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Module 8
(Lecture 31)
PILE FOUNDATIONS

Topics

1.1 FRICTIONAL (SKIN) RESISTANCE IN CLAY

1.2 POINT BEARING CAPACITY OF PILES RESTING ON ROCK
1.3 PILE LOAD TESTS
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FRICTIONAL (SKIN) RESISTANCE IN CLAY

Estimating the frictional (or skin) resistance of piles in clay is almost as difficult a task as
that in sand due to the presence of several variables that cannot be easily quantified.
Several methods for obtaining unit frictional resistance of piles is presently available in
the literature. Three of the presently accepted procedures are described below:

1. 𝜆𝜆 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜: This method was proposed by Vijayvergiya and Forcht (1972). It is

based on the assumption that the displacement of soil caused by pile driving
results in a passive lateral pressure at any depth and that the average unit skin
resistance is

𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜆𝜆(𝜎𝜎�′𝑣𝑣 + 2𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 ) [8.45]

Where

𝜎𝜎�′𝑣𝑣 = mean effective vertical stress for the entire embedment length
𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 = mean undrained shear strength (𝜙𝜙 = 0 concept)

The value of 𝜆𝜆 changes with the depth of pile penetration (see figure 8. 20). Thus,
the total frictional resistance may be calculated as

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Figure 8.20 Variation of 𝜆𝜆 with pile embedment length (redrawn after

McClelland, 1974)
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Care soul be taken in obtaining he values of 𝜎𝜎�′𝑣𝑣 and 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 in layered soil. Figure 8.21 helps
explain the reason. According to figure 8.21b, the mean value of 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 is (𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢(1) 𝐿𝐿1 +
𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢(2) 𝐿𝐿2 + ⋯ )/𝐿𝐿. Similarly, figure 8.21c shows the plot of the variation of effective stress
with depth. The mean effective stress is
𝐴𝐴1 +𝐴𝐴2 +𝐴𝐴3 +⋯
𝜎𝜎�′𝑣𝑣 = [8.46]
𝐿𝐿

Figure 8.21 Application of 𝜆𝜆 method in layered soil

Figure 8.22 Variation of 𝛼𝛼 with undrianed cohesion of clay

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Where

𝐴𝐴1 + 𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐴3 , … = areas of the vertical effective stress diagrams

2. 𝛼𝛼 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜: According to the 𝛼𝛼 method, the unit skin resistance in clayey soils can
be represented by the equation

𝑓𝑓 = 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝑢𝑢 [8.47]

Where

𝛼𝛼 = empirical adhesion factor

The approximate variation of the value of 𝛼𝛼 is shown in figure 8.22. Note that for
normally consolidated clays with 𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 ≤ about 1 kip/ft 2 (50 kN/m2 ), 𝛼𝛼 = 1.
Thus

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = Σ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 Δ𝐿𝐿 = Σ 𝛼𝛼𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 𝑝𝑝Δ𝐿𝐿 [8.48]

3. 𝛽𝛽 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜: When piles are driven into saturated clays, the pore water pressure in
the soil around the piles increases. This excess pore water pressure in normally
consolidated clays may be 4 to 6 times 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 . However, within a month or so, this
pressure gradually dissipates. Hence the unit frictional resistance for the pile can
be determined on the basis of the effective stress parameters of the clay in a
remolded state (𝑐𝑐 = 0). Thus at any depth

𝑓𝑓 = 𝛽𝛽𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 [8.49]

Where

𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 = vertical effective stress

𝛽𝛽 = 𝐾𝐾 tan 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅
𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 = drianed friction angle of remolded clay [8.50]

𝐾𝐾 = earth pressure coefficient

Conservatively, the magnitude of K is the earth pressure coefficient at rest, or

𝐾𝐾 = (1 − sin 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 ) (for normally consolidated clays [8.51]

And
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𝐾𝐾 = (1 − sin 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 )√𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 (for overconsolidated clays [8.52]

Where

𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = overconsolidation ratio

Combining equations (49, 50, 51, and 52), for normally consolidated clays, yields

𝑓𝑓 = (1 − sin 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 ) tan 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 [8.53]

And for overconsolidated clays,

𝑓𝑓 = (1 − sin 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 ) tan 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 √𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 [8.54]

With the value of f determined, the total frictional resistance may be evaluated as

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = Σ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 Δ𝐿𝐿

POINT BEARING CAPACITY OF PILES RESTING ON ROCK

Sometimes piles are driven to an underlying layer of rock. In such cases, the engineer
must evaluate the bearing capacity of the rock. The ultimate unit point resistance in rock
(Goodman, 1980) is approximately

𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 (𝑁𝑁𝜙𝜙 + 1) [8.55]

Where

𝑁𝑁𝜙𝜙 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 (45 + 𝜙𝜙/2)

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝜙𝜙 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

The unconfined compression strength of rock can be determined by laboratory tests on

rock specimens collected during field investigation. However, extreme caution should be
used in obtaining the proper vale of 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 because laboratory specimens usually are small in
diameter. As the diameter of the specimen increases, the unconfined compression
strength decreases, this is referred to as the scale effect. For specimens larger than about
3 ft (1 m) in diameter, the value of 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 remains approximately constant. There appears to
be a fourfold to fivefold reduction of the magnitude of 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 in this process. The scale effect
in rock is primarily caused by randomly distributed large and small fractures and also by
progressive ruptures along the slip lines. Hence, we always recommend that
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𝑞𝑞 𝑢𝑢 (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 )
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) = [8.56]
5

Table 3 lists some representative values of (laboratory) unconfined compression strengths

of rock. Representative values of the rock friction angle, 𝜙𝜙, are given in table 4.

Table 3 Typical Unconfined Compressive Strength of Rocks

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢

Rock type 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀/𝑚𝑚2

Sand stone 10,000-20,000 70-140

Limestone 15,000-30,000 105-210

Shale 5,000-10,000 35-70

Granite 20,000-30,000 140-210

Marble 8,500-10,000 60-70

Table 4 Typical Values of Angle of Friction, 𝝓𝝓, of Rocks

Rock type Angle of friction, 𝜙𝜙 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)

Sandstone 27-45

Limestone 30-40

Shale 10-20

Granite 40-50

Marble 25-30
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A factor of safety of at least 3 should be used to determine the allowable point bearing
capacity of piles. Thus

[𝑞𝑞 𝑢𝑢 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) (𝑁𝑁𝜙𝜙 +1)𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝

𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ) = [8.57]
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

Example 1

A concrete pile is 50 ft (L) long and 16 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.× 16 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. in cross section. The pile is fully
embedded in sand for which = 110 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 3 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜙𝜙 = 30° . Calculate the ultimate point
load, 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 , by using

a. Meyerhof’s method
b. Vesic’s method. Use 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 50.
c. Janbu method. Use 𝜂𝜂′ = 90°

Solution

Part a

From equation (13),

∗
𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 = 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 ′𝑁𝑁𝑞𝑞 = 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝛾𝛾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑞𝑞∗

For 𝜙𝜙 = 30° , 𝑁𝑁𝑞𝑞∗ ≈ 55 (figure 8. 14), so

16×16 110×50
𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 = �12×12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 � � 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 � (55) = 537.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
1000

Again, from equations (14 and 16),

𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 = 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞1 = 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝑁𝑁𝑞𝑞∗ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜙𝜙(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 )

16×16
�12×12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 � (55) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 30 = 56.45 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Hence, 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 = 56.45 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.

Part b

From equations (20, 21, and 22), with 𝑐𝑐 = 0,

1+2(1−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙 )
𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 = 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝜎𝜎′𝑜𝑜 𝑁𝑁𝜎𝜎∗ = 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 � � 𝑞𝑞 ′ 𝑁𝑁𝜎𝜎∗
3

For 𝜙𝜙 = 30° , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 50, the value of 𝑁𝑁𝜎𝜎∗ is about 36, so
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16×16 1+2(1−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 30) 110×50

𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 = �12×12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 � � �� 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 � (36) = 234.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
3 1000

Part c

𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 = 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 ′ 𝑁𝑁𝑞𝑞∗

For 𝜙𝜙 = 30° 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜂𝜂′ = 90° , the value of 𝑁𝑁𝑞𝑞∗ ≈ 19 (figure 8. 15).

16×16 110×50
𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 = �12×12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 � � 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 � (19) = 185.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
1000

Example 2

For the pile described in example 1

a. Determine the frictional resistance, 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 . Use equations (12), (35a), and (35b).
Given: 𝐾𝐾 = 1.3 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝛿𝛿 = 0.8𝜙𝜙.
b. Using the results of example 1 and part a of this problem, estimate the allowable
load-carrying capacity of the pile. Given: 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 4.

Solution

Part a

From equation (34),

16
𝐿𝐿 ≈ 15𝐷𝐷 �12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓� = 20 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

From equation (35a), at 𝑧𝑧 = 0, 𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 = 0, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑓 = 0. Again, at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿′ = 20 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

(110)(20)
𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 = 𝛾𝛾𝐿𝐿′ = = 2.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2
1000

So

𝑓𝑓 = 𝐾𝐾𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿 = (1.3)(2.2)[𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(0.8 × 30)] = 1.273 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2

Thus

𝑓𝑓𝑧𝑧=0 +𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧=20 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = � � 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿′ + 𝑓𝑓𝑧𝑧=20 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝(𝐿𝐿 − 𝐿𝐿′ )
2

0+1.273 16 16
=� � �4 × 12 � (20) + (1.273) �4 × 12 � (50 − 20)
2

= 67.9 + 203.7 = 271.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

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Part b

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 + 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠

Average value of 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 from example 1 is

56.45+234.7+185.8
≈ 159 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
3

So
𝑄𝑄 1
𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢 = 4 (159 + 271.6) = 107.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Example 3

For the pile described in example 1, estimate the 𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , using Coyle and Castellos’s
method.

Solution

From equations (33) and (44),

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 + 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = 𝑞𝑞 ′ 𝑁𝑁𝑞𝑞∗ 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 + 𝐾𝐾𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(0.8𝜙𝜙)𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝐿𝐿 50
= �16 � = 37.5
𝐷𝐷 12

For 𝜙𝜙 = 30° 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿/𝐷𝐷 = 37.5, 𝑁𝑁𝑞𝑞∗ = 25 (figure 8. 16) and 𝐾𝐾 = 0.2 (figure 8. 19). Thus

110×50 16×16
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = � 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 � (25) �12×12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 �
1000

110×50 4×16
+(0.2) �1000 ×2� 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(0.8 × 30) � � (50)
12

= 244.4 + 65.3 = 309.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑄𝑄 309.7
𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢 = = 77.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
4

Example 4

A driven pile in clay is shown in figure 8.23a. The pipe has an outside diameter of 406
mm and a wall thickness of 6.35 mm.
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a. Calculate the net point bearing capacity. Use equation (19),

b. Calculate the skin resistance (1) by using equations (47 and 48) (𝛼𝛼 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜), (2)
by using equation. (45) (𝛾𝛾 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜), and (3) by using equation (49) (𝛽𝛽 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜).
For all clay layers, 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 = 30° . The top 10 m of clay is normally consolidated. The
bottom clay layer has an OCR of 2.
c. Estimate the net allowable pile capacity. Use 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 4.

Figure 8.23

Solution

The area of cross section of the pile, including the soil inside the pile, is
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 = 4 𝐷𝐷2 = 4 (0.406)2 = 0.1295 𝑚𝑚2

Part b. calculation of net point bearing capacity

From equation (19)

𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 = 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 = 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐∗ 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢(2) = (0.1295)(9)(100) = 116.55 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Part b. calculation of skin resistance

(1) Use of equations (47) and (48): from equation (48),

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 == 𝛴𝛴 𝛼𝛼𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 𝑝𝑝 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥

For the top soil layer, 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢(1) = 30 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 . According to the average plot of figure 8.
22, 𝛼𝛼1 = 1.0. Similarly, for the bottom soil layer, 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢(2) = 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 ; 𝛼𝛼2 = 0.5.
Thus
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𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = 𝛼𝛼1 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢(1) [(𝜋𝜋)(0.406)]10 + 𝛼𝛼2 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢(2) [(𝜋𝜋)(0.406)]20

= (1)(30)[(𝜋𝜋)(0.406)]10 + (0.5)(100)[(𝜋𝜋)(0.406)]20

382.7 + 1275.5 = 1658.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

(2) Use of equation (45): 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜆𝜆(𝜎𝜎�′𝑣𝑣 + 2𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 ). the average value of 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 is

𝑐𝑐 𝑢𝑢 (1) (10)+𝑐𝑐 𝑢𝑢 (2) (20) (30)(10)+(100)(20)

= = 76.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
30 30

To obtain the average value of 𝜎𝜎�′𝑣𝑣 , the diagram for vertical effective stress
variation with depth is plotted in figure 8. 23b. From equation (46),
𝐴𝐴1 +𝐴𝐴2 +𝐴𝐴3 225+552.38+4577
𝜎𝜎�′𝑣𝑣 = = = 178.48 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐿𝐿 30

The magnitude of 𝜆𝜆 from figure 8. 20 is 0.14. So

𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0.14[178.48 + (2)(76.7)] = 46.46 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2

Hence

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜋𝜋(0.406)(30)(46.46) = 1777.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

(3) Use of equation (49): The top clay layer (10 m) is normally consolidated and
𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 = 30° . For 𝑧𝑧 = 0 − 5 𝑚𝑚 [equation (53)].

𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (1) = (1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 ) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )

0+90
= (1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 30° )(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡30° ) � � = 13.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
2

Similarly, for 𝑧𝑧 = 5 − 10 𝑚𝑚,

90+130.95
𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (1) = (1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 30° )(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡30° ) � � = 31.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
2

For 𝑧𝑧 = 10 − 30 𝑚𝑚 [equation (54)],

𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = (1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 ) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜙𝜙𝑅𝑅 √𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )

For𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 2,

130.95+326.75
𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (3) = (1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 30° )(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡30° )√2 � � = 93.43 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
2

So
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = 𝑝𝑝[𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (1) (5) + 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (2) (5) + 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (3) (20)]
= (𝜋𝜋)(0.406)[(13)(5) + (31.9)(5) + (93.43)(20)] = 2669.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Part c

Calculation of Net Ultimate Capacity, 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 ,

Comparing the three values shows that the 𝛼𝛼 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜆𝜆 methods give similar results
so we use
1658 .1+1777 .8
𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = ≈ 1718 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2

Thus

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 + 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = 116.46 + 1718 = 1834.46 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑄𝑄 1834 .46
𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢 = = 458.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
4

Example 5

An H-pile (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 310 × 1.226) having a length of embedment of 26 m is driven

through a soft clay layer to rest on sandstone. The sandstone has a laboratory unconfined
compression strength of 76 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀/𝑚𝑚2 and a friction angle of 28° . Use a factor of safety of
5 and estimate the allowable point bearing capacity.

Solution

From equations (57 and 58),

𝑞𝑞 𝑢𝑢 (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ) 𝜙𝜙
�� ��𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2 �45+ �+1��𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝
5 2
𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ) = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

From table D. 1b (Appendix D), for 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 310 × 1.226 piles, 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 = 15.9 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚2 , so

76 ×10 3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 /𝑚𝑚 2 28

�� ��𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2 �45+ �+1��(15.9×10 −3 𝑚𝑚 2 )
5 2
𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ) = = 182 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
5

PILE LOAD TESTS

In most large projects, a specific number of load tests must be conducted on piles. The
primary reason is the unreliability of prediction methods. Vertical and lateral load-
bearing capacity of a pile can be tested in the field. Figure 8.24a shows a schematic
diagram of the pile load test arrangement for testing in axial compression in the field. The
load is applied to the pile by a hydraulic jack. Step loads are applied to the pile, and
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

sufficient time is allowed to elapse after each load so that a small amount o settlement
occurs. The settlement of the pile is measured by dial gauges. The amount of load to be
applied for each step will vary, depending on local building codes. Most building codes
require that each step load be about one-fourth of the proposed working load. The load
test should be carried out to at least a total load of two times the proposed working load.
After reaching the desired pile load, the pile is gradually unloaded.

Figure 8.24b shows a load settlement diagram obtained from field loading and unloading.
For any load, Q, the net pile settlement can be calculated as follows.

Figure 8.24 (a) Schematic diagram of pile load test arrangement; (b) plot of load against
total settlement; (c) plot of load against net settlement

When 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑄𝑄1 ,

Net settlement, 𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (1) = 𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡(1) − 𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒(1)

When 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑄𝑄2 ,

Net settlement, 𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (2) = 𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡(2) − 𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒(2)

 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Where

𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

These values of Q can be plotted in a graph against the corresponding net settlement,
𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , as shown in figure 8. 24c. The ultimate load of the pile can be determined from this
graph. Pile settlement may increase with load to a certain point, beyond which the load-
settlement curve becomes vertical. The load corresponding to the point where the
𝑄𝑄 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. 𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 curve becomes vertical is the ultimate load, 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 , for the pile; it is shown by
curve 1 in figure 8.24c. In many cases, the latter stage of the load-settlement curve is
almost linear, showing a large degree of settlement for a small increment of load; it is
shown by curve 2 in figure 8.24c. The ultimate load, 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 , for such a case is determined
from the point of the 𝑄𝑄 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. 𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 curve where this steep linear portion starts.

The load test procedure just described requires application of step loads on the piles and
measurement of settlement and is called a load-controlled test. Another technique used
for a pile load test is the constant-rate-of-penetration test. In it, the load on the pile is
continuously increase to maintain a constant rate of penetration, which can vary from
0.01 to 0.1 in./min (0.25 to 2.5 mm/min). This test gives a load-settlement plot similar to
that obtained from the load-controlled test. Another type of pile load test is cyclic
loading, in which an incremental load is repeatedly applied and removed.

Load tests on piles embedded in sand can be conducted immediately after the piles are
driven. However, when piles are embedded in clay, care should be taken in deciding the
time lapse between driving and starting the load test. When piles are driven in soft clay, a
certain zone surrounding the clay becomes remolded and/or compressed, as shown in
figure 8. 25. This result in a reduction of undrained shear strength, 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 (figure 8.26). With
time, the loss of undrianed shear strength is partially or fully regained. This time lapse
may range of 30 up to 60 days. Figure 8.27 shows the magnitude of the variation of 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠
with time for a pile driven in soft clay based on the result reported by Terzaghi and Peck
(1967). It can be seen from this figure 8. that 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 increased by about 300% with a time
lapse of about 25 days.

Figure 8.25 Remolded and/or compacted zone around a pile driven in soft clay
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 8.26 Nature of variation of undrained shear strength (𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 ) with time around a pile
driven in soft clay

Figure 8.27 Variation of 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 with time for a pile driven in soft clay (based on the load test
results of Terzaghi and Peck, 1967)
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I