Running Head: DISABILITY ON THE COLLEGE CAMPUS 1

Disability on the College Campus

Payton Albrecht

Northern Illinois University

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Definition and Types of Disability

College students in the United States have come to college with health needs since

universities first opened their doors. In order to thrive, students need to be healthy in body and

in mind. Dependent on a student’s level of bodily and mental health as well as cognitive ability,

students may experience physical disabilities, mental disabilities or learning disabilities. Each of

these is important to student persistence and outcomes. This paper seeks to focus on disability in

the higher education setting as well as accommodation styles and trends.

Scholars argue to determine a basic definition of what it means to be disabled. While

concrete definitions of disability may be necessary for legal purposes, medical purposes, and

accommodation purposes, it is important to be careful when using language and

definition. Definitions and labels can serve as important tools to distinguish potential needs and

tools for students. For example, a “hard of hearing or deaf” student will not necessarily need the

same accommodation as a “visually impaired” student, but these definitions also tend to focus on

a deficit model. It is important to remember that disability is not solely based on medical

definitions and the varying levels of ability an individual is capable of, but that part of student

disability is “the disabling impact of student’s environment” as well, which is what

accommodations serve to minimize (Seal, 2014, p. 3).

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Section 12102 defines the term disability as

person to whom “a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life

activities… (ADA, 1990).” The document breaks down the definition of life activities into a

“general” category and “major bodily functions”. General life activities impacted by diagnosis

with a disability include “caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, hearing, eating,

sleeping, walking, standing, lifting, bending, speaking, breathing, learning, reading,

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concentrating, thinking, communicating, and working (ADA, 1990).” When referring to major

bodily functions, the document lists activities such as “the operation of a major bodily function,

including but not limited to, functions of the immune system, normal cell growth, digestive,

bowel, bladder, neurological, brain, respiratory, circulatory, endocrine, and reproductive

functions.” Individuals who have been seen to have had a disability are also included in the

definition of disability (ADA, 1990).

Historical Context

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1973 and Section 504. The Americans with

Disabilities Act of 1973 is a legal document that protects the basic rights of people with

disability from discrimination against receiving financial assistance from the Federal

Government. This legal document is categorized as a “disability civil rights law” and is the first

disability civil rights law to be passed in the United States. Significantly, this document also

extends nondiscriminatory treatment to people with disability when it comes to educational

opportunity (DREDF, 2017).

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 enabled opportunities to students with

disabilities in that the document mandates provision of “free appropriate public education” of the

American Public School system. This “free appropriate public education” extends to appropriate

classroom accommodations and supplemental materials “regardless of the nature or severity of

the disability”. The concept of “free appropriate public education” is also referred to as

FAPE. FAPE applies to primary and secondary educational levels, and as dictated by Section

504, “FAPE consists of the provision of regular or special education and related aids and services

designed to meet the student’s individual educational needs as adequately as the needs of

nondisabled students are met. (Protecting Students with Disabilities, 2015).”

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At the higher education level, institutions are required to provide accommodations, aids,

and services that best help the student work through their area of study without changing the

curriculum or the student’s program of study (Eckes, 2005). Section 504 provides the promise of

a public education with the necessary accommodations and without discrimination whereas no

such guarantee existed for students with disabilities before (Protecting Students with Disabilities,

2015).

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of

1973 was a watershed document on which the basis of the Americans with Disabilities Act of

1990 was built. Where the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1973 barred discrimination on the

basis of disability when it came to receiving government funding, and Section 504 assured public

schools’ responsibility to accommodate the needs of students with disabilities, the Americans

with Disabilities Act of 1990 protects from discrimination and exclusion in “mainstream

American life”. These “mainstream” protections extend to employment, consumerism, and

participating in the democratic government on the local, state, and federal level (Introduction to

the ADA, n.d.). These protections allow students with disabilities with educational experiences

and degrees protection as they seek job attainment.

Americans with Disability Act Amendment Act of 2008. One of the main changes

enacted by the Americans with Disability Act Amendment Act of 2008 (ADAAA) came with

shifts in the definition of disability itself. Former definitions of disability in previous ADA

documents was viewed to be too narrow. Due to the shortsighted definition it was determined

that many individuals with disability were being denied services and accommodations and in fact

being discriminated on the basis of the definition included in documentation which had been

created with the purpose of protection. In particular, individuals at risk for being left out of the
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previous, unexpanded definition of disability included those who had “impairments such as

cancer, diabetes, and epilepsy (Fact Sheet on the EEOC’s Final Regulations and Implementing

the ADAAA, n.d.).” Largely, the definition of disability from the previous ADA documents

remained intact, but the ADAAA brought with it new rules focused on the interpretation of the

actual language of the definition. For example, rules focusing around phrases, “substantially

limits”, were established to expand the reach of the ADA protections (ADAAA, 2008).

Secondary Education vs. Higher Education. While the legislature in place seeks to

protect students with disability from discrimination, the law does not extend to secondary and

higher education in the same way. Section 504 effectively caters to individuals with disabilities

after they leave secondary education (whether they attend a higher education institution or not),

while the Americans with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) focuses solely on primary and

secondary education with no bearing on higher education. Whereas Section 504’s legislature

“are focused primarily on anti-discrimination, or access” laws, IDEA focuses very specifically

on educational provisions and accommodations (Eckes, 2005).

Relevance to Contemporary Higher Education

The number of higher education students who are enrolling at institutions has been on an

upward trend. Between the years of 1991 and 1996 alone, college students with disabilities

increased over 10% (Eckes, 2005). This, however, does not mean that there is a proportionate

number of students with disabilities enrolling in higher education institutions. According a 2002

Census press release, only 8-14% of the total college student population is comprised of students

with disabilities (Sachs, 2011).

There exists on campus, and in wider society, stigma surrounding multiple types of

disabilities. This stigma exists in the classroom, and has real life implications for students with a
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disability. “… faculty’s attitudes toward students with disabilities, their awareness of these

students’ needs, and their knowledge of the reasonable accommodations available…” can have

an effect on whether or not a student with disabilities perseveres and attains a degree (Sachs,

2011). While in surveys conveyed in 2003 and 2005 informed researchers that 50% of students

with disabilities perceived that faculty members “understood their needs”, only half of those

students felt confident in the faculty members’ willingness to alter course materials to

accommodate students with disabilities. When asked whether or not faculty was educated well

enough or not on student disability, 82% of students said no (Sachs, 2011).

Part of the reason only 8-14% of the college population are students with disabilities may

have to do with institutional attitudes. College climates may be unwelcoming or structurally

unfit for students with physical disabilities. However, these physical disabilities are more often

than not visually apparent. While not discounting students with physical disabilities, or

disabilities that manifest themselves noticeably, it is important to consider the struggles of

students with invisible disability. An invisible disability, often categorized as a learning or

psychiatric disability, is a disability that impacts a student’s ability to function in the academic

setting but is not necessarily noticeable in terms of physical traits or behavior. It is not

uncommon for students with invisible disabilities to forego the disclosure of their disability, and

without disclosing the disability to the higher education institution they receive no

accommodations (Sachs, 2011).

The American College Health Association National College Health Assessment for Fall

of 2016, a report that uses survey information 51 institutions to compile data, reported on

whether or not students had been diagnosed or treated for multiple factors related to psychiatric

disability. Students reported that within the 12 months leading up to being surveyed 10% had
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been treated or diagnosed in some way for anxiety, 7% for attention deficit and hyperactivity

disorder, 9% for depression, 4%with panic attacks, 2% for substance abuse or addiction and that

43% of students had experienced a high level of difficulty working on their academics. Of the

surveyed population, 28% reported receiving health care from a counselor, therapist, or

psychologist and 11% reported receiving health care from a psychiatrist. When asked if a

learning disability had impacted grades or academics in the last 12 months 6.2 students reported

that a learning disability had impacted them in some way (National College Health Assessment

for Fall 2016). Though the number may seem small, that would approximate to roughly 2

students in a class of 25.

In regards to specific diagnosis, the following information was included: 8.0% of students

reported an attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder diagnosis, 4.9% reported a chronic illness

diagnosis, 1.8% reported deafness/hearing loss, 4.6% reported a learning disability, 0.9%

reported a mobility/dexterity disability, 2.7% reported partial sightedness/blindness, 7.8%

reported a psychiatric condition, 0.9% report a speech or language disorder, and 2.4% reported

that they had a disability, but that the disability was not listed as one of the survey options

(National College Health Assessment for Fall 2016).

Accommodation, Resources, and Strategies

Accommodation. While students with disabilities in higher education are granted

educational accommodations, there is a distinct difference between what an accommodation

looks like as they finish high school and as they enter college. In high school, students with

disabilities are given their own specialized Individual Education Program (IEP), a document that

encompasses a learning plan and the appropriate accommodations to ensure student learning.

However, students in higher education do not received IEPs, though their accommodations and
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tools are still determined by their individual needs. Instead of an IEP, many students with

disabilities put together a transition plan that details their needs, academic preparation, history,

and serve as a self-advocacy tool for the student as they transition into higher education. Often,

this is done with the student, parent, secondary school faculty and staff, and a “transition

specialist” (Eckes, 2005, p. 7). The purpose of the transition document is to set the student up

for success in seeking out, expression, and attaining accommodations appropriate to their needs

in their higher education institution (Eckes, 2005).

Disclosure vs. Find. As students enter higher education, it is important that students with

a disability are aware of the differences in “institutional responsibility” when it comes to

approaching and recognizing disability related needs (Eckes, 2005, p.9). In primary and

secondary education, IDEA dictates that it is task of the school to cite and confirm any potential

disability and to provide accommodations or an IEP after the school itself determines a

disability. However, in higher education, self-advocacy is the expectation in higher education.

Higher education institutions are not directly informed of a student’s disability, but rather it is

left to the student’s discretion whether or not to inform the institution of any type of disability

because “Section 504 prohibits personnel in universities from making inquiries about students’

disability status (Eckes, 2005, p.9).” However, if the student chooses to disclose disability

status, it then becomes the responsibility of the higher education institution to “ensure an

opportunity to participate” via accommodations (Eckes, 2005, p.9).

E-Learning. E-Learning is one of many accommodation or pedagogical approaches to

making higher education more accessible for students with a disability. The term E-Learning

“describe(s) the fields of online learning, web-based training and technology-delivered

instruction (Seal 2014 p. 5). E-Learning implements multiple types of technology to enhance the
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actual content and delivery of curriculum. E-Learning, and its internet and technology based

approach and capabilities also make it possible for students with disabilities to receive content

and participate in the classroom completely on campus, completely via screen, or a mix of the

two depending on desires and needs. E-Learning technologies are plentiful and can be

mainstream for entire student populations, such as Desire2Learn or Blackboard, or be more

specialized and task-oriented software (Seal 2014).

Assistive Technologies. Assistive technologies are another popular tool to help students

with disability navigate higher education. Assistive technologies are defined as a “broad range

of devices, services, strategies, and practices that are conceived and applied to ameliorate the

problems faced by individuals who have disabilities (Seal 2014 p. 6).” That is, assistive

technologies are technologies that perform a task that makes content and curriculum accessible

to a student with a disability where it might not be accessible otherwise. Unlike general E-

Learning tools, assistive technologies have specified tasks and capabilities that accommodate to

specific needs of their user (Seal 2014). For example, some academic accommodations students

with disability may require include electronic versions of texts used in class such as lectures and

notes, audio recordings of classroom sessions, the use of a computer during exams, or closed

captioning on any media with audio used in the classroom (Types of Accommodations). This, of

course, is not an exhaustive list.

Universal Design. The universal design approach is a pedagogical approach becoming

more and more popular in higher education classrooms. The basis of this approach is

accommodations made for students in the classroom with disabilities, usually invisible

disabilities which typically align with learning and mental disabilities, are also extended to non-

disabled students in the classroom. For example, if a student in the classroom needed a
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recording of the lecture according to the Disability Resource Center’s appraisal and

accommodation offerings, a professor practicing universal design would make the recording

available to all students regardless of disability status. The core belief of universal design

focuses on ensuring that students are present and participating as content is being delivered, and

not preoccupied with taking notes or preparing materials to refer to outside of class. The logic

follows that by providing supplemental materials for all students, not just those whose mental or

cognitive abilities warrant additional materials, a richer learning environment and learning will

occur during class time. While this approach may seem to place all students at the same level

and provide equal opportunity and aids, not all students respond positively to universal

design. Some students actively seek the specialized tools and tasks that differentiate them from

the general student population, a concept that universal design works to obscure (Gose 2016).

Challenges. While anti-discrimination laws have mandated accommodations for higher

education students with disabilities, actually providing accommodations does not come without

its challenges. One issue is the sheer volume of pedagogical approaches, tools, software, human

resources, and styles that accommodations may take the form of in the classroom. Another issue

is that accommodations at their best are extremely individualized, taking time and expert

personnel to determine the best types of accommodations across multiple fields of study for

multiple courses. Additionally, some “instructors are ill equipped to actually implement them

since many of them rely on lectures” or other passive teaching approaches “to deliver content

(Eckes, 2005, p. 11).”

Conclusion

While less of the student population have a disability than those who do not, students

with disabilities still have a right to a reasonable education. The needs and appropriate
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accommodations are as varied as the disabilities students are diagnosed with, and should be

decided upon on a case by case basis. Legislation protecting students with disability is relatively

contemporary and still imperfect. Campus climates are not always welcoming and faculty are

not always prepared. However, technology and pedagogy continue to make the right to an

education and life without discrimination more and more accessible to students with disabilities.
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References

American College Health Association (2017) Undergraduate Student Reference Group Data

Report Fall 2016. Retrieved November 28, 2017, from http://www.acha

ncha.org/docs/NCHA-II_FALL_2016_UNDERGRADUATE_REFERENCE

_GROUP_DATA_REPORT.pdf

Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-336, 104 Stat. 328 (1990).

Disability Resource Center (2017) Types of accommodations. Retrieved from

http://www.niu.edu/disability/accommodations/types/index.shtml

Disability Rights Education & Defense Fund (2017) Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of

1973. Retrieved from: https://dredf.org/legal-advocacy/laws/section-504-of-the-

rehabilitation-act-of-1973/

Eckes, S. E., & Ochoa, T.A. (2005) Students with Disabilities: Transition from High School to

Higher Education. American Secondary Education, 33(3), 6-20.

Gose, B. (2016) Disability Experts Debate Merits of Universal Design. Retrieved October 02,

2017, from http://www.chronicle.com/article/Disability-Experts-Debate/237780

Sachs, D. (2011) Inclusion of Students with Disabilities in Higher Education: Performance and

participation in student’s experiences. Disability Studies Quarterly, 31(2).

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Seal, J. K. (n.d.) E-Learning and Disability in Higher Education. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com/books?id=xvBEAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb

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United States Department of Education (2015) Protecting Students With Disabilities. Retrieved

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United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (n.d.) Fact Sheet on EEOC’S Final

Regulations Implementing the ADAAA. Retrieved from: https://www.eeoc.gov/

laws/regulations/adaaa_fact_sheet.cfm

United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division (n.d.) Introduction to the AD.

Retrieved from: https://www.ada.gov/ada_intro.htm

United States Department of Labor (n.d.) Section 504, Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Retrieved

from https://www.dol.gov/oasam/regs/statutes/sec504.htm