General Zoology

BIOLOGY IS A SCIENCE

scientia–“to know”

•characteristic steps in a scientific inquiry

•bodies of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, and

correcting and integrating previous knowledge

•involves series of ordered steps:

•observation and statement of the problem
•gathering of data and information
•formulation of hypothesis
•testing the hypothesis/experimentation
•analysis and interpretation of data
•drawing conclusion

SCIENTIFIC METHOD:1. OBSERVATION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

•asking questions about something you observe by looking at the world around
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:2. GATHERING OF INFORMATION/DATA
•search, explore, and gather information, resources, and evidences
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:3. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS/ES
•hypothesis
•“educated guess”
•tentative explanation of an observation or phenomenon
•data can be tested
•prediction
•statement that should exist if hypothesis is true
•“if…then…” statement
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:4. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS/ES
•making further observations or performing experiments

•experiment

•controlled experiment

•experimental group

•control group

•variable

•independent variable

•dependent variable

•constant variable
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:5. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
•
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:5. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
•
•communicate results
OUTCOMES OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
•Theory
•set of hypotheses that has yet to be disproved in numerous independent tests and has
great explanatory power concerning the natural world

•Principle/Law
•theory that has withstood the test of time and generally considered statements about
nature that may explain a large number of diverse observations
LIMITATIONS OF SCIENCE

1. SCIENCE CANNOT MAKE VALUE JUDGMENTS

2. SCIENCE CANNOT MAKE MORAL JUDGMENTS

3. THE IDEA OF GOD AND OTHER SUPERNATURAL BEINGS WORKING

THROUGH THE NATURAL LAWS OF THE UNIVERSE

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

1. ORGANIZATION
•all living things are made up of cells and are highly organized
1. ORGANIZATION

2. RESPONSIVENESS (IRRITABILITY/EXCITABILITY)
•all life forms respond to stimuli
3. REQUIRE ENERGY AND NUTRIENTS (METABOLISM)
•all organisms require nutrients and energy, which are essential to maintain life’s
organization and functioning

•amount of nutrients and energy use depends on metabolism

source of energy
autotrophs
heterotrophs
CONSUMERS

herbivore
carnivore
omnivore
scavenger
decomposer
parasites

metabolism
4. HOMEOSTASIS
•living things are able to maintain a stable level of internal conditions regardless of the
changes in environmental conditions

5. REPRODUCTION
•organisms produce offspring or progeny to continue species’ life

asexual

Sexual

6. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

7. HEREDITY
•all organisms are based on a universal genetic code
8. ADAPTATION
•organisms are suited to their mode of existence
9. EVOLUTION
•organisms are able to change throughout successive generations
SUBDIVISIONS OF ZOOLOGY (BASIC)
•Animal embryology–formation and early development of animals

•Animal morphology–form and structure of animals

•Animal anatomy–detailed structure of animals

•Animal cytology–structures and functions of animal cells

SUBDIVISIONS OF ZOOLOGY (BASIC)
•Histology–structure, function, and formation of animal tissues

•AnimalPhysiology–mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions and processes

associated with animals

•AnimalTaxonomy-systematic classification of organisms into groups

•AnimalEcology–interactions between animals and the environment

SUBDIVISIONS OF ZOOLOGY (BASIC)
•AnimalGenetics –heredity andvariation among animals

•Animal Evolution –origin and diversity of organisms

•Animal Paleontology –past life of animals asrevealed by fossils

•Molecular Biology –shape, aggregation, orientation of molecules composing

thecellular system of animals
SUBDIVISIONS OF ZOOLOGY (TAXONOMIC)

SUBDIVISIONS OF ZOOLOGY (TAXONOMIC)

•Read more taxonomic subdivisions of zoology.

Naming and Classification of Animals

Two-Empire Classification

Edouard Chatton (1937)

Five-Kingdom Classification

Robert H. Whittaker (1969)

 Monera (all prokaryotes)

 Protista (uni cellular eukaryotes)
 Fungi (all fungi)
 Plantae (all autotrophic multicellular plants)
 Animalia (heterotrophic multicellular organisms)

Six-Kingdom Classification

Carl Woese (1977)

Three-Domain Classification
Carl Woese, Otto Kandler, and Mark Wheelis (1990)
Naming Organisms: Binomial System of Nomenclature
two names or parts
Genus–to which the species belongs
specificepithetor speciesname–descriptive word expressing some quality of the
organism

Homo sapiensor Homosapiens(human)

no two organisms having the same scientific name

 1 organism = 1 scientific name

universal
Classifying Organisms
taxon–unit at any level

hierarchical system is used to classify organisms in which higher categories convey

more general information about the group

seven basic categories

 Phylum Porifera
 Phylum Cnidaria
 Phylum Platyhelminthes
 Phylum Nematoda
 Phylum Mollusca
 Phylum Annelida
 Phylum Arthropoda
 Phylum Echinodermata
 Phylum Chordata
 please see other PDF file

TAXONOMY

CLASSIFICATION

 Multilevel grouping of individuals

 Arranging organisms into groups based on similarities that reflect
evolutionary relationships among lineage

TAXONOMY

science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms

SYSTEMATICS

scientific study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships

HISTORY
Aristotle (2,000 years ago)

plants – 3 (stem differences)

animals – 3 (land, air, or water dwellers)

Greeks and Romans – expanded classification to basic units/genera (Lt. “group”)

cats - Felis
horses – Equus
oaks - Quercus

HISTORY
Middle Ages – polynomial system
poly – “many” nomial – “name”
  Lstrings of latin words and phrases
Mid -1700’s – binomial system of nomenclature

ProkaryoticCell Eukaryotic Cell

Nucleus Absent Present
Cell diameter Relatively small Relatively large
(1-10µm) (10-100µm)
Genome Usually1 circular Multiple linear
DNA molecule DNA molecules
DNA Not Complexedwith
complexedwith histones
histones(eubact
eria); some
histonesinarcha
ea
Amount of Relatively small Relatively large
DNA
Membrane- Absent Present
bounded
organelles
Cytoskeleton Absent Presents

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Nuclear envelope Absent Present
Packaging of DNA DNA not DNA is closely
complexedwith associated with
histones histonesto form
tightly packed
chromosomes
Location of genes Generally on a On multiple,
single, circular usually linearDNA
DNA molecule molecules
(multiple
chromosomes)

EUKARYOTICCHROMOSOME
larger and more complex than those in prokaryotes

unreplicated: single molecule of DNA

linear, DNA are highly folded and condensed

DNA is coiled and tightly packed around histoneproteins

DNA + proteins = chromatin

CHROMOSOMEANDITSSTRUCTURE

THREEESSENTIALELEMENTSOFACHROMOSOME
 centromere–constricted region of a chromosome; attachment point for spindle
microtubules
help control the cell cycle

a pair of telomeres –stable end of chromosome

origins of replication –sites where DNA synthesis begins

EUKARYOTICCHROMOSOME
each eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes per cell

in most eukaryotic cells, there are two sets of chromosomes

diploid (2n) –cells that carry two sets of genetic information

haploid (n) –cells with a single set of chromosomes

human and animal chromosomes are categorized as:

sex chromosomes –determines the sex of an organism

(X and Y)
autosomes –all the other chromosomes
CELLULARREPRODUCTION

CELLDIVISION(FUNCTIONS)
reproduction
unicellular: division of one cell reproduces an entire organism (mitosisonly)
multicellular: from a single cell a multi-celled progeny develops (mitosis and
meiosis)
CELLDIVISION(FUNCTIONS)
growth (multicellular)

repair and replace (multicellular)

CELLDIVISION
MITOSIS
provides a mechanism to distribute chromosomes that have duplicated into progeny
cell during cell reproduction
converts diploidsomaticcellinto twodiploiddaughter cells
daughter cellsare genetically identicalto the parent cell
MEIOSIS
provides a mechanism to distribute one member of each homologous pair of
chromosomes into each gamete or spore
reduces the diploidchromosome number to the haploidchromosome number
generates geneticvariabilityas it generates various combinations of maternal and
parental combinations of chromosomes
EUKARYOTICCELLREPRODUCTION
single-celledeukaryotes: mitosis provides the basis for asexual reproduction

multicelledeukaryotes: begin life as single-celled zygote

mitotic activity of zygote and the subsequent daughter cells is the foundation for the
development and growth of the organism

CELL CYCLE