8 - AUTONOMOUS RACING

In this research G. Williams et al has proposed the functions of Autonomous Vehicles. Their
vision is that Autonomous Vehicles must be able to predict the presence of other vehicles and
their actions and reactions to them. According to them in real world the Autonomous Vehicles
will have to interact with other vehicles around them and they must have capability to predict
and realize the actions of other human drivers. Autonomous Vehicles should be able enough to
realize the action of other vehicles and their own actions against them to be safe and sound.
Especially in the case of aggressive drivers, when the necessary interactions are highly dynamic,
for example, in case of weaving traffic on a freeway or collision avoidance and solution must be
computed quickly by autonomous vehicles. To show the aggressive driving, a modal race
between two autonomous vehicles was set. Autonomous racing essentially involves pushing the
vehicles to handling the acceleration limits and it showed that there was a very small margin of
mistake while racing against a capable adversary. For studying aggressive driving these factors
made autonomous Vehicles a good surrogate. In this paper they used differential game theory to
extend Modal Predictive Path Integral Control (MPPI) and for real time multi vehicles
interactions, introduced Best Response MPPI. The experimental results were shown In a racing
format with BR- MPPI two Auto Rally platforms competing against a well skilled human
operator at the Georgia Tech Autonomous Racing Facility. The purpose of the Auto Rally was to
get the result of communication between two autonomous vehicles that how Autonomous
Vehicle transmits its state estimate and receives state estimates from other robots or autonomous
vehicles. The second result showed that the BR- MPPI was competitive with the human operator,
and drove much more consistent path than the human driver. In this race the human driver and
autonomous vehicles were unable to pass each other unless the leading vehicle made a mistake.
Regarding BR- MPPI, the results were promising but still there is room to improve their
performance.
16 – Comparing collisions

According to Daniel Asljing et al before the commercialization of autonomous vehicles, the

verification of the safety is the largest challenge. For safer, more sustainable and
environmentally friendly transports, autonomous vehicles must be able to detect and respond
every kind of situations, either good or bad. The only way is that the driver can spend his time on
other work or activities when autonomous vehicles will be safe. This thing can put the drivers
out of loop and this means that the autonomous vehicles must be able enough to handle all
situations themselves. They showed that to achieve this approach safety has to be quantified and
it has to be shown that the autonomous vehicles are safe and capable to handle all good or bad
situations other than the human driver. To test the safety before the commercialization of
autonomous vehicles various verification tests and approaches could be applied, for instance,
collision avoidance functionality was traditionally verified by testing situations where system
was active. Then in passive situation tests were taken and the result was that the autonomous
vehicles could never be passive. Autonomous Vehicles were verified to cover the extreme
distance without causing any accident. The second approach was to show that Autonomous were
able to handle all the worst situations. Another more challenging thing was to notice the safety of
autonomous vehicles and for this purpose various tests were taken. For this purpose various
models from physical objects to human beings were used, to get the idea that autonomous
vehicles could detect and identify the objects and avoid collision. According to them autonomous
vehicles should be able enough to handle this type of situation and to test this thing the extensive
data collection is required from the world .this test approach was of great advantage but the
downside of this thing was the collision of autonomous vehicles as in real world it happens very
often but after the practice testing the probability of collision was very low as autonomous
vehicles are highly equipped with multiple sensors that can collect data several times per second.
To measure the collision frequency, the threat measure could be used and this was done by
Extreme Value Theory (EVT). Before the commercialization of autonomous vehicles, the
measurement and assessment of its safety was important and further measurements are required.

53..DNN

In this paper Guanpeng Li et al has discussed that machine learning problems are widely solved
by Deep Learning Neural Network (DNNs) .For high performance computing systems and data
centers DNN is widely used. These DNN are specialized hardware accelerators consist of
thousands of parallel processing engines. These accelerators were recently used by google and
other data centers and in safety critical systems such as autonomous vehicles. Reliability and
performance of the DNNs is studied widely but they could not be applied due to unreliability and
safety. The major source of unreliability and violation of safety in modern system were soft
errors which became the main reason of malfunctioning. DNN system has promising result if it
maintains the reliability and safety in the fields where employed.
DNN system was also used in autonomous or self-driving vehicles but if it generates reliability
and safety in image recognition and detection and for this purpose high quality super computers
will be required. They focused on the DNN system and its ability of an image analysis. They also
studied about the quality and rate of the chip carrying DNNs that are required for the soft error
identification. This paper also proposed how soft errors emerge from hardware to software
system and can be controlled. This thing made them very challenging to deploy in autonomous
vehicles which needs to detect objects in real time like pedestrians. For this purpose the
researchers have investigated the system to control the probability of the soft errors and protect
the programs. These software’s would be able to identify the static instructions and selectively
duplicate the instructions. They have also characterized the impact of the soft errors on the DNN
system through a large scale fault rejection experiments with 4 popular DNN s running on
recently proposed DNN hardware accelerators. They also found that data type, values, data
reuse, and the types of layers in the design are main factors on which GNNs resilience depends.
They also proposed techniques to reduce the rate of SDC(silent data corruption) in DNNs.

49..DNN FOR END-TO- END

In this paper Vikter Rausch et al has searched that for computer vision, speed recognition and
text processing, Deep Neural Networks are frequently used because it has the ability to regress
highly the non-linear functions. They have shown the end-to-end controller for the self-driving
cars that based on convolutional neural network (CNN). They believe that the autonomous cars
will have great impact in the world of automotive industry. Almost 90% accidents are caused by
the drivers and 2% due to vehicles but the emergence of autonomous vehicles will control this
ratio and save thousands of lives every year.
In this regard a lot of work is being done in hardware and algorithmic research. Autonomous
vehicles have to cope with various challenges like recognition of humans, roads and traffic lanes.
Major task of self-driving cars is to plan the path and control itself and for this purpose a vast
amount of data sensors was needed and required to be processed. DNNs are emerged as
promising but for complex data still improvements were required to be processed. When Neural
nets passes large number of layers they are referred as DEEP Neural Network is referred to learn
complex network and established in machine learning for non- linear functions like speech
recognition and text processing. For image recognition Convolutional Neural Network was used
which is a type of DNNs. The researchers have suggested that CNN leads to superior
performance even on large data sets and its use in autonomous vehicles, particularly helps in
road image detection without any manual optimization or initialization. Recently, for control
policy DNNs was introduced as end-to end framework. Other than classification tasks its
approximated function was continuous and to map complex sensor reading such as camera
frames to control the actions. They have demonstrated the Deep learning Neural Network that
used a neural net to encode a control policy for steering a car.
They have combined all their efforts within one framework but there was not yet any explicitly
regarding lane detection, object recognition, path planning and controls. Like human beings they
compared the camera frame to gather every type of information. In Autonomous Vehicles the
controller or CNNs maps the camera frame to steering angle and the main objective was lane
following. They have proposed that Deep Learning end-to-end controller has promising results in
autonomous vehicles but it can be improved for better results if more work and research is done.

47. END to End learning for self-driving cars

Mariusz Bojarski et al researched that Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) has revolutionized
the pattern detection and image recognition process. They trained a CNN system to capture the
raw pixels through single front facing camera directly to steering command. This end-to-end
approach showed amazing results. All the system learnt to drive in traffic on local roads with
minimum human training and efforts. The main back through of CNNs was that every feature
was learned automatically from training examples. For image recognition the CNNs proved
powerful because the convolution operation captures the 2D nature of the images.
For over twenty years convolution neural network (CNNs) has been in commercial use but due
to two main developments their adoption has exploded in last few years. First, Large Scale
Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) have become available for training and validation
.Second, CNNs learning algorithms have been implemented massively on the parallel Graphics
Processing Unit (GPUs) which tremendously accelerate learning and inference. They have
described that CNN not only recognizes images but also goes through the entire processing
pipeline that is needed to run an automobile. Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
(DARPA) in which the groundwork of this project started and that was almost ten years ago. The
name of the project was DARPA Auto Vehicle (DAVE) in which a sub-scale Radio Control
(RC) was driven. That car was trained on hours of human driving and not of the environment. In
that car two cameras were included to give and control commands from right and left. In 1989
Pomerleau built the Autonomous Land Vehicle in Neural Network (ALVINN) by following it
DAVE-2 demonstrated that an end-to-end trained neural network can steer a car on the road.
The researchers have shown that CNNs can automatically control the essential processing steps
like lane detection. They never trained the system explicitly like the outline of the road etc. They
proved that their system will gradually improve and will give better performance because the
internal components self-optimize to maximize all performance. Comparatively smaller networks
are possible because the system learns to solve the problems with the minimal number of
processing steps. Still more work is needed to improve the robustness of the network and verify
and visualize the internal processing steps.

25—pedestrians ...

Adam Millard-Ball has researched the interactions between Autonomous Vehicles and
Pedestrians with a focus on yielding crosswalk. He said that Autonomous vehicles or self-driving
cars have the potential to transform the travel behavior. According to game theory the modal
showed that the pedestrians will be able to behave with impunity and automotive vehicles may
facilitate a shift towards pedestrian oriented urban neighborhood. In this paper, Adam Millard-
Ball has used game theory that formalizes a model of “crosswalk chicken” between pedestrians
and drivers. He showed that Autonomous vehicles have shown more dramatic transformation
power in urban transportation system than any other vehicle. Pedestrians know that the drivers
have no interest in running them down that’s why they simply step out into the street and assert
the right of way. The researcher has proposed that the use of autonomous vehicles will be more
safe because they have the function to slow down in the presence of pedestrians or any other
object. The pedestrians will have no tension of the drunk drivers in case of the Autonomous
Vehicles. They will know that the Autonomous vehicles will follow the traffic rules and will
drive much more cautiously than majority of the human drivers. Due to this feature game
theoretic analysis presented here, suggested an alternative scenario, where increased adoption of
autonomous vehicles renders their desirability, from the drivers perspective, questionable in
many urban environment. Instead, the pedestrian walk will be more safe, quicker and faster and
human driven vehicles will also be faster than autonomous vehicles.

26—Perception of autonomous vehicles.

Lynn M.Hulse et al have proposed in this paper that autonomous vehicles or self-driving cars are
closer to become the reality in the world that’s why it’s important to know the ratio of its
perception by the people or passengers who will use it and other road users who will have to
interact with them. It is reality that the twentieth century has revolution with the mass production
of the affordable vehicles that people can drive freely by themselves but the twenty first century
has revolution of completely self-driving cars or Autonomous vehicles which have freed the
drivers and has shown low risk of collision .The Researchers surveyed almost 1000 participants
regarding the safety and risk of the autonomous vehicles and got almost good result that the most
of the people revealed the autonomous vehicles as somewhat on low risk form of transport and
some of them opposed it due to lack of safety .However, compared to human operated cars , the
survey showed that the autonomous cars can be more risky for the passengers and less risky for
the pedestrians. Although, Autonomous trains and airport shuttles have been in usage for the
number of years in many cities and they are safe because they run in their enclosed routes and
tracks and have no interactions with other objects or pedestrians while the autonomous vehicles
will have to interact with other road users, pedestrians and road objects so the question of their
safety is always in the minds of people. This paper has also shown that the Genders, Age and
Risk- taking had varied relationship with the perceived risk of different vehicles types and
general attitude towards autonomous vehicles .For instance, male and younger generation
showed more acceptance than others due to its usage and safety .The Researchers have revealed
that the autonomous vehicles are perceived in positive light but there is also opposition of it due
to low rate of safety and risk. However, further findings highlight that much effort is required to
encourage widespread acceptance. It’s also important to bring awareness among the people that
this revolutionary transport will be more beneficial for them other hand the present transport.
They have also suggested that still more research and hard work is required to make the
autonomous vehicles safe and cheap for the people.

29. Rasmus Adler et all has researched about the safety engineering for the autonomouse
vehicles. According to them human driven cars achieve safety when the follow the instruction
and commands from the human drivers. But the autonomous vehicle have the biggest problem of
safety. They are unable to decide which behavior is reasonable in which situation. Safety
criticality extends to the decision making process and it is more problematic. This paper they
have discussed that in the present time there a lot of driver assistance like cruise control and lane
assistance, if all of these are adjusted in one vehicle then they will be able to fulfill this dream of
fully automated cars. in human driven vehicles are plane, safety is completely the responsibility
of the operator and they have the ability to make decision on the spot but in case of full
automation the vehicle itself decide whether a certain behavior is safe in certain situation. That’s
why the responsibility of making safe decision is shifted from operator the manufacturer of the
vehicle. Thus it depends completely on the manufacturer of safety critical automated vehicle.
That what they should do regarding safe decision during any situation. Keeping in mind about
safety of non-autonomous vehicle the safety standard tell manufacturer what to do in order to
satisfy their responsibility. Safety standards has to be considered by manufacturer depends on the
type of vehicle being developed. Safety standard of road vehicle will be different from the
agricultural vehicle and other machinery. While manufacturing focus is always on mal function
of some predictable problem but the main problem is unpredictable behavior of the vehicle. It is
difficult to solve the problem of unpredictable behavior that how the vehicle will behave in
certain runtime situation. They focused on the problem that autonomy is achieved by intelligent
function that generates unpredictable behavior. Their safety engineering approach clearly
distinguish specification of critical behavior in run time situation and avoidance of the specified
behavior in those situations.

39.
Danial ma Tirana ET all has researched a semantic mapping system for autonomous off road
driving using an all-terrain vehicle (ATV). Lot of progress have been made in 3d sensing
capabilities of the self-driving vehicles. The aim of the semantic system was to give sense to
vehicle to distinguish the environment more purely then geometric map like tall grass to
obstacle. Their system was enable to encode both geometric and semantic maps having 2.5 D
grid. Online and real time geometric and semantic information were estimated through LIDAR
and image sensors data. They designed custom convolutional neural network (CNN) and trained
it with a dataset of labeled images to get robust and efficient semantic segmentation. They
observed that the result were disappointing if they completely rely on the geometric information
because if failed to provide many Important distinction for wheeled all-terrain vehicle(ATVs),
like tall grass might be perceived as obstacle but their ATVs may traverse it if desired and leaf
litter as rocky terrain. All these might be dangerous decision in path planning. To cope with this
problem they designed a sematic map which gave both semantic and geometric information as
the vehicle move and got more data by using a simple planer they showed qualitative example of
their system being successfully used to navigate challenging off-road terrain.

42.
Choomin L luo et all has proposed a new Hopfield type neural network (HNN) approach to multi
goal vehicle navigation in unknown environment. In this paper a real time concurrent multi goal
motion planning and map building approach of an autonomous vehicle completely unknown
environment is proposed. A histogram based navigation algorithms was employed to plane a
collision free path along the trail plane by the global path planner. The navigation system
consisted of two layers. One was a D-light global path planner with re-planning function and
other was a histogram based local navigator. The D-light was employed to generate the global
trajectory of an autonomous vehicle under unknown environment. The inclusion of a sequence of
markers in the motion planning. Which decomposes the global trajectory generated by the global
planner into a sequence of segments, made the mode specifically efficient for the workspace
densely populated by the obstacles. In order to achieve high level of autonomy and robustness in
multi goal navigation, map building is fundamental task that makes it possible for autonomous
vehicles to make decision in positioning with obstacles avoidance. For this purpose 2D cell
based map filled with equally sized, which were marked as either occupied or free, was built as
the mobile vehicle moves. Traveling sales man problem (TSP) was employed to deal with multi
goal navigation to searched and ordered set of all way points for the autonomous vehicle to visit
at such that the cost is minimized. In this paper, a Hopfield type neural network model was
utilized to resolve the TSP for multi goal navigation with multiway points. After execution of
that HNN based TSP algorithms, the minimized total route to connect all the way points were
obtained. There were 15 waypoints in the workspace that required service mobile vehicle to
reach per waypoint.
43..
Guy ketz et all has focused in this paper on a very specific kind of deep neural network (DNN)
called adversarial robustness, that measures a network’s resilience against adversarial input.
Adversarial input means the intake of inputs that are correctly classified by DNN perturbing
them in a way that causes misclassified by the network. By using DNNs they have purposed a
new decision procedure called Reluplex. Reluplex was designed to solve linear equation with
nonlinear constraints. The main challenge in software verification and particularly in DNN
verification, was obtaining a specification against which software can be verified. Adversarial
robustness properties fulfill this demand, they express the requirement that the network behaves
smoothly. As DNN were trained over finite set on input/output, this captured their desired
behavior of the network that was neither test nor trained. This paper also presented their effort
and work on the same line of adversarial robustness, properties and their consideration for
proving them on real world.

45. Tommaso Dreossi et all has purposed systematic testing of convolutional Neural network
(CNN) for autonomous driving. CNNs are powerful modes that have recently achived the stat of
the art in object classification and image detection. They have a presented a framework to
systematically test CNN by generating synthetic dataset. Their framework consisted of three
main modules, an image generator, a collection of sampling method and a suite of realization
tool. Every module have its own specific task, like an image generator renders realistic image of
road scenarios. The goal of sampling method was to provide modification point to image
generator that produce pictures used to extract in formation from the CNN. Finally the
realization tools were used to display the gathered information. In realization tool consisted two
main factors, the confidence score and Interaction Over Union (IOU) that was a matrix used to
measure the accuracy of detection. Their framework contribution were two fold, analysis of
neural network classifier that was used to classify blind corner or blind spots. And second one
was dataset generator that could generate large dataset for which the diversity of the picture
could be controlled by the users.

36.
Caroline Bianca et all has proposed the research work on complete safety of autonomous vehicle
by using autonomous vehicle control (AVC) module strategy. AVC was responsible for fully
controlling the autonomous vehicle. The AVC sub module were responsible to control the
autonomous vehicle which properly separate the vehicle control functionalities. This allowed the
vehicle operation mission fully controlled. The function of AVC in self-driving vehicle was to
execute driver functionality. The AVC module was composed of two layers hierarchical
architecture, in which lower layer was responsible for protection of vehicle movement and
controlling it in critical situation. As the AVC system would have to perform all the
functionalities of drivers like vehicle system, route planning and vehicle control in an
autonomous vehicle without relying on human intervention to complete its mission. It was
divided into two sub modules, autonomous vehicle operation (AVO) and autonomous vehicle
protection (AVP). AVO and AVP were independent submodules from which commands were
issued to control the vehicle. AVP was the protection layer and got the commands AVO and
send them to vehicle. AVP only send commands to the vehicle. When it felt there was any unsafe
situation that could be dangerous for vehicle, for passenger or for the pedestrian. Thus the main
contribution of this proposal was AVP submodule, which provided protection layer to the
autonomous vehicle by deciding the best behavior when the vehicle faced the any dangerous
situation. This strategy were proposed insuring the safety of autonomous vehicle when any
dangerous situation suddenly occur.

35.
Yuxiao Chaen el all has focused in this paper on the low speed autonomous vehicle (AV) that
operate in open area and have to face multiple objects or pedestrians. The main problem was to
navigate the AV from starting point to targeted point without colliding with any object or
pedestrians’ on its way, within shortest time period. The proposed a polar algorithms to compute
the avoidable set using polar property of the polytopes. They also proposed control barriers
function based control algorithm, solved by the Mixed Integer Programming (MIP) method that
guaranteed the safety of AV using both steering and braking at same time. By implementing
these two systems they proposed two rules regarding autonomous vehicles’ safety. First one was,
when the AV was stopped, any conflicted after it was not considered the responsibility of the
AV. Secondly when the obstacle run to the AV from behind it was not considered, collision
cause by the AV. For the avoidance of collision they designed supervisory controller that was
inactive when there were no danger and action were taken only to keep the vehicle safe. They
portioned the state space into 3 sets to show severity of the danger, Infeasible set, the area where
collision was not always avoidable. It means that once AV entered in infeasible set, it should
stop instantly, Avoidable set, that guaranteed AV would never enter into infeasible set and the
Controlled Invariant set which was the complement of the avoidable set because it control the
vehicle in all possible disturbances. All this showed that two key element of this approach were
the polar algorithm that constructed polytopic avoidable sets: Pip that implemented the
supervisory controlled structure and simulation show that proposed method completely
prevented collision even with multiple moving pedestrians.

54. shaif Choudhury et all has proposed Haar Featured based classifier for vehicle detection and
counting. Haar like feature for vehicle detection was basically face detection system. This
method was proposed by Voily and Jones, which was a machine learning based technique that
used a set of positive and negative images for training purpose. The result show that this method
was quite effective in detecting cars in real time CCTV footage. They used same feature like
classifier detecting different type of vehicles, they proposed a framework to combine several
features into a cascade, like sequence of tests on the image were taken in the several stages,
organized each based on the result of one or more Haar features when the object passed through
all stages of the classifier and got recognized. They used Open CV along with a Python wrapper
CV2 , for application of framework. This framework works in three steps, asset preparation,
which means the planning the image classifier to detect the image. The dataset on positive and
negative were provided and result showed that they were negative images that didn’t content the
car images. Second number was metadata that contain file having no of objects, position and
dimensions this metadata would be able to train the classifier. Third one was testing the classifier
trained by metadata. Here were images detected by the CV along with python data CV2 to
invoke the classifier and detect object from video. The finally proposed that Haar featured based
solution was more effective and faster to count the number of cars and detect the images of the
objects and cars through videos.

55- Yang Liu et al has proposed Latent Bi- Constraint SVM for video based object recognition.
LBSVM was a new algorithm designed on structured output SVM( SOSVM) but it extended to
challenges of image recognition through videos. The novelty of this technique was three folds;
the first constraint classified the images through videos and gave training to system to recognize
them from the videos. The second constraint the monotonicity of the score function with respect
to the inclusion relationship between subsequences of video. Third one was the incorporation of
the latent variable which allowed the monotonicity requirements to be satisfied. They
demonstrated the LBSVM for image recognition through handheld camera in an office and a
museum. They recorded the videos of office objects during office time in a cluttered
environment and museum sculptures were recorded inside a crowded museum. These videos
were challenging for object recognition due to various factors like background, scale variation,
lighting effects and motion blur. They recorded 210 videos of office and almost 820 of museum
having videos of sculptures. They got 84.5% accuracy of office image recognition through
videos and 98.8% of museum by using LBSVM. Thus it meant that LBSVM can be more
effective and faster way for image recognition through videos.

57. ---------------------------
In this paper, Roland Batok has researched that autonomous robot must detect any object or wall
nearby or far to it. It is very important for autonomous robot or vehicle to detect any object or
wall in its way to avoid the collision. For this purpose the researcher has purposed two
algorithms, FRI and Bayes classifier. For collision avoidance autonomous robots needed many
type of sensors to detect any object and they got better results using more type of sensors like
infrared sensors, ultrasonic sensors and laser distance sensors. Due to a number of sensors it
needed sensor fusion, the best thing was, and FRI based behavior description language or Bayes
classifier. They proposed that there were many human expression which computer could not
compile because it is difficult to translate every expression in computer language. For this
purpose they used fuzzy logic or fuzzy sets in which two featured were described to use this
interval like (0, 1) “0” stood for not meant “object was far” and “1” mean “object were near”.
For research purpose they used a two while mobile robot which have to move in square maize
having square cells. It could move freely in maize and enter from four sides. They applied both
algorithms FRI methods and Bayes classifier to detect the wall. Bayes classifier was trained with
collected data and FRI was not trained. When the mobile robot moved too closed to the wall, Commented [h1]:
both the method generated false results but with more training the Bayes classifier showed better
result to detect the wall as compared to FRI method. In my opinion they should do more
experiments for training purpose to improve classification result and better recognition of
obstacles.
67. top
In this paper, Taehyun Shin et al.[] propose collision avoidance system for autonomous vehicle
which was consisted of motion planner and model predictive control based (MPC), active vehicle
steering and active vehicle torque. The task of motion planner was to determine collision free
trajectory when vehicle was near to face any collision. Then a MPC based controller controls the
steering and torque of single wheel when desired. They also proposed ‘Magic Formula’ tire
model, active front steering and active wheel torque distribution systems. They developed new
polynomial parametrization method which was based on kinematic model of car like vehicle to
check the effectiveness of designed path planning controller for an autonomous vehicle, an
obstacle was placed in a way. The planning program computed an alternative path when vehicle
detected obstacle in its way, then MPC based controller, help the vehicle to be tracked. To test
the path planning MPC’ based controller they carried out two different cases, one was with a
stationary obstacle in the way of vehicle while the other was with a moving obstacle to repeat the
scenario. Where in the controlled vehicle over took the slow moving car ahead. As the
controlled vehicle was autonomous so there was no torque on the steering and wheel from the
driver. Through the simulation it was showed that the proposed approach was feasible and that it
could avoid static and moving obstacle in normal driving condition. This research showed that
this collision avoiding system using path planner and MPC based method’s is not for high speeds
emergency collision avoidance.

69.
Marco Allodi et al. has proposed obstacle detection, tracking and fusion algorithm which
allowed to rebuild the surrounding environment of vehicle. The more innovative step of this
research was introduction of machine learning into the tracking association step for calculating
cost which was inserted in a framework utilized the gathered information from multiple
heterogeneous sensor in homogeneous way. In the sense of minimizing the total matching costs,
obtained associations were optional. The proposed algorithm to detect the obstacle in a real use
framework, tested against the publically available Kitty benchmark Dataset. The researcher
proposed the system to detect and fuse obstacle by getting information through laser and stereo
cameras. By using this approach several automotive applications could be achieved like,
adoptive cruise control that automatically prevent the vehicle and keep it at distance from the
front vehicle regarding safety. They also used an Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) which
managed different numbers of observation arbitrarily compose able which allowed to correctly
utilize the combined tracking and fusion challenge. The proposed system and algorithm provided
a stable, robust and reliable detection and help the driver in assessment of critical situations. The
work can be improved by using this filter with LIDAR inputs.

64.
Xiaoxia Xiong et al. has proposed a new framework for avoiding collision and prediction about
vehicle collision by using and combing SVM and HMM. They have proposed new framework
named, Chain of Road Traffic Incident (CRTI) and a new framework that predicted the vehicle
collision and prevention based on machine learning and pattern recognition technique. The
proposed CRTI system worked on two stages, (1) support Vector Machine (SVM), which
classified when the vehicle left the lane and scene when it remained in lane. (2) Guassion
Mixture-based Hidden Markoz Model (HMM) which was developed to classify the accident and
non-accident scenario. The got the concept of CRTI from Heinrich Casual Chain Theory.
According to that before any accident happing on the road, a series of such incidents happens
that finally cause accident. To check the effectiveness of CRTI framework they developed a
simulator based on the PreScan simulation platforms developed by the Netherland organization
for Applied Scientific Research(TNO). They tested this simulator testing, including basic
environment like road section, infrastructure components such as road traffic signs, buildings,
trees etc. weather conditions like rain snow, and fog, light sources such as sunlight, headlight or
lampposts, as well as other road participants like other vehicle and pedestrian. Through this
simulation for training and testing they recorded 400 cases in which 190 cases were accident and
210 were non-accident. Based on testing dataset, comparison between prediction results and
actual rates showed 87.3% accuracy regarding road accidents. They showed accuracy result on
simulation based which is very high, In my opinion results can be improved by training it on real
time.

70—In this paper, Noa Garnett et al has researched about the real time category based and
general obstacle detection for autonomous driving. Their main goal was to detect both, dynamic
and static obstacles, with perfection and accuracy. The vehicles have to face both categorized
and un-categorized obstacles in real- time and predict their behavior without any error, so they
have divided this task into two main sub- tasks, categorized and column based general obstacle
detection. They have presented a unified Deep Convolutional Neural Network, in which they
combined these two complimentary functions in one computationally efficient framework which
has ability to perform real time performances. This framework was combined of Single-Shot
Multi-Box Detector (SSD) to detect categorized obstacles, using the StixelNet for general
obstacles. Training data was consisted of both manually and automatically generated Ground
Truth (GT). Secondly, they Improved StixelNet by architecting a new automatic Ground- Truth
method for generating training data and the use of a newly collected dataset. Finally they showed
that column based general obstacles can be handled by using different cameras and viewing
angles. Their object detection was based on SSD framework which showed much better and
excellent run-time results vs, accurate trade- off.

75. Dan Levi et al has proposed the task of detecting closest obstacle in each direction of the
driving vehicle. Their work was based on single color camera opposite to others 3D sensing
method. They divided obstacles column- wise and named them column-wise regression problem,
then it was solved by using Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). Their proposed work was
divided into two stages. In the first stage, they used Convolutional Neural Network called
StixelNet to solve the regression problem in which images were in columns. In the second stage,
they improved the results using the interactions between two closer columns by imposing
smoothness. They also introduced a new loss function based semi-discrete representation of the
obstacle probability, to train the network. StixelNet was basically multilayer network, derived
from LeNet. It was a 5 layer network in which first two layers are convolutional and the last
three were fully connected. Another major task in this work was road segmentation which was
divided into three stages. In the first two stages, SixtelNet following CRF was applied just like in
the obstacle detection. The main function of CRF was to detect the road and non-road labels. The
final stage was graph-cut segmentation on the image to get higher accuracy, by enforcing road
boundaries coinciding with image contours. Their framework showed accurate results but was
unable to recognize the detected obstacle correctly and clearly. It should be able enough to
classify the detected obstacles for safety and collision avoidance.
73. Caio Cesar Toodoro Mendes et al has proposed in this paper a new framework for processing
dynamically-sized sliding windows on a Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) to detect the ground
obstacles. They used method of Taulkder et al, which could be beneficial from a parallel
implementation using a GPU. Their main goal was to reduce the time-period of the method, to
get the real-time obstacle detection in specific-sized range images without using approximation.
The combination of Taulkder method and GPU enhanced the computational power of massive
data-parallel applications. GPU application had successfully speeded up the method and enabled
real time obstacle detection for both sensors and scenarios.The researchers used this approach in
conditional reduction in the point cloud resolution, in which sub-sampling was performed until
real obstacle was found. The main drawback of this method is that we need high resolution
images and for the sub-sampling of them will consume greater time period and for low resolution
images their quality will disturb with high computational cost.
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