445.

664

Light-Emitting Diodes
Chapter 4.
LED Basics : Electrical Properties

Euijoon Yoon

p-n junction band diagram

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Schockley Equation

kT NAND
• VD (diffusion voltage) VD = ln
e ni 2
NA, ND : acceptor and donor concentration
ni : intrinsic carrier concentration

The diffusion voltage represents the barrier that free carriers must
overcome in order to reach the neutral region of opposite conductivity
type.

• Schockley equation (the I-V characteristic of a p-n junction)

⎛ Dp Dn ⎞ e(V −VD ) / kT
I = eA⎜⎜ NA + ND ⎟⎟{e − 1}
⎝ τp τn
⎠
Dn, p : electron and hole diffusion constants • Threshold voltage (Vth)
τn , p : electron and hole minority carrier lifetimes -the voltage at which the
current strongly increase
A : cross-sectional area, V : diode bias voltage - Vth ~ VD
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Diode current-voltage characteristics

• Forward voltage is approximately equal to Eg/e.

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Diode forward voltage

• Most semiconductor LEDs follow the solid line, except for LEDs
based on III-V nitrides.
1. Large bandgap discontinuities -> additional voltage drop
2. Poor contact technology in the nitrides
3. Low p-type conductivity in bulk GaN
4. Parastic voltage drop in the n-type buffer layer

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Deviations from the ideal I-V characteristic

eV /(nideal kT )
• I = Ise

• I−
(V − IRs ) = Isee(V − IRs ) /(nideal kT )
Rp

nideal : ideality factor

Rs : parasitic series resistance
Rp : parasitic parallel resistance

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Non-ideal I-V characteristics

Parallel
resistance
Rp=dV/dI

• Problems area of diodes can be identified from I-V characteristic.

- A series resistance can be caused by contact resistance or by the resistance
of the neutral region.
- A parallel resistance can be caused by any channel that bypasses the p-n
junction. The bypass can be caused by damaged regions of the p-n junction or
by surface imperfections.

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Methods to determine series resistance

• Method shown above suitable for series resistance measurement.

• At high currents, diode I-V becomes linear due to dominance of

series resistance. Diode series resistance can be extracted in
linear regime.

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Carrier distribution in p-n homo- and heterojunctions

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Double heterostructure (DH)

• Einstein relation • Diffusion length (L)

- Dn = kTμn / e - Ln = (Dnτn)1/2
- Dp = kTμp / e - Lp = (Dpτp)1/2

• In typical semiconductors, the diffusion length is of the order of

a several micrometers.
ex) in p-type GaAs, Ln = (220 cm2/s x 10-8 s)1/2 = 15μm

• Minority carriers are distributed over quite a large distance. The

large recombination region in homojunctions is not beneficial for
efficient recombination.

• Introduction of double heterostructure (DH) makes it possible to

confine the carriers in active region. The thickness of the region
in which carriers recombine is given by the thickness of the active
region rather than the diffusion length.

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The effect of heterojunctions on device resistance

• One of the problem introduced by heterostructures is the resistance

caused by the heterointerface and it can have a strong deleterious
effect on device performance, especially in high-power devices.

• The resistance introduced by abrupt heterostructures can be completely

eliminated by parabolic grading.
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Grading of heterostructures
eND 2
φ= x
2ε
• In order to compensate for the
parabolic shape of the depletion potential,
the composition of the semiconductor is
varied parabolically as well, so that an
overall flat potential results.

• If the potential created in the depletion

region is equal to Δ Eg/e, then electrons
will no longer transfer to the small-
bandgap material. The thickness of the
depletion region is,,,

WD = 2ε2ΔEC
e ND
• The “spikes” are a result of the linear
grading assumed, and would not result
for parabolic grading.
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Carrier loss in double heterostructures

• The concentration of electrons with energy higher than the barrier

∞ ( EFn −EB) / kT
nB = ∫EB ρDOSfFD(E)dE nB = NCe
(Fermi-Dirac distribution) (Boltzmann distribution)

• The diffusion current density of electrons leaking over the barrier

dnB( x ) nB ( 0)
Jn x = 0 = −eDn x = 0 = −eDn
dx Ln

−(EB−EFn ) / kT −x / Ln
nB( x ) = nB(0)e −x / Ln = NCe e

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Carrier overflow in double heterostructures

• The current density at which the active region overflows,,,

2 3
⎛ 4 NC ⎞ ⎛ ΔEC ⎞
Joverflow = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ eBWDH (for DH structure LED)
⎝ 3 π ⎠ ⎝ kT ⎠
2
⎡ m* ⎤ eB
Joverflow = ⎢ (ΔEC − Eo)⎥ (for QW structure LED)
⎣ π(h / 2π)
2
⎦ WQW

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Carrier overflow - For DH structure LED
• The rate equation of carrier supply to (by injection) and removal from the
active region (by recombination) is given by
dn J
= − Bnp (B: the bimolecular recombination coefficient)
dt eWDH
• For high injection densities: n=p J
• Under steady-state conditions (dn/dt=0),
n=
eBWDH

• In the high-density approximation, the Fermi level is given by

2/3
EF − EC ⎛ 3 π n ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ (Nc: effective density of states)
kT ⎝ 4 N C ⎠
• At high injection levels, the Fermi energy rises and will eventually reach the
top of the barrier. At that point, EF − EC = ΔEC . Using this value, the current
density at which the active region overflows is given by
2 3
⎛ 4 NC ⎞ ⎛ ΔEC ⎞
Joverflow = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ eBWDH
⎝ 3 π ⎠ ⎝ kT ⎠
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Carrier overflow - For QW structure LED

• For QW structures, we must employ the 2D density of states, rather than the
3D density of states. The Fermi level in a QW with one quantized state with
energy E0 is given by

EF − E 0 ⎡ ⎛ n 2D ⎞ ⎤ ( n2D : the 2D carrier density per cm2,

= ln ⎢exp⎜⎜ 2 D ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Nc2D : the effective 2D density of states)
kT ⎣⎢ ⎝ Nc ⎠ ⎦⎥

• Nc2D is given by

m*
NC 2 D = kT
π(h / 2π) 2

• The high-degeneracy approximation (at high carrier densities) is employed

and one obtains

π(h / 2π) 2 2 D
EF − E 0 = n
m*

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Carrier overflow - For QW structure LED

• The rate equation for the QW of carrier supply to (by injection) and removal
from the active region (by recombination) is given by

dn 2 D J
= − B 2D n 2D p 2D
dt e
(B2D ≈ B/WQW : the bimolecular recombination coefficient for a 2D structure)

• For high injection densities: n2D=p2D J JWQW

n 2D = 2D
=
• Under steady-state conditions (dn2D/dt=0), eB eB

• At high injection levels, the Fermi energy will reach the top of the barrier.
At that point, EF − E 0 = ΔEC − E 0 . Using this value, the current density at
which the active region overflows is given by

2
⎡ m* ⎤ eB
Joverflow = ⎢ (ΔEC − Eo)⎥
⎣ π(h / 2π)
2
⎦ WQW

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Saturation of output power due to leakage

• In order to avoid the carrier overflow, high current LEDs must

employ thick DH active regions, or many QWs of multiple QW
(MQW) active regions, or a large injection (contact) area.

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Electron blocking layers

• The barrier in the valence band is screened by free carriers so that

there is no barrier to the flow of holes in the p-type confinement layer.
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Diode forward voltage

• The total voltage drop across a forward-biased LED is given by

Eg ΔEC − Eo Δ EV − Eo
V= + IRS + +
e e e
• One finds experimentally that the diode voltage can be slightly lower
than the minimum value predicted by above Eq’n, i.e. ~ Eg/e

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Temperature dependence of diode voltage

• The temperature dependence

of the diode voltage

kT I Eg ( T )
V (T ) = ln +
e IS* e

• first term : due to the changes of

the Fermi level with temperature
• The contribution of the first term
is generally smaller than the
contribution of the second term.

• Diode voltage decreases with increasing temperature due to decrease

in energy gap and increase in saturation current density.

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Temperature dependence of diode voltage

• Diode forward voltage can be used to assess junction temperature

with high accuracy.

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Drive circuits

• Constant current-drive circuit

• Constant voltage-drive circuit

• What are the advantages and disadvantages?

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