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Dimensionamiento de Orejas de Izaje
Dimensionamiento de Orejas de Izaje
Instructions (/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/instructions)
A lug, also known as a lifting lug or a padeye, is essentially a plate with a hole in it where the hole is sized to t a clevis pin. Lugs are used in combination with clevis
pins to transmit load between di erent mechanical components. Common applications where lugs are used include:
Advantages of lugs over other types of connections that are used to transmit load include:
Contents
The failure modes for the lug are listed below. The numbers correspond with the labeled sections from the above gure:
Simpli ed analysis - This method is based on rst principles and involves making simplifying assumptions about the nature of the failure and calculating
factors of safety. This has the advantage of being relatively easy, but it only gives an approximate determination of the adequacy of the lug.
Air Force Method - This method considers most of the failure modes above, and uses empirical curves to determine more accurate allowable loads. This
method allows for lugs under axial loading, transverse loading, or oblique loading. This method also accounts for the interaction between the lug and the
pin.
ASME BTH - This method considers most of the failure modes above, and uses simpli ed equations with correction factors based on empirical data to
determine more accurate allowable loads. This method is simpler than the Air Force Method, but it only allows for lugs under axial loading and does not
account for the interaction between the lug and the pin.
Simpli ed Analysis
This method is based on rst principles (as well as on the simpli ed method outlined in Bruhn (https://www.amazon.com/Analysis-Design-Flight-Vehicle-
Structures/dp/0961523409/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=mechanicalc-20&linkId=07e81dbba299931f7bd1e56051ab5df7)) and involves making
simplifying assumptions about the nature of the failure. While it is relatively easy to perform, it only gives an approximate determination of the adequacy of the
lug and should not be employed for critical structure.
A factor of safety (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#allowable-stress-design) is calculated for each of the failure modes, and as long as
each factor of safety is acceptable then the lug can be considered to pass. The gure below shows the lug in blue and the pin in green.
Dh = hole diameter
Dp = pin diameter
R = edge distance (distance from center of hole to edge of lug in direction of applied load)
r = radius of curvature of edge of lug (greater than or equal to R)
a = distance from edge of hole to edge of lug = R − 0.5Dh
w = width
At = (w − Dh )t
The ultimate tensile load is the load that would result in tensile failure across the net section, and is given by:
Ptu = S tu At
where Stu is the ultimate tensile strength (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/mechanical-properties-of-materials#stress-strain-curve) of the lug material. The
equation above assumes a uniform tensile stress (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#stress-and-strain) over the cross-section. In reality
there will be a stress concentration (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#stress-concentration) due to the ow of stress around the hole.
Ptu
F S tu =
Fapp
As = 2Lsp t
where Lsp is the length of the shear plane and t is the lug thickness. A simple and conservative approach is to calculate the length of a single shear plane as:
Lsp = a
where a = R − 0.5Dh , as shown in the gure above. If it is desired to account for a slightly longer shear plane, it is common practice to consider a 40 degree line
extending from the center of the shear pin. At the point where that 40 degree line intersects the pin hole, extend the shear plane horizontally to the outer edge of
the lug. In this case, Lsp is calculated as:
Dp
Lsp = a + (1 − cos(ϕ)) − Z
2
where ϕ is the shear plane locating angle of 40° and Z is the loss in shear plane length due to the curvature at the end of the lug. This loss is calculated as:
−−−−−−−−−−− −−−−
2
Dp
2
Z = r − √r − ( sin(ϕ))
2
The ultimate shear load is the load that would result in shear tear out along the two planes, and is given by:
Psu = S su As
Psu
F S tu =
Fapp
Bearing Failure
Bearing occurs between the surface of the pin and the inner surface of the hole in the lug, as shown in the gure below:
The bearing area is given by:
Abr = Dp t
Note that since the length of the bearing surface is equal to the diameter of the pin, and since the circumference of a circle is given by C = πD , then:
the length of the bearing surface is also equal to 1/π times the circumference of the pin
the swept angle of the bearing surface is equal to 2 radians ≈ 115°
The ultimate bearing load is the load that would result in bearing failure, and is given by:
where Sbru is the minimum of the ultimate bearing strength of the lug material and the ultimate bearing strength of the pin material. The ultimate bearing
strength can be approximated as 1.5Stu .
Pbru
F S bru =
Fapp
If a bushing is pressed into the lug, then bearing needs to be calculated for both sets of contact:
Pin on bushing
Bushing on lug
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This section discusses axial loading, transverse loading, and oblique loading separately. These sections disregard the e ect of the pin on the lug strength. A
discussion of the pin and lug interaction is given at the end.
Axial Loading
For axially loaded lugs, the Air Force method evaluates the lug for bearing failure, shear-out failure, hoop tension failure, and failure across the net section. Three
of the failure modes are actually combined into a single failure mode -- the "bearing strength" accounts for bearing, shear-out, and hoop tension. This is consistent
with Bruhn (https://www.amazon.com/Analysis-Design-Flight-Vehicle-Structures/dp/0961523409/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=mechanicalc-
20&linkId=07e81dbba299931f7bd1e56051ab5df7) and Melcon & Hoblit.
The dimensions of interest for an axially loaded lug are shown in the gure below:
The dimensions from the gure include:
D = hole diameter
Dp = pin diameter
e = edge distance
a = distance from edge of hole to edge of lug = e − 0.5D
w = width
t = thickness
where D is the hole diameter and t is the lug thickness. Fbru.L and Fbry.L are the lug ultimate and yield bearing stresses, respectively, and are given by the
following equations:
a
Ultimate Bearing Stress, Fbru.L : K S tu K S tu
D
a
Yield Bearing Stress, Fbry.L : K S ty K S ty
D
The equation for ultimate bearing load can be condensed down to:
a
∣ if e/D < 1.5
D
Pbru.L = K ⋅ min (S tu , 1.304S ty ) ⋅ Dt ⋅ ∣
∣1 otherwise
For ratios of e/D less than 1.5, the hole is close to the edge of the lug and so shear-out and hoop tension are likely to be the most critical failure modes. For larger
values of e/D, the hole is spaced farther from the edge and so bearing is likely to be the critical failure mode.
The factor K in the equations above is the allowable axial load coe cient which accounts for the interaction e ects between the di erent failure modes (bearing,
shear-out, and hoop tension). The value of K is read o of one of the following two plots. The rst plot is used for D/t ≤ 5, which is the most common case. If
D/t > 5 then the lug is thin, and in that case the value of K is read o of the second plot below. (Note 2) (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#note-axial-load-coe cient-
plot)
Bushing Bearing Strength Under Axial Load
If there is a bushing in the lug, then the bearing strength for the bushing must be calculated. The bushing ultimate load is given by:
where Dp is the pin diameter, t is the bushing thickness (assumed to be equal to the lug thickness), and Scy.B is the compressive yield strength of the bushing
material. The Air Force manual assumes the compressive ultimate strength of the bushing material, Scu.B , to be equal to 1.304Scy.B .
If there is no bushing in the lug, then the calculation should still be performed assuming that the lug material is the bushing material.
where w is the width and D is the hole diameter. Fnu.L and Fny.L are the ultimate and yield net-section stresses (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-
materials#stress-and-strain), respectively, and are given by the following equations:
The factor Kn in the equations above is the net tension stress coe cient which is a knock-down on the allowable stresses. The value of Kn is determined by
interpolating between the following plots:
Transverse Loading
The analysis for a transversely loaded lug is similar to that for an axially loaded lug. However, the failure mode for transverse loading is more complicated than for
axial loading, and di erent dimensions are critical for determining lug strength. The dimensions of interest for a transversely loaded lug are shown in the gure
below:
where h1 , h2 , h3 , and h4 are failure planes of interest. If the lug is symmetric, then the values for these dimensions can be easily obtained from the dimensions for
an axially loaded lug:
h2 = 0.5(w − D)
∘
h1 = h4 = h2 + 0.5D(1 − cos 45 )
h3 = a
It should be noted that h3 is de ned as the smallest dimension on any radial section around the hole, but it will typically be equal to a. From the above
dimensions, the e ective edge distance is calculated:
6
hav =
3/h1 + 1/h2 + 1/h3 + 1/h4
The equation above is simply a "reciprocal average" that gives more weighting to dimension h1 since that section takes most of the load. (Note 3)
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#note-reciprocal-average)
where D is the hole diameter and t is the lug thickness. Fbru.L and Fbry.L are the lug ultimate and yield bearing stresses, respectively, and are given by the
following equations:
where Ktru and Ktry are the transverse ultimate and yield load coe cients and are determined from the following plot:
Ptru.B = Pu.B
where Pu.B is the bushing bearing strength for an axially loaded lug (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-bushing-bearing-axial).
Oblique Loading
In an obliquely loaded lug, the applied load has both axial and transverse components, as shown in the gure below:
For an obliquely loaded lug, the applied load should be broken out into the axial and transverse components, Pax and Ptr , and the strengths in the axial and
transverse directions should be calculated as discussed in the previous sections. An allowable load curve can then be de ned which takes the form of an
interaction equation, and is given below:
1.6 1.6
Pax.ult Ptr.ult
( ) + ( ) = 1
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B
The allowable load curve de nes the limits at which the lug is expected to fail -- it de nes the ultimate load for a given combination of applied axial and transverse
load. In the equation above, Pax.ult is the axial component of the ultimate load, Ptr.ult is the transverse component of the ultimate load, Pu.L.B is the design
strength under axial load (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-axial-design-strength), and Ptru.L.B is the design strength under transverse
load (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-transverse-design-strength). The allowable load curve is shown below:
In the gure above, the values along the y-axis are the ratios of the transverse applied load to the transverse strength, and the values along the x-axis are the
ratios of the axial applied load to the axial strength.
Pax Ptr
Rax = Rtr =
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B
The point for the applied load with coordinates of (Rax , Rtr ) should be plotted. Any point that falls within the allowable load curve has a factor of safety
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#allowable-stress-design) ≥ 1 with respect to the ultimate load. Note that if the applied load is completely
axial, then the value for Rtr is 0 and the point (Rax , Rtr ) lies along the x-axis, and so the ultimate load is simply the axial design strength. Likewise for a
completely transverse applied load; in this case, the point lies along the y-axis and so the ultimate load is the transverse design strength.
For an applied load with both axial and transverse components, the ultimate load is calculated by drawing a line from the origin, through the point (Rax , Rtr ),
and then through the allowable load curve. This is the load line, and it has a slope of:
The ultimate load ratios are given by the intersection of the load line with the allowable load curve. These ultimate ratios can then be used to calculate the ultimate
load values in the axial and transverse directions.
Pax.ult Ptr.ult
Rax.ult = Rtr.ult =
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B
It should be noted that the equation for the slope given above disagrees with the slope speci ed in the Air Force Manual. A discussion is given in the Appendix
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#oblique-discrepancy).
Instead of determining the ultimate values by plotting, they can be calculated directly by noting that the ultimate load components, Pax.ult and Ptr.ult are related
by:
where α is the angle of the applied load with respect to the axial direction. (Note 4) (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#note-ultimate-components-oblique) The equation
de ning the allowable load curve can then be solved for the ultimate axial load, with the relationship above substituted for the ultimate transverse load:
0.625
1.6 1.6 ⎛ ⎞
Pax.ult Ptr.ult 1
( ) + ( ) = 1 → Pax.ult = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1.6 1.6 ⎟
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B 1 tan (α)
⎝ ( ) + ( ) ⎠
P u.L.B P tru.L.B
Pult
FS =
Papp
One e ect that helps the situation is that as the load concentrates near the shear planes, the bending arm is reduced, and therefore the bending moment in the
pin is reduced. However, a study cited by Molcon and Hoblit found that this decrease in bending moment is "seldom more than 25 percent and usually much less."
Since bending in the pin a ects the strength of the lug, it is critical to account for the pin strength when analyzing the joint. In this section, a method for calculating
the allowable load for a double shear joint is presented. An example of a double shear joint is shown below:
In a double shear joint, there are two outer (female) lugs, a single inner (male) lug, and a pin.
The overall process of determining the allowable load is illustrated in the diagram below:
Calculate Joint Strength Ignoring Pin E ects
Initially ignoring the e ects of pin bending, calculate the ultimate load of each lug in the joint using the methods described in the previous sections
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-oblique-lug). Then calculate the nominal ultimate joint load (which does not account for the pin
strength):
where Pult.M is the ultimate load for the male lug and Pult.F is the ultimate load for a single female lug. Since there are 2 female lugs supporting the load, then
the ultimate load with respect to the female lugs is 2 ⋅ Pult.F .
where DP is the pin diameter and Ssu.P is the ultimate shear strength of the pin material. Note that twice the area is used in calculating pin shear strength since
there are two shear planes.
The ultimate bending load is the applied load that would result in bending failure of the pin, and is calculated by:
2Mu.P
Pub.P =
Larm
where Larm is the moment arm and Mu.P is the ultimate failing moment for the pin. If the load is distributed evenly across the entire width of the lugs, then the
moment arm is calculated by:
t1 t2
Larm = ( + + g)
2 4
where t1 is the thickness of a single female lug, t2 is the thickness of the male lug, and g is the gap between the male and female lugs when the male lug is
centered between the female lugs.
3
πD
P
Mu.P = ⋅ kb.P ⋅ S tu.P
32
where Stu.P is the ultimate tensile strength of the pin material and kb.P is the plastic bending coe cient. According to the Air Force Manual, "the value of kb.P
varies from 1.0 for a perfectly elastic pin to 1.7 for a perfectly plastic pin, with a value of 1.56 for pins made from reasonably ductile materials (more than 5%
elongation)."
Strong Pin
If the pin is strong, the joint strength will be limited by either the pin shear strength or by the nominal joint strength. In the case of a strong pin, the pin ultimate
bending load is calculated assuming that the load distributes evenly over the full width of the lugs:
3
πD ⋅ kb.P ⋅ S tu.P
P
Pub.P =
t1 t2
16 ( + + g)
2 4
The equation above is the same as the equation presented earlier for the ultimate pin bending load, but with the terms combined into a single equation.
For a strong pin, the pin bending does not a ect the joint strength and the ultimate joint load is equal to the nominal ultimate joint load:
Weak Pin
If the pin is weak in bending, then the load will not be distributed evenly over the lug widths. Instead, the load will concentrate toward the shear planes, and the
inner portions of the lugs will be relatively unloaded. Because of this, the lugs will fail at a lower load than predicted.
To account for the low pin bending strength, a "balanced design" ultimate load is calculated. The goal is to determine the actual bearing widths over which the lugs
support the load. Instead of the load being supported over the full lug thicknesses, t1 and t2 , the load will instead be distributed over some smaller widths, b1 and
b2 , as shown in the gure below. It is assumed that the load is uniformly distributed over these widths.
The ultimate load is reduced for the lugs (the lugs fail at a lower load).
The moment arm for the pin is reduced, which increases the pin's ultimate bending load (the pin fails at a higher load).
The new, increased value of the pin ultimate bending load is calculated by:
3
πD ⋅ kb.P ⋅ S tu.P
P
Pub.P =
b1 b2
16 ( + + g)
2 2
where, in the equation above, b1 and 2b2 were substituted for t1 and t2 from the previous pin bending equation.
The trick is to nd the values of b1 and b2 that result in the "balanced design" ultimate load. To determine the balanced design ultimate load, reduce the bearing
widths of each of the lugs until the ultimate load for the lugs are equal to one other as well as equal to the ultimate bending load of the pin. This requires an
iterative process.
Once the balanced design ultimate load is found, the ultimate joint load and the pin ultimate bending load are each equal to the balanced load:
The overall ultimate load accounting for both the ultimate joint load and the ultimate pin shear load is calculated by:
Pult
FS =
Papplied
(https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/)
While the factor of safety (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#allowable-stress-design) on dishing (out-of-plane buckling) is not explicitly
calculated, the e ective width calculation accounts for the lug thickness in an attempt to protect against dishing failure.
The dimensions of interest for the lug analysis are shown in the gure below:
Dh = hole diameter
Dp = pin diameter
be = net width (distance between the edge of the hole and the edge of the lug in the transverse direction)
R = edge distance (distance from the center of the hole to the edge of the lug in the direction of applied load)
r = radius of curvature of edge of lug (greater than or equal to R)
a = distance from the edge of the hole to the edge of the lug = R − 0.5Dh
Z = loss in shear plane length due to curvature at the end of the lug
A larger value of ϕ results in a larger shear plane area. Other methodologies commonly take ϕ as a constant value (typically 40°), but ASME relates it to the ratio of
the pin diameter to the hole diameter such that a loose- tting pin has a smaller shear plane area than a tight- tting pin:
Dp
∘
ϕ = 55
Dh
E ective Width
The term be is referred to as the net width and is the distance between the edge of the hole and the edge of the lug in the transverse direction, as shown in the
gure:
In the tension calculations, an e ective width is calculated and is the smallest of the following:
• bef f .1 = be The e ective width should not be larger than the actual net width.
• bef f .2 = 4t This limit is intended to protect against dishing failure (once the lug thickness drops below 1/4 of the net width be , the
e ective width is driven down). This limit can be ignored if the lug is sti ened or constrained against buckling.
•
−−
−
bef f .3 = 0.6be
S tu
√
Dh This equation is empirical, tted to test results.
S ty be
A service class is used to account for fatigue life and is de ned based on the table below:
Service Class Load Cycles
0 0 - 20,000
1 20,001 - 100,000
2 100,001 - 500,000
3 500,001 - 2,000,000
4 Over 2,000,000
To determine whether the lug has su cient strength, calculate a factor of safety (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#allowable-stress-
design) for each of the failure modes described below. As long as the applied force is within the allowable load, and as long as each factor of safety is acceptable,
then the lug can be considered to pass.
Tensile Strength
The ultimate tensile load is the load that would result in tensile failure across the net section, and is given by:
Pt.u = Cr ⋅ S tu ⋅ At
where Cr is the strength reduction factor (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-strength-reduction-factor) and Stu is the ultimate tensile
strength of the lug. At is the area of the net section and is calculated by:
At = 2 ⋅ t ⋅ bef f
where bef f is the e ective width (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-e ective-width) and t is the lug thickness.
The allowable tensile load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:
Pt.u
Pt =
1.20Nd
Note that the allowable tensile load is based on the design factor multiplied by 1.20. ASME requires the design factor for some of the strength calculations to be
higher than the nominal value. The factor of safety is given by:
Pt.u
F St =
Fapp
To meet ASME BTH, the factor of safety must be at least 1.20Nd , but the required factor of safety may be larger depending on customer requirements or
engineering judgement.
Pb.u = Cr ⋅ S tu ⋅ Ab
where Cr is the strength reduction factor (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-strength-reduction-factor) and Stu is the ultimate tensile
strength of the lug. Ab is an e ective area that is calculated as:
Dh 0.92be
Ab = [1.13 (R − ) + ] ⋅ t
2 1 + be /Dh
where R is the edge distance, Dh is the hole diameter, be is the net width, and t is the lug thickness.
The allowable single plane fracture load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:
Pb.u
Pb =
1.20Nd
Pb.u
F Sb =
Fapp
Double Plane Fracture Strength
The ultimate double plane shear load is the load that would result in shear tear out along the two planes, and is given by:
Pv.u = 0.70S tu Av
where Cr is the strength reduction factor (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-strength-reduction-factor) and Stu is the ultimate tensile
strength of the lug. Av is the total area of the two shear planes and is given by:
Dp
Av = 2 ⋅ [a + (1 − cos (ϕ)) − Z ] ⋅ t
2
where ϕ is the shear plane locating angle (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-shear-plane-angle) and Z is the loss in shear plane length due to
the curvature at the end of the lug. This loss is calculated as:
−−− −−−−−−− −−− −−−
2
Dp
2
Z = r − √r − ( sin (ϕ))
2
The allowable double plane shear load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:
Pv.u
Pv =
1.20Nd
Pv.u
F Sv =
Fapp
Bearing Strength
The ultimate bearing load is the load that would result in bearing failure on either the lug or the pin. This ultimate load is dependent on the number of load cycles
that the connection will be subjected to, and is given by:
where Sty.min is the minimum yield strength between the lug and the pin (i.e. Sty.min = min (S ty.lug , S ty.pin ) ). Ap is the pin bearing area and is calculated by:
Ap = Dp t
The allowable bearing load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:
Pp.u
Pp =
Nd
Pp.u
F Sp =
Fapp
(https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/)
Appendix
Discrepancy With Air Force Manual - Oblique Loading
The Air Force Manual speci es to calculate the factor of safety for an obliquely loaded lug (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-oblique-lug)
by drawing a line from the origin that intersects with the allowable load curve, where the slope of the line is given by:
Pu.L
m =
Ptru.L
where Pu.L is the ultimate load for an axially loaded lug and Ptru.L is the ultimate load for a transversely loaded lug.
The problem with using the above equation for the slope is that the intersection line is the same regardless of the angle of the applied force. This problem is
illustrated in the gure below:
If the applied force is at an angle of 5° such that it is almost entirely axial, then the point for the applied load would lie along the blue line as shown in the gure,
and the intersection point should re ect a factor of safety that is very close to that of a pure axially loaded lug. Likewise, if the applied force is at an angle of 85°
such that it is almost entirely transverse, then the point for the applied load would lie along the red line as shown in the gure, and the intersection point should
re ect a factor of safety that is very close to that of a pure transversely loaded lug. Based on this reasoning, the slope of the line should re ect the applied loading
condition:
Notes
Rtr Rtr.ult
=
Rax Rax.ult
Ptr Ptr.ult
=
Pax Pax.ult
The load components are related by the angle of the applied load:
Ptr Ptr.ult
tan (α) = =
Pax Pax.ult
0.625
⎛ ⎞
1
FS = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1.6 1.6 ⎟
P ax.allow P tr.allow
⎝ ( ) + ( ) ⎠
P u.L.B P tru.L.B
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References
1. ASME BTH-1, "Design of Below-the-Hook Lifting Devices," The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2014.
2. Bruhn, E.F., "Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures," June 1973. (https://www.amazon.com/Analysis-Design-Flight-Vehicle-
Structures/dp/0961523409/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=mechanicalc-20&linkId=07e81dbba299931f7bd1e56051ab5df7)
3. Melcon, M.A and F.M. Hoblit, "Development in the Analysis of Lugs and Shear Pins," Product Engineering, June 1953.
4. Niu, Michael C., "Airframe Stress Analysis and Sizing," October 2011. (https://www.amazon.com/Airframe-Stress-Analysis-Sizing-
Michael/dp/9627128120/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=mechanicalc-20&linkId=26f036fabf25f12b0ef3e84bcaa55668)
5. "Stress Analysis Manual," Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, October 1986.
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