Annwal Review'of Applied Linguistics (2002) 22, 52-74. Printed in the USA.

Copyright @2OOZCambridgeUniversity Press0267-1905/01$9.50

3. MEANING BEYOND THE CLAUSE: SFL PERSPECTIVES

J. R. Martin

This chaptertakesnote of the longstandingorientationSystemic

Functional Linguistics (SFL) to discoursestudiesbefore moving to a more
detailedand selectivepresentationof current developmentsin SFL with
respectto discoursemodels,developingresearchmethodologies,and
applicationsto different domains.The reinterpretationof cohesionas
discoursesemantics(identification,negotiation,conjunction, and ideation)
is reviewed with respectto metafunctions(textual, interpersonal,and
ideational). This work on texture is then relatedto social context through
the register variablestenor, field and mode alongsidegenre. The chapter
then reviews recentSFl-inspired researchthat appliesthesemodels to
analysisof discourseacrosslanguages,modalitiesof communication,and
domains. Work done on school and workplace discoursehas raised new
questions about appropriate units of discourse structure and their
relationshipto registeranalysis.It is predictedthat some of these
questionsmay be answeredby the developmentof improved software for
discourseanalysesaffording greaterspecificiryin mappingthe
relationshipsamonggenres.

SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(hereafterSFL) hasa longstandinginterest

in discourseanalysis,derivinghistoricallyfrom Firth's (1957)concernwith
meaningas functionin contextandMitchell's canonical(1957)studyof service
encounters in the Moroccanmarketplace.Halliday(1967)built a focuson
discoursefunctioninto his grammarthroughhis work on Theme/Rheme and
(Given)/Newstructure;andhis perspectiveon textualmeaningbeyondthe clause
(i.e., cohesion)is outlinedin Hallidayand Hasan(1976). In additionhis modelof
socialcontext(e.g., Halliday, 1978on field, tenor,and mode)stimulatedSFL
registersnrdiesaroundthe world and led to the development of genreanalysis,
particularlyin Australia(e.g.,Hasan,1977 Martin; 1985). Thereare manySFL
publicationsfeaturingdiscourseanalysis,includingBenson,Cummings,and
Greaves.1988;BensonandGreaves,1985;DaviesandRavelli,1992:Friesand
Gregory, 1995;Ghadessy,1993,1995,1999:Gregoryand carroll, 1978;Hasan

52
 MEANING BEYOND THE CLAUSE: SFL PERSPECTryES 53

and Fries, 1995;S6nchez-Macaffoand Carter, 1998;Staintonand Devilliers,

2001;Steinerand Veltman,1988;Ventola,1991,2000; specialissuesof Word
(40, I-2, 1989),LanguageSciences(14,4, 1992)andCulturalDynamics,(6, I,
1993)and many issuesof Functionsof Language.

In the next section,one readingof the theory informing this work will be
outlined,basedon Martin (1992)andMartin andRose,in press. Followingthis,
somerecentdevelopmentsand currenttrendsin SFL discourseanalysiswill be
reviewed.

Modeling Discourse

Early work on cohesionwas designedto move beyondthe structural

resourcesof grammarand considerdiscourserelationswhich transcend
grammaticalstructure. Halliday (L973)treatedcohesionas involving non-
structuralrelationsbeyondthe sentence,within what he refers to as the textual
metafunction(as opposedto ideationaland interpersonalmeaning). In Halliday
andHasan(1976)the inventoryof cohesiveresourceswasorganizedas

o reference
a ellipsis
a substitution
a conjunction
a lexicalcohesion

Gutwinski(1976)developsa closelyrelatedframework,includingthese
resources(and in additiongranrmaticalparallelism). Referencerefers to resources
for identifying a participantor circumstantialelementwhoseidentity is
recoverable. In Englishthe relevantresourcesincludedemonstratives,the definite
article, pronouns,comparatives,and the phoric adverbshere, there, now, and
then. Ellipsisrefersto resources for omininga clause,or somepart of a clauseor
group,in contextswhereit canbe assumed.In Englishconversation,rejoinders
'Did they win?' 'Yes,
are oftenmadedependent throughomissionsof this kind:
they did.' Somelanguages, includingEnglish,havein additiona setof place
holderswhich can be usedto signalthe omission-e.g., so and not for clauses,do
for verbal groups andone for nominalgroups. This resourceof placeholdersis
referredto as substitution. Ellipsis andsubstitutionaresometimestreatedas a
singleresource(e.g., Halliday, 1994). From the perspectiveof English,ellipsisis
substitutionby zero;moregenerally,lookingacrosslanguages,it might be better
to think of substitutionasellipsis(signaled)by something.Reference,ellipsis,and
substitutioninvolvesmallclosedclassesof itemsor gaps,and havetogetherbeen
referredto as grammaticalcohesion(Gutwinski,I976; Hasan,1968).
54 J. R. MARTIN

Also includedasgrammaticalcohesionis the typicallymuchlarger

inventory of connectorswhich link clausesin discourse,referredto as conjunction.
For Hallidayand Hasan(1976),this resourcecompriseslinkerswhichconnect
sentencesto eachother, but excludesparatacticand hypotactic(coordinatingand
subordinating)linkers within sentences,
which are consideredstructuralby
Halliday. Gunvinski,however,includesall connectors,whetheror not they link
clauseswithin or betweensentences.

The complementof grammaticalcohesioninvolvesopensystemitems,and

so is referredto as lexicalcohesion.Herethe repetitionof lexicalitems,
synonymyor nearsynonymy(includinghyponymy),andcollocationare included.
Collocationwas Firth's term for expectancy relationsbetweenlexicalitems(e.g.,
the mutualpredictabilityof strong andtea, but not poweful andtea).

The relationshipbetweena cohesiveitem and the item it presupposed in a

text is referredto as a cohesivetie. Gut'winski(1976)contraststhe differentkinds
of cohesiveties that predominate in writing by HemingwayandJames,with
Hemingwaydependingmoreon lexicalcohesionthandoesJames.Hallidayand
Hasan(1976)providea detailedcodingschemefor analyzingcohesiveries, which
takesinto accountthe distancebetweena cohesiveitem andthe item presupposed.

Later work concentrated on the semanticsof thesecohesiveresourcesand

their relationto discoursestructure. Martin (1992)workedon reformulatingthe
notionof cohesiveties asdiscoursesemanticstructure,inspiredby the text-oriented
conceptionof semantics of the Hartfordstratificationalists
(Gleason,1968;
Gutwinski, 1976)with whomhe studiedin Toronto. In his stratifiedaccount,
cohesionwas reformulatedas a setof discoursesemanticsystemsat a more
abstractlevel than lexicogrammar,with their own metafunctionalorganization.
Halliday'snonstructural textualresourceswerethusreworkedas semanticsystems
concernedwith discoursestructure,comprising

o identification
o negotiation
a conjunction
o ideation

Identificationis concernedwith resourcesfor trackingparticipantsin

discourse.This systemsubsumes earlierwork on referentialcohesionin a
framework which considersboth the ways in which participantsare introducedinto
a text and kept track of onceintroduced. In addition,the ways in which phoric
itemsdependon precedingor succeeding co-text,on assumed understandings,or
on otherrelevantphenomena (images,activity, soundetc.) are considered.For
definitionsof 'phora'terms(e.9., anaphora,cataphora,endophora,exophora,
homophora),seeMartin (1992).
 MEANING BEYOND THE CLAUSE: SFL PERSPECTTVES 55

Negotiationis concernedwith resourcesfor exchanginginformation and

goodsand servicesin dialogue. This systemsubsumessomeof the earlier work on
ellipsis and substitutionin a framework which considersthe ways in which
interlocutorsinitiate and respondin adjacencypairs. Drawing on earlier work at
Birmingham(Sinclair& Coulthard,1975)and Nottingham(Berry, 1981),a
framework for exchangesconsistingof up to five moveswas developed,alongside
provisionfor additionaltrackingand challengingside-sequences (Ventola, 1987).
This work is closelyrelatedto studiesin conversationanalysis(CA) but with a
strongergrammaticalorientation(suchas that canvassed in Ochs, Schegloff,&
Thompson,1996). Egginsand Slade(1997)introduceongoingSFL researchin
this areain relationto wider questionsof discoursestructureand socialcontext;
Coulthard(1992)updatesthe Birmingham-based work.

Conjunctionrs concernedwith resourcesfor connectingmessages, via

addition,comparison,temporaliry,and causality. This systemsubsumesearlier
work on linking betweenclausesin a frameworkwhich considers,in addition,the
ways in which connectionscan be realizedinside a clausethrough verbs,
prepositions,and nouns(e.g., resultin, becauseof, reason). Drawing on Gleason
(1968),a frameworkfor analyzinginternall(pragmatic/rhetorical) and external
conjunctiverelationswas proposed,includingthe
(semantic/propositional)
possibiliryof connectionsrealizedsimply by the contiguityof messages(i.e., links
unmarkedby an explicit connector).

Ideation is concernedwith the semanticsof lexical relationsdeployedto

'construe'to emphasizethe role textsplay in
constnreinstitutionalactivity. I use
making meaning-that is, knowledge-and thus constructingsocialcontext-that is,
reality; cf. Halliday and Matthiesen,1999. This systemsubsumesearlier work on
lexical cohesionin a frameworkwhich considershow activity sequences and
taxonomicrelations(of classificationand composition)organizethe field of
discourse(Benson& Greaves,1992). Drawingon Hasan(1985),a modelfor a
more detailedaccountof lexical relationsincludingrepetition,synonymy,
hyponymy,and meronymywasproposed;in addition,collocationwas factoredout
'nuclear'relations,involving elaboration,extension,and
into variouskinds of
enhancement (as developedby Halliday, 1994,for the clausecomplex).

The result of thesereformulationsis a semanticstratumof text-oriented

resourcesdedicatedto the analysisof cohesiverelationsas discoursestructure.
Oncestratifiedwith respectto lexicogralnmar,theseresourcescan be alignedwith
metafunctionsin the following proportions:

o identification textual meaning

o negotiation interpersonalmeaning
o conjunction logical2meaning
o ideation experientialmeaning
56 J. R. MARTIN

This brings us the questionof modelingsocialcontextin a functional

theory which looks at what cohesionis realizingalongsidethe waysin which it is
tealized. In SFL, socialcontextis modeledthroughregisterand genretheory.
FollowingHalliday(1978)a naturalrelationis positedbetweenthe organizationof
languageand the organizationof socialcontext,built up aroundthe notion of kinds
of meaning(Mattheissen,1993). Interpersonalmeaningis relatedto the enactment
of socialrelations(socialreality),or tenor;ideationalmeaningis relatedto the
constructionof institutionalactivity ('naturalizedreality'), or field; and textual
meaningis relatedto informationflow acrossmedia(semioticreality),or mode. A
summaryof theserelationshipsbetweentypesof meaningand registervariablesis
outlinedin Table l.

Table 1: Typesof meaningin relationto socialcontext

'Realityconstrual'
Contextualvariable

Interpersonal socialreality tenor

Ideation (logical,experiential) 'natural' reality
field
Textual semioticrealitv mode

FollowingMartin (1992),field is concernedwith systemsof activity,

includingdescriptionsof the participants,processandcircumstances theseactivities
involve. For illustrativework, seeHallidayandMartin (1993)andMartin and
Veel (1998). Tenor is concernedwith socialrelationsastheseareenactedthrough
the dimensionsof powerand solidarity. For foundational work on tenorsee
Poynton(1985). Mode is concernedwith semioticdistance,asthis is affectedby
the variouschannelsof communicationthroughwhich we undertakeactivity (field)
andsimultaneously enactsocialrelations(tenor). For exemplarywork on
differencesbetweenspeechand writing, seeHalliday(1985).

In Martin (1992),an additionallevel of context,aboveandbeyondtenor,

field, andmode,referredto as genre,hasbeendeployed.This level is concerned
with systemsof socialprocesses, wherethe principlesfor relatingsocialprocesses
to eachotherhaveto do with texture,that is, the waysin which f,reld,modeand
tenorvariablesarephasedtogetherin a text. In Australianeducational linguistics,
genreshavebeendefinedas staged,goal-orientedsocialprocesses(Martin, lggg),
a definition which flagsthe way in which mostgenrestakemore than a single
phaseto unfold, the senseof frustrationor incompletionthat is felt whenphases
don't unfold as expectedor planned,andthe fact thatgenresare addressed (i.e.
formulatedwith readersandlistenersin mind), whetheror not the intended
audienceis immediatelypresentto respond.In theseterms,as a level of context,
genrerepresents the systemof stagedgoal-oriented socialprocesses throughwhich
 MEANING BEYOND THE CLAUSE: SFL PERSPECTIVES 57

socialsubjectsin a given culturelive their lives. An overview of this stratified

model of contextis presentedin Figure 1; this imageincludesLemke's (1995)
notion of metaredundancy,whereby more abstractlevels are interpretedas patterns
of lessabstractones. Thus registeris a patternof linguistic choices,and geme a
patternof registerchoices(i.e., a patternof a patternof texture). For further
discussion,seeChristieand Martin (1997), Eggins(1994), Egginsand Martin
(1997),Martin (1992,2001a),and Ventola(1987).

genre genre//

register/ metrredundancg
( rerlisrtion)

ideational \
\ t8rftnl
Ia n g u a g e
;;jr

Figure 1: Metafunctionsin relationto registerand genre.

Recent Developments

Throughoutthe 1990s,SFL discourseanalysisdevelopedalong several

parameters,includingrelevantaspectsof phonologyand grammar. Higher levels
of phonologicalanalysis,pushingwell beyondthe tone group as far as rhythm is
concerned,are pursuedin van Leeuwen(1991), Martinec (2000a),and Watt
(2001). In grammar,researchexpandedacrosslanguagesand languagefamilies,
includingrelevantwork on textualmeaning. Caffarel, Martin, and Matthiessen(in
press)includeschapterson French,German,Telegu, Chinese,Japanese,
Vietnamese,Tagalog,and Pitjantjatjara,eachwith an emphasison showinghow
the variousgranmars operatein discourse. The papersin Steinerand Yallop
(2000) explore the implicationsof functional descriptionsof this kind for
translationand multilingualtext production.
58 J. R. MARTIN

For English, one significanttrend has beenthe developmentof computer

assistedanalysisprogramswhich facilitate the coding of large quantitiesof text for
SFL grammarand discoursefeatures. TheseprogramsincludeO'Halloran and
Judd (200l) : Matthiessenand Wu' s SysAm (http://minerva.Iing.mq.edu.au/
Resources/AnalysisTools/Tools.htm); O'Donnell's SystemicCoder (O'Donnell,
1995; http://www. wagsoft.com/Coder/index. html); and Webster's Functional
GrammarProcessor (e.g. Webster,1995;Webster& Kit, 1995). Thesetools are
making it possibleto undertakelarge scalesemanticanalyseswith a view to
quantitativeinterpretationand havegiven new impetusto longstandingSFL
interestsin corpusbasedresearch(Halliday, 199L, 1992, 1993;Halliday & James,
1993;Matthiessen,1999,in press;Nesbitt& prum, lggg; plum & cowling,
1987). This work on automateddiscourseanalysisis complemented by work on
synthesis,in, for example,the text generationresearchintroducedin Bateman
(2001), Bateman,Matthiessen,and Licheng(1999),Batemanand Rondhuis(1997),
Matthiessenand Bateman(1991),and Teich (1999).

At the level of discoursesemantics,someof the most important

developmentshave to do with interpersonalmeaning. Egginsand Slade(1997)
presenta rich model of speechfunction, especiallydesignedfor analyzinginitiating
movesand responsesin casualconversation.Recentlythis hasbeeninsightfully
appliedto human/bonobointeraction(Benson,Fries, Gredves,Iwamoto, Savage-
Rumbaugh,& Taglialatela,in press). Hasanand her colleagues(Hasan, 1996)
have developeda finely tuned set of semanticnetworksdesignedfor the study of
adult-child interactionin home and school. Thesehave beeninstrumentalin
exploring Bernstein'stheoriesof languageand socialization(Bernstein,1996),
especiallyin relationto genderand socialclass,and representthe most important
linguistically informed body of researchinto semanticstylesand their implications
for education(seeespeciallyCloran, 1989, 1999a,b; Hasan,1990, 1991,1992,
200r; Hasan& Cloran, 1990;williams, 1995,1996,1999,2001). Hasan(1995a)
and Halliday (1995) insightfullyreview the implicationsof closetextualanalysis
for Bernstein'swork, and deal incisivelywith populistmisunderstandings; Cloran
(2000)providesan accessibleintroductionto semanticnetworksand their
deploymentin the studyof sociosemantic variation.

Another major developmentin interpersonaldiscoursesemanticshas been

the emergenceof appraisaltheory (seeMartin, 2000a,and the websitedesignedby
PeterWhite at htp:iiwww.grarnmatics.com/appraisal/index.html). Appraisal
complementsnegotiationfrom the perspectiveof resourcesfor evaluation,
including systemsof auitude, engagement,and graduation. Attitude focuseson
resourcesfor construingaffect,judgment, and appreciation(roughly the lexically
reallzedrealms of emotion, ethics, and aesthetics);engagementis concernedwith
the sourcingof attitudeand acknowledgmentof alternativevoices (heteroglossia);
and graduationcovers force (intensificationof inherently gradablemeanings)and
focus ('fuzzifrcation' of inherentlynongradablecategories). Work on this
 MEANING BEYOND T}IE CLAUSE: SFL PERSPECTTVES 59

dimensionof intersubjectivemeaninghas refocusedattentionon prosodic

realization(acrossideationalboundaries)in various registers,suchas history
(Coffin, 1997);narrativeand literary criticism(Rothery& Stenglin1997,2000);
newsstories(White, 1997);casualconversation,including humor and gossipand
their implicationsfor generation,ethnicity, and gender(Eggins& Slade, 1997);
andpopularscience(Fuller, 1998).

Ideationalsemanticsis elaboratedin Halliday and Matthiessen(1999), who

are particularly concernedwith establishinga semioticperspectiveon what is
generallyviewed as cognition. Their project includeswork on what they call
sequences which is relevantto conjunction. Van Leeuwen(1996)developsa
complementaryperspectiveon agencywhich has beeninfluential in critical
discourseanalysis. Matthiessen(in press)exploresRhetoricalStmctureTheory
(RST) from the perspectiveof this research,continuinga dialoguebetweenSFL
conjunctionanalysisand RST (Mann, Matthiesen,& Thompson, 1992),which
beganin the 1980s(Martin, 1992). For relevantwork on causationin Dutch, see
Degand(2001). From the perspectiveof discourseanalysis,what hasbeenslow to
emergeis an understandingof different kinds of expectancyrelationslinking
clausesacrossregisters. Temporalsequencingand causalreasoningtend to be
foregroundedover tropesof other kinds, suchas description,classification,
composition,comparison,critique,review, stirring, coaxing,serving,and so on;
researchis urgentlyrequiredin theseareas.

As far as participantidentificationis concerned,the main developments

havecome from languagetypology through considerationof the ways in which
nominalgroup resourcesinteractwith Theme, and in somelanguageswith
conjunction(the so-calledsubject-switchingsystemsfound in Papuaand Australia).
Theseissuesare exploredin Caffarelet al. (in press)in relationto Martin (1983).
Textual meaninghas also beeninvestigatedin relation to information flow in
generalacrosslanguages(Downing& Lavid, 1998;Hasan& Fries, 1995;Lavid,
1997)and in relation to layersof Themeand New in English discourse(Ghadessy,
1995;Halliday & Martin, 1993). Martin (1992, 1993, 1995a)exploresthe ways in
which textsuse higher level Themesto predict information flow and higher level
News to retrospectivelydistill the point of precedingdiscourse,thus following up
'hierarchy of periodicity' as a form of
suggestionsby Pike and Halliday about
textualorganization(Fries, 1981). Halliday'swork on grarnmaticalmetaphoras a
resourcefor packagingmeaninghas beeninstrumentalin this areaof inquiry
(Halliday, 1998;Halliday& Matthiessen,1999;Simon-Vandenbergen, Taverniers,
& Ravelli, in press).

This raisesthe questionof higher-levelunits in discourse,which has been

exploredin variousways. Oneusefultool hasbeenHasan'scohesiveharmony
(Cloran,1999b;Hasan1984,1985;Parsons,1991). In cohesiveharmony
analysis,we are askinghow ideationand identificationinteractas far as
 MEANING BEYOND THE CLAUSE: SFL PERSPECTTVES

dimensionof intersubjectivemeaninghas refocusedattentionon prosodic

realization(acrossideationalboundaries)in various registers,suchas history
(Coffin, 1997);narrativeand literary criticism(Rothery& Stenglin1997,2000);
newsstories(White, 1997);casualconversation,including humor and gossipand
their implicationsfor generation,ethnicity, and gender(Eggins& Slade, 1997);
andpopularscience(Fuller, 1998).

Ideationalsemanticsis elaboratedin Halliday and Matthiessen(1999), who

are particularly concernedwith establishinga semioticperspectiveon what is
generallyviewedas cognition. Their projectincludeswork on what they call
sequences which is relevantto conjunction. Van Leeuwen(1996)developsa
complementaryperspectiveon agencywhich has beeninfluential in critical
discourseanalysis. Matthiessen(in press)exploresRhetoricalStmctureTheory
(RST) from the perspectiveof this research,continuinga dialoguebetweenSFL
conjunctionanalysisand RST (Mann, Matthiesen,& Thompson, 1992),which
beganin the 1980s(Martin, 1992). For relevantwork on causationin Dutch, see
Degand(2001). From the perspectiveof discourseanalysis,what hasbeenslow to
emergeis an understandingof different kinds of expectancyrelationslinking
clausesacrossregisters. Temporalsequencingand causalreasoningtend to be
foregroundedover tropesof otherkinds, suchas description,classification,
composition,comparison,critique,review, stirring, coaxing,serving,and so on;
researchis urgentlyrequiredin theseareas.

As far as participantidentificationis concerned,the main developments

havecome from languagetypology through considerationof the ways in which
nominalgroup resourcesinteractwith Theme, and in somelanguageswith
conjunction(the so-calledsubject-switchingsystemsfound in Papuaand Australia).
Theseissuesare exploredin Caffarelet al. (in press)in relationto Martin (1983).
Textual meaninghas also beeninvestigatedin relation to information flow in
generalacrosslanguages(Downing& Lavid, 1998;Hasan& Fries, 1995;Lavid,
1997)and in relation to layersof Themeand New in English discourse(Ghadessy,
1995;Halliday & Martin,1993). Martin (1992, 1993, 1995a)exploresthe ways in
which textsuse higher level Themesto predict information flow and higher level
News to retrospectivelydistill the point of precedingdiscourse,thus following up
'hierarchy of periodicity' as a form of
suggestionsby Pike and Halliday about
textualorgarvation(Fries, 1981). Halliday'swork on gratnmaticalmetaphoras a
resourcefor packagingmeaninghas beeninstrumentalin this areaof inquiry
(Halliday, 1998;Halliday& Matthiessen,1999;Simon-Vandenbergen, Taverniers,
& Ravelli, in press).

This raisesthe questionof higher-levelunits in discourse,which has been

exploredin variousways. One usefultool hasbeenHasan'scohesiveharmony
(Cloran, I999b; Hasan1984,1985;Parsons,1991). In cohesiveharmony
analysis,we are askinghow ideationand identificationinteractas far as
60 J. R. MARTIN

experientialgrammaris concerned,basedon the degreeto which cohesively

relateditemsenterinto the samekind of experientialrelationshipwith other
cohesivelyrelateditems. Breaksin the patternof interactionare associated with
discourseboundariesof one kind or anotherand so relevantto the recognitionof
higher-levelunits. This style of analysisis not unrelatedto the work of Gregory
andhis colleagues on phasalanalysis(Gregory,1995,2001;Stainton& Devilliers,
2001),which, however,takesinto accounta full metafunctional spectrumof
meaning(ideational,interpersonal,and textual)in order to determinephasesand
transitionsin discourse.

Cloran'swork on rhetoricalunits(RU), on the otherhand,is more

selectivein its parameters,havingbeendesignedto focuson the registervariable
mode(Cloran, 1994,1995,1999a,b, 2000). Shelooksin particularat the contexr
dependencyof the participantfunctioningas subjectin a clauseand at the tenseof
that clause'sverb (the 'deixis' of the clause,in otherwords)andon this basissets
up classesof RU rangingfrom thosepositioninglanguageas ancillaryto the taskat
handto thosein which languageconstitutes the socialactivity. The inter-
dependencies amongRUs are exploredthroughher conceptof embedding,and
usedto investigateparent-childinteractionin the homeaspart of Hasan'slanguage
and socializationprojectoutlinedabove.

The relationof all threeof theseperspectives on unitsof discourseto work

on genrestructureis an importantissuewhichhasnot beenresolved. Certainlythe
conversationaldatathat Gregoryand his colleaguesand Cloranare investigatingis
not the kind that hasgenerallyattractedgenreanalysts(see,however,Eggins&
Slade,1997),presumablybecause of the difficulty in recognizingclearstagesof
the kind found in the analysisof narrative,exposition,serviceencounters,
appointmentmaking,or classroomdiscourse.As a result,the issueof generalizing
discourseunitsacrossregistersremainsa pressingone in SFl-informeddiscourse
analysis(cf. Taboada,2000,in press).

As far as registeranalysisis concerned,therehasbeensignificantwork in

tenor,mode,and field. The maintenorinitiativedrawson appraisalanalysisto
exploresolidarity,asexemplifiedin EgginsandSlade(1997)andWhite (2000)
who analyzethe face work donethroughcasualconversations involving family
members,friends,andcoworkers.The outstanding modeinitiativeis multi-modal
discourseanalysis,inspiredby the work of O'Toole (1994)andKressandvan
Leeuwen(1996)on images(seealsovan keuwen & Jewitt,2001). Martinec
(1998,2000b,c,2001) extendsthis work to the modalityof action,andvan
Leewuen(1999)to the modalityof musicand sound. Thesetoolshaveencouraged
SFL discourseanalyststo considerthe ways in which languagenegotiatesmeaning
in cooperationwith othersemioticsystems(Baldry, 1999;Eggins& Iedema, 1997;
Iedema,20Ol; Kress& van f,eeuwen,200I:.O'Halloran,1999a)andto focuson
 MEANING BEYOND THE CLAUSE: SFL PERSPECTryES 6l

someof the new kinds of discourseevolving in the print and electronic media
(Lemke,1998;Veel, 1998).

Researchinto field hasexploredseveralkinds of schooland workplace

discourse. Work on institutionalizedlearningincludesmathematics(O'Halloran,
1999a,b, 2000; Veel, 1999),science(Halliday & Martin, 1993;Kress, Jewitt,
Ogborn,& Tsatsarelis, 2001;Martin & Veel, 1998;Unsworth,1998),geography
(Martin, 2001b; van lreuwen & Humphrey, 1996;Wignell, Martin, & Eggins,
1990),history (Coffin, 1997;Martin, 2001c; Martin & Wodak, in press;Veel &
Coffin, 1996)English (Martin, 1996a:Rothery& Stenglin, 1997,2000), and
Englishfor academicpurposes(Lewin, Fine, & Young,200l; Ravelli & Ellis, in
press;Ventola, 1998; 1999,Ventola& Mauranen,1995). Work on workplace
communicationincludesadministration(Iedema,1997a,1998, 2000; Iedema&
Degeling,2001; Iedema& Scheeres,in press),scienceand technology(Rose,
1997,1998;White, 1998),speechdisorders(Armstrong,1987, 1992;Fine, 1994,
1995;Fine, Bartolucci,& Szatmari,1989;Oram, Fine, Okamoto,& Tannock,
1999:Ovadia& Fine, 1995),medicine(Jordens,Little, Paul, & Sayers,2001),
law (Gibbons,in press;Iedema,1993,1995),and museumsand galleries
(Ferguson,Maclulich, & Ravelli, 1995;Ravelli, 1996,1998).

The range of this researchhas had a number of implications for genre

analysis,including analysisof generic structuresand intertextual relations with one
another. Work on administrativedirectives(Iedema,1997a;Martin, 1998)and
print medianews stories(Iedema,I997b; White, 1997),for example,revealed
genresthat are bestcharacterized structure(as opposed
as having a nucleus/satellite
to a more traditionalpartlwholebeginning,middle, and end organization),a kind
of orbital structurewith an obligatory core stageand optional elaboratingstages
that are not strictly sequenced.Martin (1995b, 1996b)follows up the implications
of this for experientialstructuresin general, analogizingfrom geme structureback
to grammar. Across fields, the problem of longer texts aroseand attemptswere
madeto model theseas seriesof smallergenresdrawing on Halliday's 1994
categoriesof expansion(elaboration,extension,and enhancement).This serial
perspectiveon macro-genres as genrecomplexesis introducedin Martin 2001b
(seealso Iedema,2000; Jordenset al., 2001) and further developedin Christie
(1999,in press)for classroomdiscourse.

Another importantdimensionof genreanalysisacrossfields has to do with

mappingrelationshipsamonggenresfrom both typologicaland topological
perspectives.Using paradigmsand systemnetworksto model valeur, narrative
and factualgenresare exploredtypologicallyin Martin (2001a)and Martin and
Plum (1997);this kind of analysisdependson categoricaldistinctions. The notion
of genresas more gradientsemanticregionsis exploredtopologicallyin Martin
(2001b,c), Rose(1997, 1998),and Veel (1997)for a rangeof factualgenresfrom
science,geography,and history. The relationof work on macro-geffesand genre
62 J. R. MARTIN

topology to the questionof 'genre mixing' is discussedin Martin (200lb). For

SFL work on geffe in relation to other approaches,seeHyon (1996) and Hyland
(this volume).

Connections

Obviously in a survey of this kind I have had to be selective. One of the

most obvious extensionswould be to the work of presentand past staff and
studentsat the University of Birmingham. Fortunately, this work is ably surveyed
in Coulthard(1992, 1994)and Caldas-Coulthard and Coulthard(1996). Of these
colleagues,special mention should be made of Michael Hoey, who has developed
the Hatfield Polytechnic strain of discourseanalysisinspired by EugeneWinter
(Hoey l99l,2OOl; Scott& Thompson,2000). In America, the clearestlinks are
with west coastfunctionalism,especiallyFox (1987), becauseshebrings several
discoursesemanticregions (CA, RST, and participant identification) to bear on the
'grammar'
of text development. Some further connectionsare explored in Martin
and Rose(in press).

The strengthof SFL work on discourseprobably lies in its relatively well

developeddescriptionsof geme and functional grammar, and the adaptability of
SFL modeling acrossmodalities(to image,music, and action, for example). This
grounds researchfirmly in the materiality of both global and local perspectiveson
meaning. The challengefor future work lies in frlling in the middle ground
betweentext and clausethrough intensivecorpus-basedwork on discourse
semanticsand register. The successof this enterprisedependson the development
of relevant software to both enhanceand supplantmanual analysis. I expect this
technology to affect our conceptionof languageand attendantsemiotic systemsas
radically as the invention of writing and the tape recorder have shapedour
discipline in the past, sincefor the first time we'll be able to managelarge-scale
sociosemanticanalvsesof data.

Notes

1. The terms internal and external are from Halliday and Hasan (1976); van Dijk
(1977) opposespragmaticto semanticrelations. The contrastis betweenHe came,
becauseI just saw him (internal - 'why I'm saying he came') and,He came
becauseI saw him and told him Io (external : 'why he came').

2. In sFL the ideationalmetafunctionincludestwo subcomponents,the

experiential and the logical; experientialmeaningis associatedwith orbital
structure (mononuclear),and logical meaningwith serial structure (multinuclear;
Martin 1996b).
 MEANING BEYOND TI{E CLAUSE: SFL PERSPECTIVES 63

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPITY

Martin (1992)outlinesthe readingof SFL discourseanalysisassumed

here. Martin and Rose(in press)providean accessibleintroductionto this work,
focussingon writing and incorporatingrecentdevelopments;Egginsand Slade
(1997)complementthis with a focuson spokendiscourse.Halliday and Martin
(1993),ChristieandMartin (1997),andMartin andVeel (1998)illustratethis kind
of analysisacrossa rangeof fields. Unsworth(2000)is designedfor prospective
researcherswho wantto takeup thesetools. Hasan(1996)surveysher pioneering
work on cohesion,geme,semanticnetworks,andthe relationof languageto social
context.

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