Potential of bio-waste for industries

INTRODUCTION
Nanocomposites have received much attention recently due to their outstanding performance in
optical, electrical, and mechanical applications. One of the most widely used routes offering the
merits of low processing temperature with energy savings is using the sol-gel method to prepare
nanocomposites [1-5].
In such nanocomposites, the interfacial interaction between the polymer matrix and dispersed
silica particles is a crucial factor in attaining their unique properties. Unfortunately, strong
silanol (Si-OH) interactions between the silica particles often prevent fine silica particle
dispersion into the polymer matrix. Efforts to overcome this problem have been widely studied
in academia and industry. Novel hybrids at the nanoscale using the sol-gel process include
polystyrene (PS) [6], polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) [7], polyimide [8], poly(tetramethylene
oxide) [9], polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) [10], styrenic block copolymer [11-14], and so on.
Mark has conducted an extensive review on those ceramic reinforced polymer nanocomposites
[15].
Among those nanocomposites, only limited elastomers were discussed. Using another
elastomeric material as an example, highly dispersed Si[O.sub.2] has been incorporated into
styrene-butadiene rubber to successfully improve tire compound wear resistance, wet traction,
and low rolling resistance. This is termed green tire technology [16]. Although the properties of
rubbery material have been enhanced using this approach, the environmental issue still remains a
problem that must be resolved. Thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) generally possess elastomeric
characteristics, yet can be efficiently processed as thermoplastics. Owing to this advantage over
conventional rubber, the annual growth rate of TPEs has reached 7% [17]. It is interesting to see
if a TPE/silica hybrid may further improve sol-gel process performance.
Chen et al. [11] investigated the physical properties of a SBS/Si[O.sub.2] hybrid using the sol-
gel approach. It was concluded that both the heat resistance and storage modulus increased. An
optimal value was attained at a dosage of 30-50% of Si[O.sub.2]. Mauritz and coworkers [12-14]
produced several types of styrenic block copolymer/silica nanocomposites. The silicate
component was preferentially inserted into the PS rather than the polyisobutylene domains [12].
Huang et al. [18] found that the heat resistance and storage modulus increased for amino-
functionalized styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene block copolymer (SEBS)/silica hybrids.
However, a decrease of [T.sub.g] of 30[degrees]C was observed, indicating that the styrene
domain morphology varied somehow. Petrovi et al. [19] discussed the location effect of added
nanosized Si[O.sub.2] on the physical and mechanical properties of thermoplastic
polyurethane/Si[O.sub.2] hybrids. The glass transition temperature remained unchanged. Tensile
and tear strength exhibited the highest and lowest values, respectively. In our recent work [20],
thermoplastic polyurethane/Si[O.sub.2] hybrids were produced using two types of catalyst
systems, including acetic acid (HOAc) and HCl, to prepare sol particles starting from tetraethoxy
silane (TEOS). Owing to the different water content in the two prescribed recipes, the HOAc
catalyzed system showed better mechanical and optical properties than the HC1 catalyzed
system. This work was further investigated to prepare sol particles using different starting
materials (sodium metasilicate) instead of TEOS. The advantages of employing sodium
metasilicate are mainly its low cost with no alcohol side product produced, which is potentially
detrimental to cell growth during silicic acid formation in biomaterial applications.
To the best of our knowledge, although numerous works have been produced on preparing
thermoplastic elastomer/silica hybrids using the sol-gel method, investigations into thermoplastic
polyurethane/silica hybrids prepared through the ion exchange of sodium metasilicate are
limited. Since aqueous sodium metasilicate solutions normally contain water, which is not
compatible with thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), a modified approach is adopted to extract
polysilicic acid derived from aqueous metasilicate solution. Various solvents have been used for
extraction including tetrahydrofuran (THF), butyl alcohol, etc. [21, 22]. As THF is a known TPU
solvent, it was selected for …