Tense Conditionals

STUDY AND EXPERIMENTS ON RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING MACHINE MAJOR PROJECT 2018
Chapter 1
Introduction
Welding machines are indispensable when we talk about production in industrial term.
Almost every industry has to use the services provided by a specific welding machine in
order to manufacture a specific component, The manufacturing processes rely great deal on
these welding machines without which the processes may get halted. There are different
types of welding machines and each of them has got a particular purpose to serve. Before we
continue we should know that welding means in manufacturing terms. Welding is defined
as the simple process of joining two metals pieces by the application of heat with or with out
the application of pressure. The results is continuous homogeneous materials of the
composition and characteristics of two parts which are being joined together. Resistance
welding is one of the oldest of the electric welding processes in use by industry today. The
weld is made by a combination of heat, pressure and time. As the name resistance welding
implies, it is the resistance of the material to be welded to current flow that causes a localized
heating in the part. The pressure exerted by the tongs and electrode tips, through which the
current flows, holds the parts to be welded in intimate contact before, during and after the
welding current time cycle. The required amount of time current flows in the joint is
determined by material thickness and type, the amount of current flowing, and the cross
sectional area of the welding tip contact surface.
1.1 Resistance Spot Welding
Is a type of resistance welding used to weld various sheet metals. Typically the sheets are in
the 0.5-3.0 mm thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to
concentrate welding current and force between the materials to be welded. The result is small
“spot” that is quickly heated to the melting point, forming a nugget of welded metal after the
current is removed. The amount of heat released in the spot is determined by the amplitude
and duration of the current. The current and duration are chosen to match the material, the
sheet thickness and type of electrodes. Applying the current for too long can result in molten
metal being expelled as weld splash, or can even bum a hole right through the materials being
welded.
Spot welding is typically used when welding steel sheet metal. Thicker stock is difficult to
heat up from a single spot, as the heat can flow into the surrounding metal too easily. Spot
welding can be easily identified on many sheet metal goods, such as metal pails. Aluminum
alloys can also be spot welded. However, their much higher thermal conductivity and
electrical conductivity mean that up to three times higher welding currents are needed. This
requires larger, more powerful and more expensive welding transformers.
ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

pg. 1
1.2 Principle of resistance spot welding
Figure 1.1: Spot Welding Process (Ref. No. 17)
Spot, roll-spot, seam, upset and projection welding comprise the group of resistance welding
processes. The required heat at the joint to be welded is generated by the resistance offer by
the work piece and the interface to relatively short time flow of low voltage, high-density
electric current. Force is always applied before, during and after the application of current to
assure are continuous electrical circuit and to forge the heated part together. Resistance
welding is accomplished when current is caused to flow through electrode tips and the
separate pieces of metal to be joined. The resistance of the base metal to electrical current
flow causes localized heating in the joint, and the weld is made. The resistance spot weld is
unique because the actual weld nugget is formed internally with relation to the surface of the
base metal. The heat required for the resistance process is generated by the resistance to an
electric current. Although there are many resistances in the electrical circuit, the resistance
of primary concern is at the weld joint interface. Here, contact resistance due to the
constriction of current as it passes through metal bridges, initiates the heat generation
necessary for the resistance weld.

pg. 2
1.3 Factors affecting spot welding
Time factor
Figure 1.2: Time Schedule (Ref. No. 17)
Squeeze time: time between pressure application and weld.

Heat or weld time: Weld time is cycles.
Hold time: time that pressure is maintained after weld is made.
Off time: electrodes separated to permit moving.
In most cases several thousands of ampere are used in making the spot weld. Such
amperage values, flowing through are relatively high resistance, will create a lot of heat in
a short time. To make good resistance welds, it is necessary to have close control of the
time the current is flowing. The time is generally of the order of 1-2 seconds.
Predressing of electrode tips/caps

The upper and lower electrodes caps shall be predressed to the specified diameter.
Electrode alignment
The paper and lower electrode shall be aligned. Prior to start of testing, the alignment of the
electrode caps must be verified by making carbon imprints using the following procedure:
• Set and verified the test weld force.
• Program the test weld schedule.
• Insert the paper with cardboard and carbon paper between electrode caps.

pg. 3
• Initiate the welder control.

• Inspect carbon imprints made by electrode caps on the paper.
• Electrode alignment is considered acceptable when the carbon imprint from both the
upper and lower caps is:
• Circular in shape
• Uniform in color
• Diameter meets the specify predressed value.
1.4 Surface conditions

1.4.1 Materials for spot welding
This section of the text will consider methods used for resistance spot welding some of the
common metals that are used in fabrication work. It is not intended that all the possible
problems that could arise will be answered. The purpose of this part of the text is to provide
general operational data for use with resistance spot welding machines. Where applicable,
the data provided will be related to specific models and size (KVA) of units.
Mild steel
Mild or low-carbon steel comprises the largest percentage of material welded with the
resistance spot welding process. All low-carbon steels are readily weldable with the process
if proper equipment and procedures are used. The carbon steels have a tendency to develop
hard, brittle welds as the carbon content increases if proper post heating procedures are not
used. Quick quenching of the welds, where the nuggets cools rapidly, increases the
probability of hard, brittle micro-structure in the weld. Hot rolled steel will normally have
mill scale on the surface of metal. This type of material is usually not resistance spot welded
with resistance welding machines of the KVA ratings of specific built units. Cold rolled steel
(CRS) and hot rolled steel, pickled and oiled (HRSP & O), may be resistance spot welded
with very little trouble. If the oil concentration is excessive on the sheet metal, it could cause
the formation of carbon at the electrode tips thereby decreasing their useful life. Degreasing
or wiping is recommended for heavily oiled sheet stock. The resistance spot weld should
have shear strength equal to the base metal shear strength and should exceed the strength of
a rivet or a fusion plug weld of the same cross-sectional area. Shear strength is normally
accepted as the criteria for resistance spot weld specifications, although other methods may
be used. A common practice is to “peel” two welded sample strips a part to see if a clean
“rivet” is pulled from one piece. If it is, the resistance spot welding conditions is considered
correct.
With magnetic materials such as mild steel, the current through the weld can
vary substantially depending on how much of the magnetic material is within the tong loop.

pg. 4
The tong loop is sometimes called the “throat” of the resistance spot welding machine. For
example, the part to be welded may have the largest amount of the base metal within the
throat of the unit for any one resistance spot weld and almost none of the base metal in the
throat for the second spot weld. The current at the weld joint will be less for the first weld.
The reason is the reactance caused by the ferrous materials within the arc welding circuit.
Low Alloy and Medium Carbon Steels

There are some pertinent differences in resistance spot welding low alloy and medium carbon
steels. The resistance factor for the low alloy and medium carbon steels is higher; therefore,
the current requirements are slightly lower. Time and temperature are more critical since
metallurgical changes will be greater with these alloys. There is certainly more possibility
of weld embrittlement than there is with mild steel. Resistance spot welding pressure are
normally higher with these materials because of the additional compressive strength inherent
in the low alloy and medium carbon steels. It is always a good idea to use longer welding
times when welding these alloys to retard the cooling rate and permit more ductile welds.
Stainless Steels
The chromium-nickel steel alloys (austenitic) have very electrical resistance and are readily
joined by resistance spot welding. The consideration of great importance with these materials
is rapid cooling through the critical range, 800-1400 F the rapid quench associated with
resistance spot welding is ideal for reducing the possibility of chromium-carbide
precipitation at grain boundaries. Of course, the longer weldment is held at the critical
temperature, the greater the possibility of carbide precipitation.
Steels, Dip Coated or Plated

The overwhelming majority of materials in this category is galvanized, or zinc coated steel.
Although some galvanized steels is electro plated, the dip coated costs less and is in
predominant use. The zinc coating is uneven in thickness on dip coated steel. The resistance
factor will vary from weld to weld, and it is very difficult to set conditions in chart form for
the materials. It is possible to maintain the integrity of the galvanized coating when resistance
spot welding. The low melting point of the zinc coating, compared to fusion temperature of
the steel sheet, causes the zinc to vaporize. Of course, there must be adequate pressure to
force the zinc aside at the weld interface to permit steel to steel fusion. Otherwise, the
strength of the resistance spot weld is open to question. Materials are available to repair to
the external damage to the coating that may be incurred because of the welding heat. There
is no remedy for the loss of coating materials at the interfaces of the weld, unfortunately. In
fact, the vaporization of the zinc can cause porosity in the weld and a general weakening of
the expected shear strength.

pg. 5
1.5 Summary
Resistance spot welding is welding technique that is used for almost all known metals. The
actual weld is made at the interface of the parts to be joined. The electrical resistance of the
material to be welded causes a localized heating at the interfaces of the metals to be joined.
Welding procedures for each type of material must be developed for the most satisfactory
results. It is possible that shunt currents flowing through a previously made spot weld will
take welding current away from the second spot weld to be made. This will occur if the two
spot welds are too close together, and it will happen with all metals. The following tables
and charts are intended as guides for setting up resistance spot welding procedures. The exact
time, pressure, and current setting will depend on the specific application and the kVA rating
of the resistance spot welding machine employed. Some areas of the tables may not apply to
resistance spot welders in the kVA ratings available from the company.
1.6 Applications
Perhaps the most common application of spot welding is in the automobile industry, where
it is used almost universally to the weld the sheet metal forming a car. Many of the industrial
robots found on assembly lines are spot welders. Another place where spot welding is used
in the orthodontist’s clinic, where the small scale spot welding equipment is used when
resizing metal “molar bands” used in orthodontics.

pg. 6
Chapter 2
Literature review
There is considerable literature available relative to the spot welding of ferrous metals,
nonferrous metals, and non-metallic materials.
The purpose of this review is to summarize the literature available on the major
variables which affect the strength of the spot weld in some ferrous metal, and non-ferrous
metals and non-metallic materials and some general aspects of resistance spot welding.
• Early work in the 1950s in the U.K. and U.S. (Refs. 8-13) observed that the electrode
moved apart during welding and closed together upon cooling, and showed that
electrode displacements during the formation of spot weld due to thermal expansion
were closely correlated to weld size.
• A control system were developed for commercial use based on either thermal
expansion displacement. In 1964 Waller (Ref. 11) reported that the heat loss and the
electrode embedding were small. The electrode movement at an early stage in the
heating cycle reflected the heart input in such a way that the displacement was
approximately proportional to the square of the weld current. As the weld pulse
progressed, heat conducted into the electrodes and the electrode embedding
increased.
• Janota (Ref. 8) used a more sophisticated control system. When predetermined
optimum initial expansion rate measured, the weld current ceased to increase. When
the expansion rate approached zero, the current was switched off by the system.
• Optimization method used for the stainless steel and mild steel in Resistance Spot
welding (Refs. 1-4). A two-dimensional model is utilized to predict temperature, heat
generation, weld nugget size during and after welding process, increasing and applied
welding voltage leads to an increase in the weld nugget size. Welding has the same
role, however, increasing the welding time causes to enhance heat transfer to
surroundings and therefore less heat is consumed in formation of weld nugget.
• Johnson and Needham (Ref. 17) developed a new control concept for the resistance
spot welding in 1972. They reported that the electrode force affected the nugget
formation, and the threshold load, along with the welding current and duration ,
determined the weld quality.
• Weld growth mechanism of resistance spot welds in zinc coated steel and compared
to uncoated steel and micrographs showing the location of initial heat development
in both steel plates. (Ref. 9).

pg. 7
• To establishment the finite model, this model can predict the temperature distribution
and spot welding joints melt nuclear forming process. By providing necessary
conditions to conclude that, the work piece and the contact position of the work piece
formed melted, first, initial molten heating nuclear heating process, melting with
nuclear size increases. Along with the increase nuclear size, the decrease of the
electrode force or pressure can reduce molten nuclear size, which because of
increased contact surface area, smaller contact resistance, heat generation also
subsequently reduced.
• Zhang and Senkara (Ref. 17), developed a modified heat balance theory for utilized
heat generation in the spot weld.

pg. 8
Chapter 3
Methodology
The methodology for this project is similar to prototype analysis process. In this project we
are fabricating a prototype of Resistance Spot Welding Machine. The methodologies of these
attachments are explained in few sub-headings.
3.1 Components of Attachment.
3.1 Components of Attachment

3.1.1 Mechanical components
3.1.2 Electrical components
Table no. 3.1 Components of attachment
Sr. No. Item Quantity Remark
1 Transformer (step- 1 To convert 230
down) volt into 1.75 volt
2 Voltage indicator 1 To display input
voltage
3 Electrodes 2 To conduct heat
(copper) into work piece for
stack-up
4 Lever 1 To exerts the
pressure on the
work piece through
electrodes
5 Switch 1 To allow the
voltage passage
6 Time module 1 Delay to prevent
excessive current
7 Frame 1 To supports all
components

pg. 9
Before any project is initiated it is always imperative that the components which makes up
the assembly are clearly laid down. It is these components which make up the assembly.
Every single component has got a unique function to perform and together all these
components make up a working model. In our project we have segregated the study of design
into several of these components which are classified under the following headings.
3.1.1 Mechanical Components

The project includes some mechanical components which are indispensable and are the
building blocks of our projects. They are:
3.1.1.1 Frame Arrangement
Figure 3.1: Spot Welder Frame
The frame is the most important component of any project model. Above is shown the left
side view and the top view of our frame. The complete frame setup has been manufactured
by hollow rectangular pipes of the material mild steel. The pipes are hollow so as to provide
greater strength and light weight at the same time. The frame has been designed in such a
manner so as to meet the following purpose:
• Most importantly, the frame should be stable.
• The frame should provide the correct pressure at the electrode tips; a frame
arrangement is required which presses the electrodes on the work piece material.
• The frame facilitate in transmitting current and voltage supply to the electrodes
efficiently.
• Frame has to be rigid enough to support the heavy transformer which has to be rested
on the frame.

pg. 10
3.1.1.2 Lever Arrangement
Figure 3.2: Lever of welder
The lever arrangement is the component which is responsible for transferring the right
amount of pressure at the electrode tip. The lever is connected to a circular rod inserted inside
the frame which is able to rotate by an angle of 30-50 degrees. The top lever leads to the
rotational movement of the circular rod and a requisite amount of pressure is supplied at the
electrode tips.
3.1.1.3 Electrode and Tongs Arrangement:
Figure 3.3: Electrodes and Tongs

pg. 11
The figure depicts the electrodes and the tongs which are the components responsible for the
welding operation to take place efficiently. Copper is the base metal normally used for
resistance spot welding tongs and tips. The purpose of the electrode tips is to conduct the
welding current to the work piece, to be the focal point of the pressure applied to the weld
joint, to conduct heat from the work surface, and to maintain their integrity of shape and
characteristics of thermal and electrical conductivity under working conditions. Electrode
tips are made of copper alloys. This is generally done because copper has got the highest
heat dissipation coefficient and has high heat conductivity. The Resistance Welders
Manufacturing Association (RWMA) has classified electrode tips into copper based alloys.
3.1.2 Electrical components

It is a well known fact that the energy consumption of a spot welding machine is of a very
high order. This is because the current requirement for the welding process to take place is
of the order of 4000-10000 ampere and the voltage should be of the order of 1-4 volts. This
electrical requirement can only be achieved by an electrical system specifically designed for
the process. This is achieved by specially designed transformer for this purpose. The
connections are to be made properly with insulations done at points where short circuits
might be a possibility.
Following types of electrical components are used in this project. Various types of
components are used but most important components of in this project is transformer, which
is called step down transformer. This type of transformer converts high voltage to low
voltage (Typically 230volt-1.75volt). If we speak in terms of the coil windings, the primary
winding of a Step down Transformer has more turns than the secondary winding. The
following image shows a typical step down transformer. The power in a transformer is
measured using the product of voltage and current. The power in a transformer is rated in
Volt – Amps VA (or Kilo Volt – Amps kVA for larger transformers).Ideally, the power in
any transformer is constant i.e. the power available at the secondary of the transformer is
same as the power at the primary of the transformer. This is even applicable to a step down
transformer. But, since the voltage at the secondary of a step down transformer is lesser than
that at the primary, the current at the secondary will be increased in order to balance the total
power in the transformer. Transformers are made of Iron core and copper wire winding some
times core may be the ferrite materials, on the whole transformers are used to transfer the
energy between winding coils through electro magnetic induction.

pg. 12
3.1.2.1 Transformer
Figure 3.4: Transformer Specifications (Ref. no.17)
From Faraday’s law, for ideal transformer,

𝑉𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑝
𝑁𝑝
The voltage ratio is equal to turns ratio, and power in equals to power out,
From conservation of energy,
Pp = Vp Ip = Vs Is = Ps
When we have,
Vp = 230 volts
Ip = 25 Amp
Np = 500 turns
Vs = 1.38 volts
Is = 3285.714 Amp
Ns = 2 turns
under ideal conditions when no losses are considered.

pg. 13
There are wide varieties of transformers available in the market for the welding process. But
for a spot welding process there has to be a specific transformer which gives an output as
required by the process. Generally for a spot welding machine the current requirement varies
from 4000-10000 amperes and the voltage varies from 1-4 volts. For this purpose a step
down transformer is needed. A transformer makes use of Faraday’s law and the
ferromagnetic properties of an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course
can not increase power so that if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered
and vice-versa. Now because of the complexities in the design of the transformer of such a
rating, it was very difficult for us to manufacture one on our own. For instance it would have
been very difficult to term the copper coils over the magnetic core and installing a proper
magnetic core it self. Hence a specifically designed transformer was procured from the
market. It was easily available and its economical cost led us to by one from the market. The
detailed ratings of the transformer are shown in figure.
• Rating: 1-4 volts, 4000-10000 amperes.
• No of turns on the primary = 10 loops each having 50 turns.
• There is three turns on the secondary. A solid copper plate acts as the secondary
coil.
• Transformer is air cooled.
• Transformer is single phase.
3.1.2.2 Electrical Connections:
Figure 3.5: Electrical connections of transformer
The transformer has to be connected to the electrical supply through a series of wired
connections. As we are dealing with high current system it is imperative that the frame
should be earthed properly.
pg. 14
The two input wires from the mains are connected in such a way that the live wire is attached
to point on the frame and the neutral supply is given to the transformer.
A wire connecting the switch on the vertical rod and the switch inside the transformer
becomes active when the switch on the vertical rod and on the frame come in direct contact.
The frame has to be insulated Properly to avoid any short circuit inside it. This is done by
properly covering the wires at the point of joints with the help of insulation tapes. To make
sure that the bolted joint at various points does not create short circuit; proper plastic sleeves
are used to cover the bolts.
So these components are the building blocks of our projects. Before there assembly each
component was designed to meet the required standards in order to make them function
accurately. When assembled together they work co-operatively and result in a working
model of spot welding machine.

pg. 15
Chapter 4
Working and assembly
4.1 Working
Firstly connect the main plug to the home electric panel and turn on the power supply. The
current starts to flow through the transformer, this transformer converts the high voltage to
low voltage (typically 230 volts to 1.75 volts). It’s step down transformer, according to our
requirement we can obtained very high current (typically 4000A) and in which contacting
metal surface points are joints by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current. It is
sub set of electric resistance welding.
Work pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are
in the 0.5 to 3mm (0.020 to 0.118 in) thickness range.
The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding current into a
small “spot” and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a large current through
the spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature a spot welding is that
a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in very short time (typically 0.25 to 3 sec). that
permits the welding to occur without excessive heating of remainder of the sheets.
To prevent excessive heating in the sheets during welding we are using “time module”.
Resistance spot welding is thermos-electric process where heat is used in joining the work
piece . the resistance of the base metal to electric current flow causes heat, the heat is limited
to the area which the tip of the electrode and weld area contacts. While the welding force is
maintained, the heat is generating. In the holding stage (where the pressure is still
maintained), the current is switched off and the nugget is cooled under the pressure. The heat
that generated in spot welding basically depends on the electric current and the time being
used and on the electrical resistance of the material between electrode. The amount of heat
generated is a function of current, time and resistance between the electrode the heat that
generates in resistance spot welding.
4.1.1 Physical phenomena in resistance spot welding

Spot, roll-spot, seam, upset, and projection welding comprise the group of resistance welding
process. The required heat at the joints to be welded is generated by the resistance offered
by the work piece and the interface to the relatively short time flow of voltage, high-density
electric current. Force is always applied before, during and after the application of current to
assure a continuous electrical circuit and to forge the heated part together. The heat required
for the resistance process is generated by the resistance to an electric current. Although there
are many resistance in the electric circuit, the resistance is primary concern is at the weld
joint interface. Here contact resistance due to constriction of current as it passes through
metal bridges, initiate the heat generation necessary for the resistance weld.

pg. 16
As the current is passing through the sheets, the resistances of the circuit cause generation of
heat energy. The heat energy (Q) is a function of the current (I), resistance (R) and time (t)
as defined by joule’s law, see equation below. The generation of heat:
Q = I2 R t
Where, Q = heat generation in Joule
I = current flow in amperes
R = resistance of the work/joint in ohms
t = time of current flow in seconds
The formula shows that the heat generated is proportional to the square of the welding current
and directly proportional to the resistance and the time. The total heat generated is partly
used to make the weld and partly lost to the surrounding metal.
4.1.2 Thermo-electrical processes of resistance spot welding

An integral part of the resistance spot welding is the thermo-electrical processes which cause
the heat generation of the welding. In the following various aspects of the thermo-electrical
processes are described.
The heat generated due to the electrical current is defined through joule’s law.
The contact resistance at the electrode-sheet interfaces (R1 and R5 are shown in figure), that
at the sheet faying interface (R3) and the bulk resistance (R2 and R4). These quantities are
usually not constant-contact resistance is a strong function of temperature and pressure, and
bulk resistance is sensitive to temperature, not pressure.
Figure 4.1: Electrical resistance in a sheet stack-up during RSW.

(Ref. No. 17)

pg. 17
The cast structure of ingots in the sheet materials used in RSW, such as steels aluminium
alloys, is deliberately modified by hot or cold working, such as rolling and heat treatment
operations. In the process, grains are refined through cold working and
recovery/recrystallization, and structures are homogenized through solution annealing or
quenching and tempering. However, such operations are difficult to perform in welding,
especially in RSW, as melting and solidification occur between two sheets. Welding
parameters, such as hold time and post heating, may be altered to a certain extent, in order
to treat the welded structures. However, due to the steep temperature gradient in a weldment,
the high cooling rate, and the short time span, such a treatment is not comparable to the
controlled heat treatment processes of the parent sheets. Therefore, the microstructures and
properties of a weldment are generally not as optimized as in the base metal.
During welding, solidification of a liquid nugget is similar to that in a metal casting. It
consists of two steps nucleation of a solid phase and subsequent crystal growth, same as
solidification in an ingot mould. The crystallization process is controlled by the heat
dissipation into the base metal and the electrodes. The direction and rate of cooling, in
addition to the alloy’s composition, decisively affect the type, size, and orientation of the
crystals formed. During solidification of a liquid nugget a change of alloy composition takes
place in the crystals being precipitated, compared to the original composition of the
formation of different crystals, including dendrites and globular and cellular crystals, is
determined by the composition and heat transfer through the liquid-solid interface.
Solidification occurs when the liquid nugget reaches the liquids temperature of the metal
Under proper welding conditions, the parent sheet metal also transfers heat from the sides.
Partially melted grains in the mushy zone at the nugget HAZ (heat-affected zone) boarders
may serve as nuclei for solid grains to grow. Further cooling results in columnar grains in
directions approximately normal to the fusion line. The remaining molten metal in the central
portion of the nugget solidifies last and forms equalised grains due to cooling when the liquid
volume is considerably small after its surroundings are solidified. Depending on welding
schedules and other conditions, various structures can be formed in a weld nugget. The ideal
scenario is when solidification occurs in a uniform manner from all the sides of the
surrounding solid, in both the electrode and sheet directions. A schematic of such a solidified
nugget is shown in Figure. Shrinkage cracks or voids, if created, tend to be close to the last
liquid to solidify.
The heat-affected zone of a resistance spot

weld experiences thermal cycles and its microstructure is determined accordingly. On
heating a steel through the upper critical temperature, austenite is stable, and it forms and
grows. The austenite grain growth is very sensitive to temperature, and aluminium and other
elements are added to steel in order to produce fine grains by impeding the growth of
austenite grains during various thermal cycles. J.F. Lancaster divided an HAZ into three
zones from a metallurgical view point supercritical, inter critical, and subcritical

pg. 18
• The supercritical region may be divided into two parts: grain growth region and grain
refined region. Above the grain-coarsening temperature a thermal cycle during welding
promotes grain growth, and below it the thermal cycle refines the grain structure. This
region is adjacent to the weld nugget. Different steels contain different grain growth
inhibitors, and they have different grain-coarsening temperatures.
• The inter critical region experiences partial phase transformation. The peak temperature
is lower than that in the supercritical region. New phases that do not exist in the original
base metal may form in this region, and such transformation depends on the duration of
the metal exposed to the peak temperature and on the cooling rate
• The subcritical region does not normally undergo any observable microstructural
changes as the temperature range is generally low. It is usually difficult to distinguish
this region from the base metal. In some cases very fine precipitates may appear in the
region.
Non-metallic inclusions such as solidifies and oxides may have an effect on the hardenability
of the HAZ. They produce a lower hardness by nucleating ferrite within the transforming
austenite grains and reducing the amount of austenite for transforming to martensite or
bainite. In some cases a low hardenability is preferred in the HAZ in order to minimize the
risk of stress corrosion cracking.
4.2 Assembly
Before any project is initiated it is always imperative that the components which makes up
the assembly are clearly laid down. Following steps for assembly this project.
Step 1: Attach the transformer to the frame.
Figure 4.2 attached the transformer

pg. 19
Step 2: Modify the simple transformer into step down transformer.
Figure 4.3 Attached lower electrode & tong
Step 3: Attach the lower electrode and tong at base of the frame.
Figure 4.4 Attached upper electrode & tong
Step 4: Attach the upper electrode and tong through T-link at upper side of the frame.
Step 5: Connect the lever to the upper electrode and tong through L-link at upper side of the
frame.
Step 6: Provide the electrical connection to the transformer through electric cable.
Step 7: Provide further electrical connection to electrodes from transformer through copper
wire
pg. 20
Chapter 5
Results and Analysis
After the successful completion of the project model, certain experiment need to be carried
out. Variations in thickness, material and current need to be studied. These factors help us in
summarizing the capabilities of our machine. The voltage and current at the secondary of the
transformer were found out by connecting a multimeter as a voltmeter parallel to the
secondary windings and ammeter of the range of 0-100 amperes in series to the primary
windings of the transformer. The following experiment were carried out using mild steel
sheets:
EXPERIMENT 1: Thickness of the work piece of the same materials was varied and the
time required to obtain a weld was noted down. The sheets were galvanized (G) as well as
non-galvanized (UG) and the time was recorded for both of them. Secondary current was
calculated by using the relation:
V1× I1 = V2× I2 where V1 = 230 volts.
This relation for a transformer is under ideal conditions where the losses are neglected. The
table is recorded accordingly and a graph is plotted between the sheet thickness and the time
required for obtaining the weld.
Table no. 5.1 Weldability of metals

Metal type Resistance [µΩ] Melting point Specific Density
[˚C] heat[J/kgK] [kg/m3]
Stainless steel 140 1510 468 7700
Mild steel 100 1480 620 7850
Table no. 5.2 Experimental Data
Experiment: Constant current and voltage, Varying thickness
Sr. no. Is (Amp) Ip (Amp) Vs (Volts) Sheet Time (sec)

thickness
(mm)
1. 4611 25 1.38 1.00 (SS) 1.00
2. 4611 25 1.38 1.5 (SS) 1.20
3. 4611 25 1.38 2.00(MS) 1.04
4. 4611 25 1.38 1.00(MS) 1.70

pg. 21
5.1 Calculation
A. For 1.5 mm (SS) thickness of sheets,
Heat generated by given law-
Qideal = I2×R×t
Qideal = (3285.71)2 × 140×10-6 × .5
= 755.71 J
Heat transferred to the nugget same as the utilized heat:
Qutilised = m × [Cp (Mp- TR)]

= 7700 × 𝜋 (1.5×10-3)3×468×(1510-30)
= 75.39 J
Melting efficiency:
ɳmelting = Qutilised / Qideal
= 0.167
= 16.7 %
B. For 2 mm thickness of sheets,
Heat generated by given law-
Qideal = I2×R×t
Qideal = (3285.71)2 × 140×10-6 × .5
= 755.71 J
Heat transferred to the nugget same as the utilized heat:
Qutilised = m × [Cp (Mp- TR)]

= 178.72 J
Melting efficiency:
ɳmelting = Qutilised / Qideal
= 0.3695
= 36.95%

pg. 22
EXPERIMENT 2: Thickness of the work piece of the same materials was varied and the
time required to obtain a weld was noted down. The sheets were galvanized (G) as well as
non-galvanized (UG) and the time was recorded for both of them.
Table no. 5.3 Experimental Data
Experiment: Constant current and voltage, Varying thickness
Sr. no. Is (Amp) Ip (Amp) Vs (Volts) Sheet Time (sec)

thickness
(mm)
1. 4611 25 1.38 1.00(UG) 1.20
2. 4611 25 1.38 1.00( G ) 2.10
3. 4611 25 1.38 2.00(UG) 1.44
4. 4611 25 1.38 2.00( G ) 2.50
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
weld time (sec)

Figure 5.1: Graph between weld time and sheet thickness
The graph between the time required for welding and the thickness of the sheets is shown
above. It can be inferred from the graph that as the sheet thickness increases the time required
also increases. Also, the variation of non-galvanized sheet is steeper as compared to a
galvanized sheet.

pg. 23
Chapter 6
Conclusions and limitations
Conclusions
Graphs depicting the various variations are plotted. It can be inferred that higher the current
lesser will be the time taken for welding operation to be completed.
• For the same current supply and thickness, a galvanized sheets takes greater time to
be welded as compared to non-galvanized sheets.
• For the same materials and thickness, the variations between current and time is
steeper for a non-galvanized sheet as compared to a galvanized sheets.
• For galvanized as well as for a non-galvanized sheets, the time required for obtaining
weld increases with increasing sheet thickness.
Limitations
The spot welding machines have got limitations as they are designed for performing a
particular task only. The various limitations are as follows:
• Our spot welding machine is not capable of welding sheets having thickness
greater than 0.7 mm.
• The major limitations for any spot welding machine. A spot welding machine is
not capable of welding sheets which are paint coated with zinc rich primers.
• Often contaminations in the form of dust particles, oil remains over the work
pieces materials results in poor quality welds and due care has to be taken in
providing a dust free environment welding.
• Resistance due to air gaps which are in caused by misalignment of the workpiece
over each other requires extra time and energy of the transformer.

pg. 24
Chapter 7
Future work
Though many significant achievements have been gained in previous works, it is expected
to be more improvements required in the future. These are the following future scope for
improvements.
• There is still a wide scope in the field of the welding work pieces of different
materials like copper, aluminum, stainless steel etc. And studying there variations
with pressure, time and current. A detailed studied would surely yield some more
results which are otherwise not known.
• Also the impact at the time of weld is a main reason for delay in the actual welding
operation to take places. Often the electrodes on their first contacts tend to bump-off
and it takes a while for them to come at rest. Although these variations are minutes,
but do affect the weld time cycle. The addition of an optional piezo-electric switch
can provide an electric feedback signal to indicate when the welding has started.
• In this project, we are use the single-phase ac power source has simple structure are
used but low control frequency and power factor. In future we can use another types
of electrical structure are used in Resistance Spot Welding, the another electrical
structure are three-phase medium frequency DC power source has a complex
structure and high control frequency but high cost, and continuously supply energy.

pg. 25
References :-
1. Easterling K.E., Introduction to the physical metallurgy of welding, 2nd Ed., Butterworth-
Heinemann, Cambridge (GB), 1992.
2. Granjon H., Fundamentals of welding metallurgy, Woodhead Publishing, Abington (GB),
1991.
3. Kou S., Welding metallurgy, 2nd Ed., J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken (NJ), 2003.
4. Lancaster J.F., Metallurgy of welding, 6th Ed., Abington Publishing, Abington (GB);
1999.
5. Linnert G.E., Welding metallurgy: Carbon and alloy steels, Volume 2: Technology, 3rd
Ed., American Welding Society, New York (NY), 1967.
6. Linnert G.E., Welding metallurgy: Carbon and alloy steels, Volume 1: Fundamentals, 4th
Ed., American Welding Society, Miami (FL); 1994.
7. Lippold J.C., Kotecki D.J., Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless Steels, J.
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (NY), 2005.
8. Callister W.D., Jr., Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 6th Ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2003.
9. Hu S.J., Senkara J., and Zhang H., Quality definition of resistance spot welds: a structural
point of view, in Proc. of International Body Engineering Conf. IBEC'96, Body and
Engineering
Section, Detroit (MI), 1996, 91.
10. Zhang H., Senkara J., and Wu X., Suppressing cracking in RSW AA5754 aluminum
alloy by mechanical means, Trans. ASME—Journal of Manufacturing Science and
Engineering, 124, 79, 2002.
11. K. Vignesh, A. Perumal and P. Velmurugan, Optimization of resistance spot welding
process parameters and microstructural examination for dissimilar welding of AISI 316L
austenitic stainless steel and 2205 duplex stainless steel, International Journal Advance
Manufacturing Technology, 92, 2017, 1-11
12. X. Yuana, C. Lia, J. Chena, X. Lia, X. Lianga and X. Pan, Resistance spot welding
of dissimilar DP600 and DC54D steels, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 239,
2017, 31-41.
13. J. Kang, Y. Chen, D. Sigler, B. Carlson and D. Wilkinson, Fatigue Behaviour of
Dissimilar Aluminium Alloy Spot Welds , 1st International Conference on Structural
Integrity, 114, 2015, 149-156.
14. Y. Li, Y. Zhang and Z. Luo, Microstructure and mechanical properties of Al/Ti joints
welded by resistance spot welding, Science and Technology of Welding and Joining,
20(5), 2015, 385-394.
15. U. Esme, Application of Taguchi method for the optimization of resistance spot
welding Process, The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 34(2B), 2009, 519-
528.

pg. 26
16.https://www.google.co.in/search?q=principal+resistance+spot+welding&source=lnms&
tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjimc_w8NnaAhVCMY8KHVt8DSIQ_AUICigB&biw=1
350&bih=674#imgrc=XCG2D1jsTQ_-zM:
17. Hongyan Zhang and Jacek Senkara, Resistance spot welding, Fundamentals and
applications

pg. 27

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STUDY AND EXPERIMENTS ON RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING MACHINE MAJOR PROJECT 2018

1.1 Resistance Spot Welding

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1.2 Principle of resistance spot welding

Figure 1.1: Spot Welding Process (Ref. No. 17)

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1.3 Factors affecting spot welding

Figure 1.2: Time Schedule (Ref. No. 17)

Squeeze time: time between pressure application and weld.

Predressing of electrode tips/caps

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• Initiate the welder control.

1.4 Surface conditions

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Low Alloy and Medium Carbon Steels

Steels, Dip Coated or Plated

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3.1 Components of Attachment

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3.1.1 Mechanical Components

3.1.1.1 Frame Arrangement

Figure 3.1: Spot Welder Frame

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3.1.1.2 Lever Arrangement

Figure 3.2: Lever of welder

3.1.1.3 Electrode and Tongs Arrangement:

Figure 3.3: Electrodes and Tongs

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3.1.2 Electrical components

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 3.4: Transformer Specifications (Ref. no.17)

From Faraday’s law, for ideal transformer,

under ideal conditions when no losses are considered.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3.1.2.2 Electrical Connections:

Figure 3.5: Electrical connections of transformer

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

4.1.1 Physical phenomena in resistance spot welding

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

4.1.2 Thermo-electrical processes of resistance spot welding

Figure 4.1: Electrical resistance in a sheet stack-up during RSW.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The heat-affected zone of a resistance spot

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Step 1: Attach the transformer to the frame.

Figure 4.2 attached the transformer

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Step 2: Modify the simple transformer into step down transformer.

Figure 4.3 Attached lower electrode & tong

Figure 4.4 Attached upper electrode & tong

Table no. 5.1 Weldability of metals

Table no. 5.2 Experimental Data

Experiment: Constant current and voltage, Varying thickness

Sr. no. Is (Amp) Ip (Amp) Vs (Volts) Sheet Time (sec)

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A. For 1.5 mm (SS) thickness of sheets,

Heat generated by given law-

Qutilised = m × [Cp (Mp- TR)]

Heat generated by given law-

Qutilised = m × [Cp (Mp- TR)]

ENGINEERING COLLEGE NOWGONG DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING