- Shoot apex: apical meristem + surrounding developing tissue
- Shoot apex produces new tissue and causes primary grwoth through the process
of mitosis and cell division.
- Primary growth allows the root to extend throughout the soil + allows stems to
grow longer (exposure to light and carbon dioxide).
- Ex) herbaceous, non-woody stems and roots.

Lateral meristems
- Allow the growth in thickness of plants = secondary growth.
- Vascular cambium: produces secondary vascular tissue and lies between xylem
and phloem in the vascular bundles. Inside - secondary xylem (major component
of wood), outside - secondary phloem. Primary xylem → secondary xylem →
vascular cambium → secondary phloem → primary phloem.
- Cork cambium: occurs within the bark of a plant and produces the cork cells of
the outer bark.

Plant hormones
Factors that affect the growth and development of plant:
- Environmental factors (day length, water availability)
 - Receptors (detect certain environmental factors)
- Genetic makeup ( )
- Hormones (chemical messengers)
Proteins in plasma membrane, cytoplasm or nucleus receive different environmental
stimuli → protein receptor activated → initiate metabolic pathway → production of a
hormone.
Target cells - cells on which a hormone has an effect.

Auxins and phototropism

- Phototropism: growth or movement in response to light.
- Auxins: plant hormones that cause the positive phototropism of plant shoots and
seedlings. They are found in embryo of seeds. Only work in plant cells that have
auxin receptors. Auxins increase the flexibility of plant cell walls in young
developing shoots. → cell elongation → growth towards light.
- Auxin efflux pump move auxins out of the cells closer to the light using ATP →
create high concentration of auxin in the intracellular space → auxin moves down
the conc. gradient into the adjacent cells until there is a greater conc. of auxin on
the stem’s dark side (auxin influx) → the auxin and a receptor in the nuclei form a
complex that activates a proton pump → hydrogen ions moved into the spaces of
cell wall → drop in pH → hydrogen bonds between cellulose fibers of the cell wall
breaking → turgor pressure of water → elongation
- greater elongation in the dark side → curve towards the light source
- Specific plant auxin: indoleacetic acid (IAA)
- Auxin combines with a receptor that targets specific transcriptional repressors of
auxin-responsive genes.

Other functions of auxin:

- Stimulation of cell division in most meristematic tissue
- Differentiation of xylem and phloem
- Development of lateral roots in tissue cultures
- Suppression of lateral bud growth when present in the apical bud
- Stimulation of growth of flower parts
- Induction of fruit production without pollination.
Whenever auxin affects cell growth, it does so by changing the pattern of gene
expression. This usually involves an interaction with a repressor of a particular gene.

9.4 Reproduction in plants

The control of flowering in angiosperms
Plants need to flower during the time of year that will ensure reproductive success.
Temperature is too variable from day-to-day to be a reliable factor to base time of
reproduction on. The best indicator of the time of year is the ​photoperiod​ (​the length of
the day​). Plants actually are measuring ​length of darkness​. ​Long-day plants ​reproduce
when the days are long (summer), but they actually are responding to a shorter length
of darkness (​shorter nights​). ​Short-day plants ​reproduce when the days are short
enough (spring or autumn), but they are actually responding to a longer period of
darkness (​long nights​).

The molecule that measures photoperiods in plants is called ​phytochrome​.

Phytochrome exists in two forms: ​P​r​ and ​P​fr​. During the day, white light (or red light)
change P​r​ into P​fr​. P​fr​ is converted back into P​r​ during the night.
red light
P​r ​ P​fr
far-red light

Most important idea:

P​fr is
​ a ​promoter​ of flowering in ​long-day plants​.
P​fr ​is an ​inhibitor​ of flowering in ​short-day plants​.

Long-day plants​: They accumulate lots of P​fr​ during the long days (short nights).
Because the nights are short, not much of the P​fr​ is changed back into P​r​. The higher
concentration of P​fr​ promotes flowering in long-day plants. When days are short and
nights are long, P​fr is
​ converted back into P​r​ at night. The lack of P​fr​ does not promote
flowering.

Short-day plants:​ In short-day plants, high levels of P​fr​ (which occur during long
days/short nights) inhibit flowering. When days are short (and nights are long) much of
the P​fr​ is converted back into P​r​ during the longer nights. The lower concentration of P​fr
removes the inhibition which allows flowering to occur.

P​fr​ is able to stimulate flowering by activating specific genes of the shoot apex cells in a
plant. This activation results in changes in DNA transcription (gene expression), thus
allowing the production of flowers.

Pollination
- The process by which pollen is placed on the female stigma.
- Pollen can be carried from anther to stigma by wind, insects, birds, water or
animals.
- Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationship with pollinators in sexual
reproduction.

Fertilization
- Fertilization happens when the male and female sex cells unite to form a diploid
zygote.
- Pollen grain adheres to stigma → pollen germinates to produce a pollen tube →
nucleus that produces sperm in the growing pollen tube → pollen tube enters an
 opening at the bottom of the ovary → sperm moves from the tube to combine
with the egg of the ovule to form a zygote → zygote develops into the seed →
ovary matures into a fruit.

Seed dispersal
- Seeds = protective structure for the embryo + allows the embryo to be dispersed.
- Conditions for germination to happen:
- Water
- Oxygen
- Appropriate temperature
- Initial processes in germination:
- Absorption of water → release of a plant growth hormone gibberellic acid
or gibberellin → causes production of amylase (starch into maltose into
glucose) → cellular respiration + formation of cellulose

5.3
Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → species
4 phylums of plants:
- Bryophyta (mosses) (no xylem)
- Filicinophyta (fern)
- Gymnospermophyta (cones) (conifers) (gymnosperm)
- Angiospermophyta (flowers, fruit)
- Magnoliid
- Monocots
- Eudicots
3 domains:
- Bacteria
- Archaea
- Eukaryotes