AVIONICS

MANUAL

(For B.E.Electronics Students)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

103
1. CHAPTER -1 1
Non Directional Beacon (NDB)

2. CHAPTER – 2 15
VHF Omni Range (VOR)

3. CHAPTER – 3 41
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

4. CHAPTER – 4 61
Instrument Landing System (ILS)

5. CHAPTER – 5 85
Surveillance Radar

6. CHAPTER – 6 103
Satellite Navigation

CHAPTER - 3

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

(DME)

104
3. DME as a navigational aid

Distance plays a vital role for navigating from one point to other. In aviation, for locating
the position of an aircraft polar coordinates (Rho, Theta) system is used, where VOR
provides the bearing and DME the distance. Distance Measuring Equipment, or DME, is
a standard navigational aid used by all members of the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) for civilian aircraft operation. For military use, a similar system has
been developed, which is called Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN). Both operate in the
same principal.

Distance measuring is achieved by interactive communication between the aircraft and

the ground DME station. For this an aircraft initiates the process by sending a train of
paired RF modulated pulses at a rate of 135 pulse pairs per second (pps). Once the
aircraft starts getting the replies from the ground DME station the rate is reduced to
27pps. This is called "interrogation" and the aircraft is called "interrogator". After
receiving the signal the DME ground station checks the width and spacing of the
incoming signal to ascertain that they are within the specified limits. If yes, then it is
further delayed to make it exactly 50 us from the time of arrival of the first signal and
then responds back to aircraft with a similar pair of signal. This is called "reply" and the
ground station is referred to as "Transponder".

Hence DME station provides pilots with a continuous digital display of distance from the
aircraft to the facility. Operating on line-of-sight principal, DME furnishes distance
information with a very high degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received at
distances up to 200 NM at line-of-sight altitude with an accuracy of better than  0.5 NM
or 1.25% of the range, whichever is greater. However, the system is considered to be
capable of providing distance information accurate to within 370m (0.2NM) or 0.25%
of slant distance, whichever is greater, for at least 95% of time. Principal factors for
maximum range are aircraft height, transmitter power and receiver sensitivity, both in
ground and in the air. Distance information received from DME equipment is Slant
Range distance and not actual horizontal distance.
See fig. 1.

Slant distance

105
 DME station

Actual distance

(Fig. 3.1)

Most of the modern commercial jet-aircraft fly below 40,000 ft. (6.59 NM). Therefore,
when the aircraft is at a longer distance from the DME station, the slant distance and the
actual distance are very close to each other.

3.2. Distance measurement

The distance measured by the aircraft is not the horizontal distance but is the "slant"
distance. Since flying height of the aircraft compared to the distance to be measured is
relatively very small, there is virtually a very little difference to be counted for. Hence
with very negligible margin it could be considered as equal to the horizontal distance. See
the following illustration in Fig.2. When the aircraft is 100 NM away from the station and
flying at a height of 6NM (36,500 Ft) then the slant distance would be 100.18 NM which
is very close to 100NM. Accuracy is higher when the aircraft is far from the station.
However, accuracy is lower when closer to the station. Over the DME station, which is
the cone of silence, the accuracy is extremely low and cannot be used. However this
coverage is small and quickly overflown by the aircraft.

Not
accurate overhead

D = √ (62 + 1002 ) = 100.18 NM

6 NM

100Km
(Slant distance. Fig.3.2)

3.3 Applications

Since, DME provides distance information; it can be used in several ways in aviation.

3.3.1 DME co-located with a VOR (VOR/DME) - Rho-theta system

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It is the most popular use of DME where a DME is installed together with a VOR. Since
VOR provides azimuth and DME distance, they both form together a Rho-theta (,)
system. Thus, an aircraft can find his polar coordinate of any location around the
VOR/DME station, which acts as the center of the sphere.
This enables the pilots as well as the ground air-traffic controllers to determine the exact
position of the aircraft with respect to the station.




VOR/DME

(Formation of polar coordinate by VOR/DME. Fig.3.3)

A VOR/DME station can be located at the

# Vicinity of the runway

# On the centerline of the runway
# Or, on the airway routes.

When it is installed around and on the centerline of the runway, an aircraft can use it for
homing and departure as well as to align itself to the runway, and make straight-in
approach. Such an approach, however, is not very accurate as with an ILS and is called
non-precision approach. An ILS approach is fully reliable hence it is called precision
approach. In the places where an ILS is not available, non-precision approach is very
helpful. Kathmandu airport uses DVOR/DME non-precision approach for all landings
and takeoffs day and night. When a VOR/DME station is located away from the airport,
it is mostly used for en-route aid, which provides position fix and route guidance. The
illustration in Fig. 2.3-3 shows how an aircraft can make turn at points A and B using
VOR/DME systems.

VOR/DME 3

A VOR/DME 2 (200 0NM To #3)

N (100 50NM From #2) B

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 (30 80NM From #1)

VOR/DME 1

(Departure, position fixing & homing using VOR/DME, Fig.3.4)

In most of the VOR/DME installations both the equipment are placed inside the same
shelter and the DME antenna is located on the same vertical axis of the VOR antenna.
It is called coaxial collocation. In DVOR/DME installations, however, due to space
restrictions the DME antenna may be installed as far as 80m from the VOR antenna
system. In some other situations, the antenna separation may be much higher, but in any
case it should not exceed 600m (2000 ft.). When antennas are separate, it is called offset
collocation.

In VOR/DME installations, DME frequency is paired with VOR as per allocations made
in ICAO Annex-10. Therefore, as soon as a pilot tunes to the specific VOR frequency, if
the DME is collocated, it is received automatically. To identify collocation, both VOR
and DME share the same station identification code. The identification code is repeated
seven times per minute, with three times for VOR and once for DME, and so on. In such
installations, the range of DME should be the same as VOR. The radiation pattern of both
equipment is Omnidirectional. If VOR is not available, DME is sometimes co-located
with a NDB. It serves the same purpose but with less accuracy with respect to azimuth
guidance. In NDB/DME installations the DME frequency is not paired. Therefore, both
have to be selected independently. In Pokhara NDB/DME collocation has been provided.
3.3.2 DME with ILS (ILS/DME)

At some geographical locations, where installation of associated Marker Beacons of the

Instrument Landing System (ILS) is not possible, a DME can be installed to provide the
distance information. When DME is used as an alternate to Markers, the DME is located
on the airport and adjusted in such a way that the zero range indication will be a point
near the end of the runway. Also, to reduce the angular error the DME antenna should not
be more than  20 from the centerline of the runway. In most of the cases, the DME is
normally located inside the Glide Slope (GS) shelter of ILS. The Glide Slope station is
normally 250 to300 meters from the end of the runway, and is only offset from the
centerline by 120-150meters. Therefore, it meets the above requirements. See fig. 2.3-4.
In ILS/DME installations, DME frequency is paired with Localizer frequency and they
both share the same identification tone, like with VOR. While it is not specifically
required that DME be frequency paired with the Localizer, in most of the cases when it is
used as an alternate to Outer Marker, frequency pairing is preferred to simplify pilot
operation.

GS/DME Outer Marker

position
(3.5 - 6 NM)

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 LLZ

Zero distance

(Installation of DME with ILS. Fig. 3.5))

Where only Localizer service is provided, it can be collocated with the Localizer. DME is
also installed with the Microwave Landing System (MLS), which is an alternate to ILS
with better accuracy and ideal for difficult sites. DME collocated with an ILS or MLS
system should have directional radiation pattern with distance accuracy better than  0.2
NM.

3.3.3 DME alone

DME is also installed as an independent station. In such installations the radiation pattern
is normally omnidirectional.

3.4 Principal of operation

DME ground system, which has transmitter/receiver, called transponder, works in

conjunction with airborne transmitter/receiver, called interrogator. The principal is that
the interrogator transmits continuously a series of interrogation pulse pairs to the
transponder, which are received by the transponder receiver. After checking the
correctness of the incoming pulses the transponder holds for specified delay period and
transmits back the reply pulses. The time difference between interrogations and reply
pulses are measured in the interrogator receiver which is computed into distance
information to display directly in nautical miles. In navigation the distance is always
measured in nautical mile. 1' (minute) latitude or longitude represents 1NM. (1 NM =
1.86 KM).

109
 Readout in NM

Airborne
Interrogator
Tx Rx

Tx
R Ground
x Transponder
Delay

(Distance Measuring System. Fig.3.6)

DME operates in UHF frequency band from 960 MHz to 1215 MHz. The band is divided
in to 126 1-MHz channels for interrogations, and another 126 1-MHz channels for
replies. There is always a difference of  63 MHz between interrogation and reply pulses.
When DME transponder is intended to operate with an ILS, VOR or Microwave Landing
system (MLS), its frequencies are paired with associated navigation system. The details
of these channel pairing is indicated in ICAO Annex-10. Thus, a pilot only tunes to ILS;
VOR or MLS frequency channels and receives automatically the distance information
when a DME is collocated with any of them. To identify a particular station, DME
transmits identification codes at a fixed repetition rate, which varies in accordance with
installations. If alone then it is at the rate of 6 words per minute.

For obtaining the distance information, it is just required to tune the VOR frequency
which will then automatically tune the DME Frequency as they are paired with each
other. The aircraft interrogator starts transmitting a series of double pulses at a Pulse
Repetition Frequency (PRF) of 135 Pulse Pairs per Second (PPS). It is called the Search
Mode. For modern interrogator equipment the search time is just 1-2 seconds. As soon as
the interrogator receives the reply signals from the ground station PRF decreases from
135 PPS to just 27 PPS and starts displaying the distance information. It is called Track
Mode or Lock Mode.

110
A modern DME station is capable of proving up to 2700 PPS. Therefore, a maximum of
100 aircraft may receive distance information simultaneously from one transponder.
However, 95 aircraft will be in lock mode and 5 in track mode. When there is no
interrogation from the aircraft, the transponder receiver generates the interrogation
signals internally at the rate of 2700 PPS and receives the reply in order to keep on
activating the transponder continuously, and to monitor the performance of the station.
As the aircraft interrogations are increased the internal interrogations are automatically
decreased at the same rate to keep overall PRF to 2700.

For interrogation as well as for reply DME uses a pair of pulses, called Gaussian Pulses,
which are 12  0.25 s apart and 3.5  0.5 s wide. The frequencies of interrogation and
reply, however, differ by  63 MHz from each other.

After receiving a pair of interrogation pulses the DME receiver checks the width and
spacing of the pulses, holds it for a total of 50  1s and then triggers back a reply.
Therefore, from the start time of the reception of the pulses the transponder receiver
would not accept any new incoming signals for 50  1s. This is called “Receiver Dead
Time”..

0.5

3.5  0.5s width

12  0.25s spacing

(Pulse width and spacing of interrogation and reply for DME. Fig 3.7)

The DME receiver dead time of 50  1s is necessary to make all the DME equipment
similar in performance as the actual circuit delay could vary from 20 to 30 s from
equipment to equipment that may lead to unacceptable errors. Furthermore it has
significant importance in echo suppression. This would be dealt with in detail in the
following paragraphs.

Interrogation Reply

111
 50  1s

(Receiver delay or dead time. Fig.3.8)

3.5 Gaussian Pulse

The DME system uses Gaussian Pulses instead of rectangular pulses, as normally is in
the case of primary Radar system. The reason for this is that the DME channels are very
closely spaced, i.e. 1-MHz apart.

If rectangular pulses were used then the frequency spectrum would follow a SinX/X form
and the energy would spread outside the 1-MHz channel bandwidth. This would cause
the energy to pass into adjacent channels, which may give rise to unnecessary
interference in co-channels.

To decrease the spectrum width it is necessary to reduce harmonics in the pulse. That's
why the Gaussian pulse has been chosen. Mathematically it can be proved that a
Gaussian pulse has relatively smaller frequency spectrum. Hence, most of the energy can
be maintained within the 1-MHz channel and interference with co-channel stations is
reduced. The Gaussian pulse can be represented by the formula:

f (x) = Ae(-t/σ)2

Where “A” is the amplitude and “σ” is the pulse half duration at 1/e point.

But this is at the expense of accuracy in distance indication, because if the detection level
will vary (which normally would occur due to shape of the pulse), it will result in
variation of time. In DME, the measurement of time is done at half amplitude of the
Gaussian pulse. Therefore, any distortion in shape may cause distance error. A variation
of just 1 s may cause an error of approximately 150 meters.

ICAO Annex-10 specifies the shape of the Gaussian pulse. The Gaussian pulse has been
illustrated in Fig.9. To reduce the harmonics and the distance error, the pulse should be
obtained in the equipment as accurately as possible.

112
Amplitude

100%

90%

50%

10%
Time

Pulse rise time Pulse decay time

Pulse duration

(Gaussian pulse : Fig.-3.9)

Pulse rise time - The time as measured between 10 and 90 per cent amplitude
points on the leading edge of the pulse envelope. (2.5 - 3 s )

Pulse decay time-The time as measured between 90 and 10 per cent amplitude
points on the trailing edge of the pulse envelope. (2.5 - 3 s )

Pulse duration - The time interval between the 50% amplitude point on leading
and trailing edges of the pulse envelope. (3.5  0.5s)

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3.6 DME Transponder Operation

A simplified bloc diagram for a general DME transponder is shown in Fig. 10. The
transponder antenna, which is normally a stacked array of conical dipoles, receives
interrogation pulses. Polarization of antenna is vertical and it radiates omni-directionally
in the horizontal plain with 9dB gain at 3 degree over the horizon. The antenna works in
L-band.

114
 Interrogating Reply pulses fo + 63
pulses (fo) MHZ

Antenna Mixer Decode Monitor

and IF r s 1&2
ampl.

50 us

Receive
r
Coupler Dead
time

Transmitt Encode Main Station

er r delay Unit Identification

(Simplified Bloc Diagram of Transponder. Fig. 3.10)

The coupler isolates the Receiver and Transmitter signals and hence the Interrogating
pulses are passed to the Mixer, which gives 63 MHz (difference between interrogating
and reply frequencies).

The signal is amplified in the IF unit and also passes through a Ferris Discriminator
which is a very high selective Band Pass filter. Normally in the IF unit the signal is also
mixed down to a 2nd IF frequency around 11 MHz. the signal is then detected and passed
to a Decoder which checks that the pulse spacing of the so called video pulses (LF
pulses) are within 12 + 1 us. If so, the Decoder triggers a short spike pulse with
nd
reference to the 2 pulse in the pair.
Normally the total system delay in a modern transponder circuitry is approximately 20us
(including the 12us delay in decoder) hence the Main delay circuit must delay the pulse
spike for further 30us to obtain the over all delay of 50us. The Main delay circuit is
mainly a simple Monostable multivibrator. The Coder (or Encoder) will for each spike
input give out a double Gaussian pulse pair with the correct pulse spacing and pulse
characteristics given by ICAO. (The Coder consists mainly of multivibrators and a
Gaussian filter). This video signal modulates the Transmitter, which produces RF pulse

115
pairs with correct frequency. The Transmitters are either Low power (100 Wp
transistorized PA) or Medium power (1kWp PA including valves) or High power (5kWp
with klystrons). Here Wp denotes “pulse power” that is much lower than the average
power of the transmitter. Pulse power is the power of the transmitter for a very short
period while transmitting the particular pulse. The frequency is always 63 MHZ above or
below the correct interrogating frequencies.

The Transponder also transmits identifications signal at every 30 seconds when co-
located with VOR or ILS-LLZ. The identification signal has the frequency 1350 pulse per
second and do have 2 or 3 letters in the Morse code which indicates the signature of the
ground beacon.

Even if no aircraft is present to interrogate the transponder the duty cycle must be kept
constant 2700 pulse pairs and this is carried out by the Monitor, which gives noise or
squitter pulses inversely proportional to interrogating pulses. Therefore, with no
interrogations all 2700 pulse pairs will come from the Monitor. On the other hand, with
100 aircrafts interrogating, there will be no pulses coming out from the Monitor, because
all 2700 pulse pairs will be produced by the aircraft.

3.7 First come first served

The pulses interrogated from the aircraft are replied one by one by the DME station. In
fact a DME station is unaware of the origin of the pulses. So long as it receives a valid
pulse (with 3.5 ±0.5 us wide and 12 ±1 us spaced) it would reply. It may also reply to the
echo (from reflections) pulses so long as they measure correctly. How does an aircraft
recognize its anticipated response? This is evident from the following example. The
interrogation rate (135 pps or 27pps) is very slow compared to timeframe allocated in a
second. The aircraft interrogates only at the rate of 135 or 27 pulse pairs in a second.
Therefore looking at the time elapsed there is huge interval between one pulse pair to
next one. See Fig.11. Suppose an aircraft at certain distance is interrogating at 27pps to
the DME station and there is x us between the pulse pairs. Then from the illustration
below:

1-st pair 2-nd pair 3-rd pair 27-th pair

x
106 us

(Spacing between interrogation pulses Fig.3.11)

27(12+x) = 106 us
Hence x = 37,000 us

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Therefore, between the interrogation pulses there is a silence period of approximately
37000 us. This time would be enough, for example, to answer 50 aircraft 50Km away
from the station before the second pair would be initiated from that aircraft. Hence, while
a particular aircraft is waiting to send another pulse pair after receiving the response,
several other aircraft would get the chance to interrogate and receive the response. Also,
an aircraft would lock to a DME station only when it would receive a series of similar
response. That is not possible to get from an interrogation by another aircraft as pulse
arrival times would not match with each other. Sometimes the echo pulses closer to
station may cause problem. But it is effectively eliminated by other techniques. This will
be dealt with later.

3.8 DME errors and echo suppression

3.8.1 DME errors

DME works in UHF band, therefore, strict line-of-sight principal applies to it. DME
mainly suffers from multi-path error. Since DME antenna in the aircraft is not
directional, the interrogation pulses from the aircraft may also be reflected from the
surrounding terrain; buildings etc. and arrive later as the echo pulses. See Fig. 12. The
echo pulses, if they are strong and within the specified limits (i.e. correct width and
spacing), they may also be accepted by the transponder as the true signals. Consequently,
false replies may be triggered back. These replies originating from echo pulses could be
accepted in some aircraft receivers and may cause false indications.

Tower

t2

t
rock

t1

t3

DME station House

117
 (Formation of echo pulses. Fig. 3.12)

3.8.2 Echo suppression by DME dead time

To eliminate echo to some extent, DME dead time is very useful. The DME dead time is
a period of blanking of the transponder receiver during which no incoming signal is
accepted. In most of the DME transponders the dead time is adjusted to 50  1s. If the
reflecting points are within 5 NM from the DME station then most of the echo pulses will
be rejected by the DME receiver. However, the long distance echo pulses, if they are
strong, may cause problem. The following illustration clarifies the above statements.

3.8.2.1 Short distance echo

The echo pulses may arrive in phase or out of phase compared to direct pulses. The
Fig.13 illustrates the situation when both pulses arrive in phase. If the first pair of the
echo pulse arrives with a delay of, say, 10 s then the first direct pulse will not be
distorted. However, the second direct pulse will add up with the first echo pulse. From
the above it is seen that after addition the width of the second pulse gets wider. If it is
more than 4 s then the DME receiver will reject the pair. Similarly, when the echo pulse
will arrive anti-phase then the composite waveform will be less than 3.5 s, which will
again be rejected by the receiver. To avoid this situation blanking of receiver for some
time is necessary, which is referred to as DME dead time or receiver dead time. During
this period no other pair is accepted until a reply has been made in response to that
particular pair. If the receiver dead time was not there any echo pulse that will arrive
during that period would have been accepted by the receiver. This would have created
either rejection of valid pulses due to signal deformations or false distance indications
due to echoes.

1-st pulse 2-nd pulse

Direct pulse

Echo pulse

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 Resultant pulse

3.5s > 4.5s

<
12 s

(Deformation of pulse pair due to echo. Fig. 3.13)

Receiver dead time is normally adjusted to 50 - 60 s. It will protect from echo signals
that will generate from reflections closer to DME station (up to 5 NM). These are the
short distance echoes.

3.8.2.2 Long-distance echo

Long-distance echoes are those which arrive after the receiver dead time. Normally the
long distance echoes are weaker. Therefore, they are below the receiver threshold point
and rejected by the transponder. However, sometimes the far distance echoes may be
strong enough to be accepted by the receiver and trigger the replies causing false lock on
problem. To avoid the situations the receiver dead time may be increased further more
than the normal 50 to 60 s.

By increasing the receiver dead time false lock on problem may be reduced but this will
affect on overall reply efficiency of the Ground station. This is because during the dead
time the transponder receiver will reject all the incoming signals from other aircraft.
Reply efficiency is a factor that indicates the ability of the transponder receiver to receive
interrogations and make replies successfully. There is a relationship between efficiency
and dead time.

Reply efficiency = 1 - 2700X receiver dead time.

For 50 s receiver dead time we get:
Reply efficiency = 1-2700X50. 10-6 = 0.86.5 (86.5%)

For 100 s receiver dead time we get:

Reply efficiency = 1-2700X100. 10-6 = 0.73 (73.5%)

Thus, by increasing the receiver dead time while we can suppress the long distance
echoes, we reduce the reply efficiency of the ground system. So length of the receiver
dead time should be taken in to consideration only after examining the nature of the
echoes. The following illustration in Fig. 14 shows the relationship between receiver dead
time and reply efficiency of the DME. If the dead time is more than 150 s then the reply
efficiency in practice will be 50%, which is the lower threshold of an aircraft interrogator
to maintain the distance information. ICAO recommends to keep the dead time not
exceeding 60  1s unless the long distance echoes are too prominent to be neglected.

119
Even then it should be increased only by the minimum amount just necessary to allow the
suppression of echoes

Reply Eff.

100%

80%

50%

60 80 100 120 140 Rx dead time s

(Receiver dead time vs. reply efficiency, Fig.3.14)

Another factor, that affects the reply efficiency, is the receiver sensitivity or receiver
threshold. In order to accept most of the aircraft signals the receiver sensitivity of the
ground equipment should be very high. In any case, if the incoming pulse pair strength is
- 120 dbW/m2 the transponder will reply with an efficiency of 70% or more. The
transponder output power is normally kept at 1KW pulse peak power.

3.9 Siting requirements

The basic requirements in siting a DME beacon are to ensure adequate coverage and to
avoid the possibility of interference to the correct operation of the aid. Site selected in
open country should keep hills, mountains, large buildings, etc. at as small angle of
elevation as practicable. The Fig. 15 shows the basic site requirements of a DME station.

Non-metallic
objects

Metallic
objects

DME 2.5 1.2

200' 1000'

Gradient of 4:100

(Basic site requirement of a DME, Fig. 3.15)

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The distant obstacle horizon should preferably not extend above an elevation angle of
0.5 when viewed from the near ground level at the proposed location of the DME.
Within 200' from the DME antenna the area should be flat and clear of all obstructions.
No group of trees or overhead lines are permitted within this radius. Beyond 200' a
downward slope of 4:100 is permitted. Within 200' - 1000' from the DME all metallic
objects should not subtend an angle greater than 1.2. For non-metallic obstructions up to
2.5 is allowed. As a general guidance, small buildings, power and telephone lines and
fences can be tolerated within 200' provided they are not higher than the DME antenna.
Normally a DME antenna is kept up to a height of 20' from the ground if that clears local
obstructions.

Large buildings such as multi-story buildings, steel bridges, metallic towers etc. are
potential sources of interference. If they are within 3 NM from the station they may cause
signal deformations. All the houses within 1000' should be constructed lengthwise and
along the radials from the DME station as far as practicable. DME is highly affected by
electrical noise. Therefore, any high-tension line above 22KV should be kept as far as
3000'. There are no restrictions on vehicular movements around the site.

3.10 Antenna system

Since DME suffers from echo signals generated by multi-path effect, highly directional
antenna system is used to avoid unwanted reflections. The DME signal is vertically
polarized. In non-directional stations, such as in VOR/DME, the radiated signal is
Omnidirectional with slightly tilted beam width of approximately 6. This provides
desired power on the horizon necessary for minimum echo generation. See fig.16.

6

DME station

(Radiation pattern of DME. Fig. 3.16)

To achieve such a low beam width stacked biconical antenna radiating elements are used.
They form together an antenna array, which provides narrow radiation pattern of 6. The
difference between maximum and minimum azimuth points is not more than 2db.

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 (Biconical antenna element. Fig. 3.17)

When a DME is installed with an ILS highly directional antenna system is used.
Furthermore, in such an installation the transponder time delay is adjusted in such a
manner that the aircraft interrogator indicates zero range at a specified point.

3.11 Monitoring and calibrations

The DME is a highly accurate and dependable aid, which provides distance information
to the aircraft. Therefore, the independent monitor units constantly monitor its
performance. Normally up to two monitors are used. In the even that any of the
conditions specified below occur, the monitors will cause the following actions to take
place:

# a suitable indication shall be given at the aircraft cockpit.

# the operating transponder shall be automatically switched off and the standby
transponder will be turned on.

# The monitors continuously measure the following radiated parameters of the DME:

# a fall of 3db or more in transmitted power output.

# Pulse spacing of 12 s exceeds more than  1s

# Reply delay exceeds by  1s

# Reply efficiency  70%

# Identification tone not repeated every 30 seconds or transmitted continuously for more
than 5 seconds.

# Pulse counts  850 pulse pairs per second.

Monitoring signals are obtained from the pick up probes closely placed near the antenna
elements.

Like in other navigational aid equipment, calibration is done in regular intervals, both in
the ground and air. While ground calibration is carried out by using specific measuring

122
test equipment, for the flight calibration specially equipped aircraft is deployed. The
aircraft normally checks the DME coverage area, field strength, reply efficiency and
echoes in the specified routes and places.

3.12 Wilcox DME 596B

A simplified block diagram of Wilcox model 596B DME is shown in Fig. 18.
It is one of the most widely used DME ground systems in the world. Basic system theory
of this dual equipment is as follows:

In this diagram transponder No.1 (TX-1) is selected as main and the transponder No. 2
(TX-2) as standby. Each transponder is comprised of a receiver and a transmitter. With
these selections, transponder No.1 replies (RF output) pass through the directional
coupler DC1, through the contacts of Transfer Unit 6S1, through other directional
couplers DC4 and DC3 to the DME antenna. The interrogation signals from the aircraft

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are received by the antenna and routed through the same points to the transponder
receiver. The antenna and directional couplers DC3 and DC4 are not switched while
selecting transponders.

Transponder No.2 output (standby in this case) passes through DC2, through additional
contacts of S1, through directional coupler DC5 on to dummy load. Thus, the standby
transponder is also kept in ready hot condition.

The DME has two monitors and they normally operate simultaneously. During
maintenance, one of the monitors may be used to monitor the performance of the
transponder under repair, while other works with the transponder in operation. If both
monitors are operational during normal operation of the DME, they must both report the
same fault conditions, if a fault should occur, to initiate a valid alarm.

Each monitor has two distinct functions; signal monitoring and signal generation.

Signal monitoring is done during reply; i.e. when the transponder is in the transmit mode.
The signal paths for monitoring DME parameters are from S1, through DC3 for Monitor
No.1 and DC4 for Monitor No.2 via respective coaxial jumpers. While monitoring the
signals, both monitor units simultaneously monitor the radiated parameters of the pulses,
i.e. pulse width, pulse spacing, reply delay, identification, power outputs, etc., as
specified in paragraph 2.3.6. The power output parameters are supplied by the pick up
probes (monitor antennas) in the DME antenna.

Signal Generation. In this function the receivers may be considered as "known good"
interrogators. Both monitors generate the interrogation signals as by the aircraft, which
pass through the respective test jumpers, via directional couplers DC3 and DC4 and
contact switch S1 to the working transponder. The replies received from the transponder
are routed through the same points in to the receivers.

Alarm conditions: If the radiating pulses fail to meet the specified limits, an alarm
condition would be reported by both monitors which would cause transfer to the standby
transponder by changing the relay switch S1. The transponder that was main now goes to
standby where it may be serviced while the DME station remains on the air. If the
standby transponder also proves to be faulty the system will shut down. However, in the
case of standby, the system will shut down only if the delay parameters are at fault. This
will ensure the DME service while the other transponder is on maintenance. The monitors
control operation of DME control unit (transfer switch S1).
Test conditions: The faulty transponder is connected to the dummy load via directional
couplers DC2 and DC5. In this condition the transponder may be repaired and tested
using one of the monitors. While one monitor keeps on interrogating and checking replies
with the radiating transponder, the other may be connected with faulty transponder via
Test jumpers.

Reflected /Incident Jumpers are used to monitor the direct and reflected powers of each
transponder. In the incident condition the RF outputs from both transponders are obtained

124
via diode detectors, which can be displayed in oscilloscope to measure the equivalent
peak voltages. The manufacturer provides a calibrated chart for each transponder that
relates pulse voltage to pulse power output. To measure the reflected power the jumper is
changed to reflected position. VSWR is not indicated directly, but can be computed from
incident and reflected power measurements.

CHAPTER - 4

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 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

(ILS)

4 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

4.1. ILS as a landing aid

The Instrument Landing System, abbreviated as ILS, is a system of electronic equipment,

which assists the landing aircraft to make straight in approach by using cockpit
indications at any non-visual meteorological conditions. ILS is a standard aid, adopted by
the members of ICAO since its development in 1940's. There are hundreds of ILS's in
operation at all modern airports throughout the world. It is still considered to be the most
reliable, most utilized and most implemented precision approach system in the world.

The system comprises of a Localizer, a Glide Slope, and two to three Marker Beacons.
The landing path is determined by the intersections of two planes, as shown in Fig.1-A,
and could be explained as follows:

# A vertical plane containing the runway centerline, is defined by a VHF

126
 transmitter, called Localizer (LLZ).

# A horizontal plane of 2º-4º vertical angle containing the runway

centerline, is defined by an UHF transmitter, called Glide Slope (GS).

# Vertically radiated VHF Markers (IM,MM & OM) transmitters provide fixed distance
information

Marker pattern Localizer pattern

LLZ GS IM MM OM

Glide Slope pattern

(Radiation pattern of an ILS)

Fig.4.1

All these stations form a system that provides an electronic passage, exactly at an
approach angle that is required for a safe landing.

The ILS helps to bring the aircraft safely down to a pre-defined height, called the
Decision Height, from where the pilot has to make his own decision whether to land or to
make a missed approach. The missed approach is an aviation terminology for
unsuccessful landing. In this case, the aircraft has to make a turn and try to land once
again. In category- IIIC, visibility is not needed and a blind landing can be made using
electronic equipment. Therefore, based on decision height and the visibility of the
runway, three categories of ILS are defined by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) which is tabulated below.

Table -T1

ILS CATEGORIES DECISION HEIGHT VISIBILITY (M)

(M)

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 CAT - I 60 800

CAT - II 30 400

CAT - IIIA 0 200

CAT - IIIB 0 50
CAT - IIIC 0 0

Since the pilots fully rely on ILS guidance for landing, the signals radiated by an ILS
should be very accurate and authentic. ICAO Annex-10 specifies the necessary technical
tolerances that have to be maintained for the above three categories of ILS's.

In many occasions, where the geographical conditions do not permit installation of

Marker beacons at predefined distances, Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is co-
located with ILS. The DME can be co-located with an ILS in the following three ways:

- DME with Glide Slope

- DME with Localizer

- DME installed independently.

Thus, while landing on ILS, a pilot determines his position from the runway end by
DME. In some locations, an NDB is installed on the centerline of the runway in stead of a
Marker. Such an NDB is then called a compass locator.

Coverage of an ILS

Localizer: The horizontal localizer coverage sector is extended from the center of the
localizer antenna array to the distances of:

# 46.3 km (25 NM) with  10 from the from course line.

# 31.5 km (17 NM) between 10 and 35 from the front course line.

# 18.5 km (10 NM) outside of  35, only if the coverage is needed.

Here, the course line means the extended centerline of the runway. In most cases the
coverage is limited to  35 only. Where the topographical features do not permit a
longer range, the localizer radiation can be reduced to 18 NM instead of 25 NM within 
10, and 10 NM instead of 17 NM between 10 and 35 lines.

128
 35
10NM
LLZ antenna 17NM 10
25NM Course line

10
35

( Horizontal coverage of localizer)

Fig.4.2

At the above-mentioned distances, the localizer signals should be receivable at the height
of 2000' and up to an angle of 7 as measured from the end of the runway. The vertical
and horizontal coverage areas of a localizer are illustrated in the figures 4.2 and 4.3

coverage
2000'
7
runway
centerline
D

(Vertical coverage of a localizer)

Fig 4.3
Here "D" is the distance from the runway end (threshold), which could be 25NM, 17NM
or 10 NM, depending upon horizontal coverage, as per fig.4.3
Glide Slope: The Glide Slope station provides coverage in sectors of  8 from the
centerline of the runway to a distance of at least 18.5 km (10NM) up to 1.75 and down
to 0.45.

Here,  = Landing angle (approach angle) of the aircraft. Most of the commercial jet
aircraft land at an angle between 2 to 4.

Unlike a localizer, the Glide Slope transmitter provides horizontal coverage only up to 
8. More than 8 from the runway centerline do not make any sense for landing. For a
localizer, since it gives horizontal guidance, it will direct the aircraft towards the
approach line from any angle, left or right. That's why the coverage could be wider. The
vertical and horizontal coverage of the Glide Slope are illustrated in the figures 4.4 & 4.5

129
 Runway 8
centerline
8

10 NM

(Horizontal coverage of a Glide Slope)

Fig. 4.4

centerline
1.75


0.45

(Vertical coverage of a Glide Slope)

Fig.4.5

Marker Beacons: Normally, only two Marker beacons are installed in most of the
locations. These are, Middle Marker MM) and Outer Marker (OM). The Inner Marker
(IM) may be added whenever its need may be felt at any particular site.

All the Markers radiate vertically in an elliptical shape on the course line through which
the aircraft makes the approach. The Marker beacon system should be adjusted to provide
the coverage over the following distances, measured on localizer and glide slope
intersection:

a) Inner Marker: 15050m (500ft  160ft)

b) Middle Marker: 300  100m (1000ft  325ft)

130
c) Outer Marker: 600  200m (200ft  650ft)

In some locations, where it is not possible to install a Marker on the centerline of the
runway, it may be slightly offset, and the antenna may be tilted. In such a case the
equipment and the antenna must be adjusted so as to receive the same coverage as
mentioned above. The coverage diagrams of the Marker beacons is illustrated below in
Fig.4.6 and 4.7.

600 200m

15050m 300100m

Runway IM MM OM

(Marker coverage)
Fig. 4.6

coverage

(A tilted Marker)
Fig.4.7

4.2 Siting Requirements

Since ILS transmitters work on mid-VHF band and they carry sensitive navigation
signals; care must be taken for its proper siting requirements. The ability of an ILS
system to provide a reliable signal depends upon proper formulation of radiation pattern,
and absence of natural and man made objects that may cause signal aberrations.

In the early days, installation of an ILS was a major problem restricting its use only to the
airports with clear and plain terrain with little or no man made obstructions in the

131
vicinity. Nowadays, due to advancements in technologies, companies developing and
manufacturing ILS have improved the design and performance to such an extent that an
ILS can be installed even at a very difficult location. Especially, in the last one decade
ILS technology has progressed to include important innovations in the field of antenna
and microchips, which made it adaptable to any siting challenge and more reliable than
the old systems.

Since the quality of the radiated signal is highly dependent on topographical features
surrounding the airports, the problems are successfully overcome these days by utilizing
special antenna configurations, and the manner in which RF signals are fed to them.
Therefore installation may vary significantly from site to site. As a general rule, the
following siting criterion is adopted.

Localizer siting criteria

The preferred location for a Localizer is on the centerline of the runway beyond 300
meters from the stop end. The distance between the end of the runway and antenna
positions may be varied to suit a particular condition. The antenna array could even be
located beyond 600 meters to allow for planned runway extension. However, it will
reduce the course width of the Localizer. On the other hand, it is recommended not to
reduce the distance by less than 300 meters, as antenna might be subject to high intensity
jet propulsion, and at busier airports field measurements may have to be restricted.

The shelter containing electronic equipment is generally located at 60 to 90 meters to one

side of the antenna system. The shelter could be located behind the antenna also if this
has advantage for a particular site and does not infringe airport clearance. However,
screened antenna array must be used at such installations and back-course coverage will
not be possible.

The ground surface within the site area should be as flat as possible, normally up to 1-%
gradient. Beyond the site area slope should not be more than 5%. Within the airport
boundary area at plus or minus 10 degrees from the antenna along the centerline of the
runway, there should not be any large buildings, power lines, MF or HF antennas, or
other potential reflectors.

5% gradient

 300m

132
 180m 10 no large
objects
Centerline Ant.

60-90m 10

LLZ Building

Critical area (1% gradient)

(Critical area of LLZ site)

Fig.4.8

The antenna array is normally installed at 2 to 3 meters above the ground so as to have a
clear line of sight to a point 6 meters above the far end of the runway. The antenna
height, however, could be much more than 3 meters above the ground to suit a particular
runway. Depending upon a site condition, one of the following two Localizer systems is
selected:

Single Frequency Null Reference Localizer: Used when the terrain is flat with no
obstructions, either adjacent to or in front of the runway, that might cause deformation of
signal.

Dual Frequency Capture Effect Localizer: Used when the terrain is other than above, and
buildings or other obstructions are present in the vicinity, that might act as a reflector.

Glide Slope siting criteria

The Glide Slope antenna array is mounted in a tower, approximately 250-300 m beyond
the threshold (end) of the approach runway, and is off set by approximately 120-150m
perpendicular to the centerline. These distances, however, may change significantly
depending upon the approach angle and the site conditions. The optimum location of a
Glide Slope antenna is determined during the survey. The electronic equipment is located
in a shelter behind the Glide Slope antenna tower.

133
The ground surface in front of antenna mast should be flat for approximately 700-900 m
with lateral and longitudinal gradients not exceeding 1%. The edges of the site area
should be graded to natural surface at a slope not exceeding 5%. The site should be
located on one side of the runway, remote from existing or planned taxiways, apron or
holding areas. Ideally, there should be no fixed obstructions in the site area. Isolated
buildings not exceeding an elevated angle of 0.5 degree above ground may be permitted.
Normally, standard airport clearance restrictions provide sufficient protection for
obstacles beyond the airport boundaries. However, it is preferred that up to 5 miles the
terrain should not change drastically. For example, rapidly falling or rising terrain,
irregular terrain, etc. Since, from 5 to 8 miles from the runway end is the most active
area, for landing, any signal deformation due to terrain is not desirable.

90m 250-300m Critical area (1% gradient)

5% gradient
120-150m

700m - 900m

(Critical area of Glide Slope)

Fig.4.9

The siting of a Glide Slope is more critical than a Localizer. Therefore, a careful selection
of electronic system, antenna configurations and necessary earthwork should be studied
during the site evaluation.
At many places, an ideal site is not possible to get. Therefore, depending upon the
conditions of a location, one of the following three systems can be used:

Single Frequency Null Reference Glide Slope : Used in ideal siting conditions.
Approximately, 900 m of flat reflection terrain is needed in front of antenna. Foreground
should not be sloping or rising. There should be no obstructions present in the vicinity.

Dual Frequency Capture Effect Glide Slope : Used when there is upward slope within 8
KM in the foreground of the runway. A flat terrace of 400-700 m is required in front of
antenna.

134
Sideband Reference Glide Slope : Advantageous in a sloping terrain with an available
terrace as short as 300m. Antenna height is kept lower than the null reference which
allows to install it as nearer as 75m from the centerline.

Marker Beacons siting criteria

The Marker antenna is mounted on a tower, approximately at 3-5m above the ground on
the extended centerline of the runway. There is no such strict siting restriction as for
Localizer or Glide Slope. However, it is recommended not to have any metal buildings,
power lines or trees within 30m of the antenna. The markers are located as follows:

Outer Marker (OM): From 3.5 to 6 NM (7.2 - 11.1 KM) from the ILS runway threshold.
The Outer Marker marks the point where an approaching aircraft on proper heading and
correct altitude should intercept the Glide Slope and begin final descend to land.

Middle Marker (MM): It is located at 1050 150m from the threshold where the Glide
Slope angle intersects the decision height point for CAT-I ILS.

Inner Marker (IM): From 75-450m from the threshold at a point where the Glide Slope
signal intersects the decision height for CAT-II and CAT-III ILS. Inner Marker is not
used for CAT-I ILS.

4.3 General transmitting techniques

All five stations generate and radiate RF energy independently in three different
frequencies. When a pilot tunes to an ILS frequency, which is the localizer frequency, all
others are selected automatically. For a certain localizer frequency, a Glide Slope
frequency has already been determined. ICAO Annex-10 provides full account of the
assigned frequencies and the way a Localizer has to be paired to a Glide Slope. All
Markers work in the same fixed frequency of 75 MHz.

Localizer

The Localizer radiates a VHF signal capable of guiding an aircraft to the centerline of the
runway. This is accomplished by radiating a horizontally polarized signal at an assigned
frequency between 108 MHz to 112 MHz.

135
The localizer antenna array radiates two different signals simultaneously. One of these
two signals is referred to as Carrier plus Sideband (CSB). It is VHF carrier wave
amplitude modulated to equal depth of 20% each by two audio tones of 90 Hz and 150
Hz. It is also modulated 8 to 10% by 1020Hz identification tone coded to the station
frequency. The identification tone does not contain any navigational information, but
simply provides station identification in Morse code.

The other signal radiated by the localizer is called Sideband only (SBO). It is a double
sideband suppressed carrier signal equally modulated by 90 Hz and 150 Hz. However,
the phase of 90 Hz signal in SBO is displaced by 90 than in CSB.

The CSB signals are fed to the different pairs of antenna array with different amplitudes
but with equal phase. This will create maximum lobe on the runway centerline providing
maximum field strength on the centerline. The signal level will decrease both sides when
moved away from the centerline, and eventually will come to a null at certain angle from
the localizer array. See Fig.1 -K. The width of the CSB signal is dependent on spacing
between antennas, number of antenna elements, and amplitude of energy distribution to
them. Normally, 7 or 14 antenna array is used. More complicated antenna system may
also be used.

The SBO signals are fed to the pairs of antennas with equal amplitude but 180 out of
phase. The amplitudes are also varied between the pairs. The antennas fed in this manner
will produce a null on the centerline of the runway due to canceling effects of signals
(because of phase difference), and will produce two lobes on both sides. The angle, at
which these two lobes are formed, depends upon the spacing of the antennas.

Since the carrier frequency of both CSB and SBO signals are the same, both signals add
up in the space creating Difference in Depth of Modulation (DDM) between 90 Hz signal
and 150 Hz signal that will vary from place to place.
The greater the relative SBO signal level is with respect to CSB signal, the greater will be
the difference in depth of modulation (DDM). Where there is no SBO signal, such as on
the centerline of the runway, there will be no difference in depth of modulation. I.e. on
the centerline, DDM = 0. The figures 4.10 through 4.12 illustrate CSB, SBO and
formation of composite DDM signals in space.

centerline

CSB

136
 LLZ antenna array

(CSB radiation pattern)

Fig.4.10

SBO

(SBO radiation pattern)

Fig. 4.11

DDM = 0 ( 150 Hz = 90
Hz)

150 Hz  90 Hz

90 Hz  150 Hz

(Localizer composite signal)

Fig. – 4.12
The above difference in depth of modulations is achieved due to audio signal phase
relationship between 90 Hz and 150 Hz causing canceling effect of CSB and SBO
signals. The 90 Hz is predominant on the pilot's left-hand side, whereas, 150 Hz is
predominant on the right hand side while approaching the runway. Therefore, due to
above effect, the following are achieved in the cockpit receiver:

# When the aircraft is directly above the centerline of the runway the DDM = 0.

# When the aircraft is on the left hand side of the runway, the 90 Hz modulation will
exceed the 150 Hz, and will produce a DDM proportional to angular displacement at that
point.

137
# When the aircraft is on the right hand side of the runway, the 150 Hz will exceed 90 Hz
modulation, and will produce a DDM proportional to the angular displacement at that
point.

DDM = (Higher modulation % - Lower modulation %)

100
The angular displacement from the centerline of the runway remains very linear from
DDM = 0 to DDM = 0.155. In this area, for every meter left or right, the DDM is
increased or decreased by 0.00145 exactly. The angle subtended by two 0.155 DDM
points with respect to centerline is called Course Width of the ILS. By arranging the
antenna array properly, this angle is normally set to 3 - 6 left and right depending upon
the length of the runway. It is set at 107m left and right of the far end of the runway.
Beyond the course width area, although DDM is not linear, coverage is required up to 
35 and is called Clearance area. The DDM relationship of a localizer is illustrated
below in Fig. 4.13

35 DDM0.155 10

DDM> 0.155

DDM=0.155
107 m
Ant.
DDM=0

Course width

(Localizer DDM sensitivity)

Fig.4.13

4.4 Vector explanation of signal formation

Fig.4.14 shows a simplified general block diagram for ILS-LLZ. The same principal
applies to ILS-GP system.

90
Hz
MOD

138
LLZ
TX
 (-) SBO

Hybrid Hybrid m90 = m150

=20%

CSB

(+) SBO

90Hz @ 0º
150Hz @ 180º

Attenuator & Phaser

(Fig.4.14 Simple LLZ Block Diagramme)

A simple explanation of the principals of the 3 antenna Localizer system corresponding
to Fig. 4.14 is explained as follows. Three LLZ antennas are placed at half wavelength
distance from each other and fed with (+) SBO and (-) SBO to the outer antennas and
CSB to the center antenna. Here (+) and (-) indicate that the relative RF Phase of SBO
signals are 0º and 180º apart. Also, with reference to 90Hz signal in CSB the signal in
right hand side is +90º apart.

Referring to Fig. 1-Q A through D, the principal of rotation of the SBO vectors
corresponding to the position and distance for the aircraft with respect to centerline can
be easily understood. When the aircraft is on the centerline, both the upper and lower
sidebands of the 90Hz and 150Hz SBO vectors will cancel each other. Therefore,
modulation depth of 90Hz will be equal to the modulation depth of 150Hz. Hence the
difference in depth of modulation DDM = 0. As the aircraft moves from the centerline, a
phase difference will occur and the SBO vectors will retard or advance in phase
relationship to each other.

In a Localizer:
a) 90 Hz signal in SBO is displaced by 90 than in CSB, and
b) 90Hz modulated signal is always in phase opposite (180º) to the 150Hz modulated
signal in SBO signal.

On the left hand side of the runway when looking from the site of the localizer antenna
down the runway the 150Hz modulated part of the SBO signal is in phase with the CSB
signal while on the right hand side the 90 Hz modulated part of the SBO signal is in
phase with the CSB.When the aircraft is positioned to the right of the centerline, as seen

139
from the aircraft, the resultant 150Hz SBO will be in phase with the CSB signals. If the
aircraft is positioned to the left, the 90Hz SBO signal will be in phase with the CSB
signal. Thus, the vectors of 150Hz and 90Hz will add and give an increased DDM as
distance is increased from the course line. The above mentioned principals are exactly the
same for the Glide Path systems.

CL CL CL

(A)

Delay Delay
Advance
Advance

Signal received to the Signal received Signal

received to the
Right side of CL. On the centerline left side
of CL

CL CL CL
CSB 150 90 150 90 150
90
(B) vectors

Delay Advance

150 Resultant
90 Resultant

SBO 150L 150R 90R 150R 90R

90L
vectors

(C) 90R 90L 150L 90L 150L

150R

140
 90 Resultant
150 Resultant

150 > 90 90 = 150 90 > 150

Sum of
CSB & SBO
(D)

(Fig. 4.15 Vector representation of mixing of CSB and SBO vectors

in space)
Glide Slope Signal formation of the Glide Slope transmitter is similar to the localizer
except it radiates in UHF frequency band from 328 MHz to 336 MHz. The signal feeding
technique is also somewhat different. The Glide Slope frequencies are paired to Localizer
as follows:

LLZ (MHz) GS (MHz)

108.1 334.7
108.3 334.1
108.5 329.9
108.7 330.5…and so on.

The transmitter generates the CSB and SBO signals same as in Localizer. These signals
are also modulated by 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones. Depending upon types of Glide Slope,
two to three UHF antennas are installed one top of the other on a mast. Signals are fed to
these antennas in such a way that the composite signal in space creates DDM same as in
localizer which vary with height. On the approach slope DDM=0. Above the slope, 90
Hz is predominant, whereas below the slope 150 Hz is predominant. The above
conditions are achieved in all three types of Glide Slope system regardless of difference
in feeding of RF signals.

DDM= 0.175

90 Hz > 150 Hz DDM=0

141
 Decision height 0.24
0.24 DDM=0.175

150 Hz > 90 Hz

centerline of runway
Runway end

(Glide Slope DDM sensitivity)

Fig. 4.16

Here  is the landing angle of the aircraft. From DDM=0 to DDM=0.175 the angular
displacement remains pretty linear. This is the most active area with respect to landing.

In different systems of Glide Slope equipment signals are fed to the antennas in the
following manner:

Null reference Glide Slope

The null reference is good for the flat terrain without any obstructions in the foreground.
Signals are fed to the two antennas as follows:

SBO - from the upper antenna. GS

CSB - from the lower antenna
Flat land

Dual Frequency Capture Effect Glide Slope

Two different transmitters generate two sets of RF signals. Frequencies of these two
transmitters are 8 KHz apart, and they are called Clearance transmitter and Course
transmitter. The clearance signal is radiated close to the airport area and is modulated
with 150 Hz only, which gives fly up signal in the lower angles. The stronger and more
concentrated signal (Course signal), is radiated at higher angle which is free from
reflections from the nearby obstructions.

These two frequencies, being only 8 KHz apart, are within the IF bandwidth of the
receiver. Therefore, the receiver will pick up only the stronger signal. This phenomenon
is called capture effect. Hence the system is called capture effect Glide Slope. The dual
frequency system has better immunity from reflections than the single frequency. See
fig.---- In dual frequency system three antennas are used. The signals are fed in the
following manner:

SBO and Clearance signal - Upper antenna

142
CSB and SBO - Middle antenna GS
CSB,SBO and Clearance - Lower antenna
Rising foreground

Sideband reference Glide Slope

Two antennas are used. Heights of the antennas from ground are relatively lower than the
above two systems. The system is ideal for the sites with dropping terrain and relatively
small flat area around the antenna.

SBO signal - Upper antenna

SBO and CSB - Lower antenna

GS

Small terrace and

dropping terrain
Marker Beacons

Marker beacons are relatively simple equipment. All three types work in the same
frequency - 75 MHz. The signal is horizontally polarized. Depending upon the Marker
type, the carrier is modulated with different tones with modulation depth of 95%.

Inner Marker - 3000 Hz

Middle Marker - 1300 Hz
Outer Marker - 400 Hz

The audio frequency modulation is keyed without an interruption to the carrier to identify
the particular Marker Beacon. The keying is accomplished in the following manner:

# Inner Marker - 6 dots per second continuously

# Middle Marker - 6 dots and two dashes per second continuously.

# Outer Marker - 2 dashes per second continuously.

The signal is radiated vertically using directional antenna. Normally one to two Yagi
antenna is used depending upon coverage needed.

143
4.5 Standard ILS equipment and Antenna System

LLZ Equipment

A simplified block diagram of localizer equipment, made by Wilcox Company of USA

for Cat-I and Cat-II operations, is shown in Fig 2.4-R. It is a single frequency Mark-II
model with dual transmitters. Both transmitters generate the course CSB and SBO signals
independently on the assigned frequency. It is the dual system therefore one is assigned
as the Main whereas the other as Standby. The signals are equally modulated by two
navigational tones, 90Hz and 150Hz at a modulation depth of 20% each, and at
approximately 5% by 1020 Hz station identification code. While the selected main
transmitter is on the air, the standby remains in hot condition by discharging the energy
into a dummy load.

Both transmitter outputs are connected to the Antenna Changeover Unit, which routes the
CSB and SBO signals to the Antenna RF Distribution Network. Here CSB and SBO
signals go through a series of hybrid couplers, power dividers and combiners to achieve
desired amplitudes and phases of the signals. These signals are fed to the respective pairs
of antennas to produce a composite ILS radiation pattern.

To monitor the radiated signal, there is a detector inside each antenna. Sampled signals
from each antenna are fed to the RF combining Network. This unit provides two outputs,
CSB and SBO. The CSB output provides the linear sum of all signals from each antenna.
The SBO output provides the difference of signals from the left and right antennas. After
separation of CSB and SBO signals by the RF combining Network, they are fed to the
Monitor Combining Network.

In Monitor Combining Network, the CSB signal is divided into two equal parts by a
power divider. One CSB output is used as Position RF Signal to check if there is any

144
deviation in course position (0 DDM). The other portion of CSB is mixed with SBO to
produce a Width RF Signal to monitor the ILS width (0.155 DDM). The width and
position rf signals are then sent to the respective Integral Detectors where the equivalent
low voltage signal is derived for evaluation by the Monitors.

The Monitors are preset to the standard limits recommended by the manufacturer and
ICAO. Should a parameter exceed any preset limit and observed by both monitors,
alarms are initiated to the Control Unit to cease the operation of that transmitter and turn
ON the standby. Apart from signal monitoring, the Monitors also detect the cable faults,
and antenna misalignments. In such an event, a 4.5 KHz tone is generated by the Cable
Fault Detector and fed to the Monitors to command a shut down action. The station is
normally linked by a cable or by radio to the Remote Control Unit at the control room of
the airport. From here a technician can monitor the performance of the Localizer.

LLZ Antenna

The localizer antenna array radiates the rf energy generated by the localizer transmitter to
produce a VHF signal, in space, which contains modulation information that can be used
for laterally guiding an aircraft in to accurate alignment with the centerline of an airport
runway during an approach, and for landing under instrument flight conditions.

The localizer antenna array consists of 8 or 14 log-periodic dipole antenna elements. The
localizer antenna array uses 8 log-periodic antenna element for narrow aperture system
(narrow course width) and 14 elements for wider aperture system (wide course width).
Each antenna is mounted approximately 6' above the ground. This height, however, may
vary from site to site. The log-periodic antenna array, which is 9' long and 4' wide,
consists of seven horizontally polarized parallel dipole radiators that are fed from the
common balanced transmission line.

The Wilcox Mark-II systems uses the log-periodic dipole antenna array (LPDA) for the
following two specific reasons. First of all, the LPDA consists of dipoles of various
lengths, which make it independent of frequency within the specified range of 108 - 112
MHz band. Secondly, due to phase relationship between the elements the patterns from
the individual dipoles add together forming a highly directional pattern. Feeding system
in a LPDA is shown in fig. 4.17

145
 (Feeding system in a LPDA)
Fig. 4.17

Each Wilcox Mark-II LPDA contains a small coupler, which samples the radiated signal
approximately, 10 db down, which is routed to the monitor units in the equipment cabinet
for signal evaluation. To achieve the desired pattern, the antennas are fed with some
definite amplitude and phase difference.

GS Equipment

Generation of signal in a Glide Slope is the same as in Localizer. Only the feeding to the
antennas is different. Section 2.4.3 explains in detail the method of feeding CSB and
SBO signals to the Glide Slope antenna. As the single frequency localizer and Glide
Slope systems are the same, for diversification, here the sideband reference glide slope
system has been explained.

Sideband reference Glide Slope system is ideal for the dropping terrain and for a site with
small-leveled area. Antenna height is kept low. It is a Wilcox Mark-II GS system capable
of generating signal for Cat-I and Cat-II operations. See the block-diagram Fig.2.4-U.
The system is dual therefore there are two transmitters. Either one can be selected as the
main or standby. The transmitters generate two signals in the assigned carrier frequency -
SBO and CSB. The signals are equally modulated by two audio tones, 90Hz and 150Hz
at a modulation depth of 40% each. Both transmitter outputs are connected to the
Antenna Changeover Unit, which routes the main CSB and SBO signals to Sideband
Reference Amplitude Phase Control Unit (APCU).

From APCU the signals are fed to the GS antennas for transmission. The monitoring
probes inside the antennas sniff the signals, which pass through the respective integral
detectors. The integral detectors generate equivalent audio signals, like in localizer, for
Width and position measurement by two independent Monitors. There is one separate
monitor antenna installed at some distance to monitor the signal deviation of the path
angle.

If there is any changes in monitor parameters, the monitors will trigger the control unit to
shut down the operation and transfer to standby. Like in Localizer, the remote
control/display unit monitors the performance of the Glide Slope station.

Antenna system

146
In all three systems dipole arrays are used which are installed with corner reflectors.
Depending upon the system used for GS, the antennas are mounted at different heights.
Fig.4.18 shows the typical GS antenna system.

GS Antenna system

SBO

SBO

CSB 10 7.5

CSB & SBO
5
0.25

(Null Reference GS. Fig 4.18A) (Sideband Reference GS Fig 4.18B)

SBO

CSB & SBO 15

147
 CSB & SBO 10

5

(Capture Effect GS. Fig. 4.18C)

4.6 Markers and antenna system.

The Marker beacons are relatively simple equipment. A block-diagram of a typical
Marker is shown in Fig.2.4-Y, which is self-explanatory. The antenna used for a Marker
is generally an Yagi- antenna. Depending upon the pattern to be used, it can be single ,
dual or tilted. The following Fig.2.4-W and 2.4-X show the radiation pattern from
different installations.

Monitor

(V-Yagi ) Fig.2.4-W (radiation

pattern)

148
 Monitor

(Single Yagi) Fig. 4.19 (radiation pattern)

Monitoring and calibration

Monitoring

ILS being a precision approach aid, the respective monitors continuously monitor its
performances. The following parameters are monitored by the Monitors.

Localizer : (a) Course position (centerline of the runway, DDM=0)

(b) Course width ( DDM= 0.155)

Glide Slope: (a) Course Position (Set slope angle, DDM=0)

(b) Course Width ( DDM= 0.175)

Apart from above the monitors also monitor:

(a) Reduction in RF output by 3 db.

(b) Modulation levels of 90Hz and 150Hz
(c) Identification
(d) Radiation of false signal
10 seconds for CAT-I
5 seconds for CAT-II
2 seconds for CAT-II

149
Calibration

All ILS equipment have to be continuously monitored in the ground to check its
performance at a prescribed interval. At least once a year, the system has to be checked
by a specially equipped aircraft to monitor landing angle, course width, centerline
alignment, and other performances.

CHAPTER - 1

NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON

(NDB)

1. NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB)

150
1.1 NDB AS A NAVIGATIONAL AID

Non-Directional Beacon is a radio navigational aid used by the aircraft all over the world
for finding directions while flying from one point to other. Discovery of radio and ability
of detecting its source of emission, utilizing directional antenna, led to the development
of NDB. It is the simplest and oldest system, which has for many years played a vital role
in the navigation system for both aeronautical and maritime uses and will probably do so
for many years to come.

Non-Directional Beacon is a ground station that transmits a low frequency or medium

frequency signal, which is radiated Omni-directionally in the horizontal plane (azimuth),
with vertical polarization. There is no coded navigation information inside the signal
apart from the station identification in Morse code that repeats 7 times per minute. The
NDB receiver in the aircraft gives the pilot information of the “bearing” to the NDB
transmitter stations, which are located in the air-routes or at the airports. Bearing is the
horizontal angular displacement in clockwise direction with respect to North. In addition
to the directional information the NDB station also gives indication when the aircraft is
passing overhead a station, i.e., the NDB station provides a position fix overhead
indicated by a decrease in field strength and an abrupt change of indicator needle by
180. The NDB is widely used because they are:

# Inexpensive
# Simple electronics and easy for maintenance
# Omni-directional information
# Responsibility of accuracy mainly depends upon airborne receiver.

1.2 PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION

NDB is simply a radio transmitter that transmits tone modulated RF signal in the
LW/MW frequency band with station identification seven times per minute. Volume-1 of
ICAO Annex-10 to the convention on International Civil Aviation Organization states
that, "The radio frequencies assigned to NDB's shall be selected from those available in
the portion of the spectrum between 190 KHz and 1750 KHz. The frequencies being used
for NDB can vary from zone to zone. As the frequency band from 525 to 1605 KHz is
widely used for Radio Broadcasting, most of the frequencies for NDB's are selected
below 525 kHz within 200 to 415 kHz. The signal is amplitude modulated at 95% by a
station identification audio tone in Morse code (A2), which repeats 7 times per minute to
identify a station. The identification tone consists of two to three letters. The frequency of
the modulating tone can be either 400Hz or 1020Hz. Each letter is separated by a dash.
For example: The Kathmandu NDB at the Tribhuvan International Airport is coded as
KAM, which in Morse code translates as:

151
dash dot dash dash dot dash dash dash dash

K A M
In the aircraft, a receiver called Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) automatically displays
the station bearing as soon as it is tuned to a NDB station. The Automatic Direction
Finder uses the Loop Aerial that has a specific direction finding property. Depending
upon the orientation of the loop aerial, signals in its output varies greatly. A loop aerial
possesses the following properties.

1.3 LOOP AERIAL

Direction finding maybe carried out in any region of radio spectrum, though certain
frequencies are specifically allotted for radio navigation purpose. In aviation only LF/MF
and VHF are used for radio direction finding. LF/MF are used for NDB ground stations
whereas VHF is used for finding the direction of the aircraft from the ground. The
technical features of direction finders operating in various frequencies naturally differ,
but the fundamental principles remain the same. In the LF/MF, due to comparatively very
large wave length, so called LOOP ANTENNA is extensively used. Loop Antennas are
highly directional in property, which could be derived mathematically as follows:

Consider a rectangular loop antenna of length “a” and width “b” with its plane vertical
mounted so that it can be rotated about its vertical axis. Let there be a vertically polarized
electromagnetic wave “E” incident on it, coming from a direction making an angle “”
with the plane of the loop at its center.

N
B C
b

a e2 e1 CD

b/2 ½ b Cos

A D AB b/2

Output

The source is assumed to be so far away that the incident wave is a plane wave. Voltages
are induced in the vertical members of the loop, but not in the horizontal members as the
wave is vertically polarized. The magnitude of the voltage induced in the two vertical
members is therefore a.e1 and a.e2, where e1 and e2 are the magnitude of electrical field

152
in rms. The voltages in the two members will not be in phase, as can be seen from the
diagram since the arrival times will not be the same. Taking the electrical field at the
center of the loop as the reference, the voltage induced in AB lags by an angle , and that
induced in CD leads by , where  being the phase difference of the arriving signal with
respect to center of the loop. Considering  = 2 and difference in path length is ½ b
Cos. Then phase difference equivalent to path length is

 = 2. b Cos = .bCos

 2 

If the electric field at the center e(t) = E Cos t then voltages induced in two vertical
members will be :

e1 = aE Cos (t - b Cos )


e2 = aE Cos (t + b Cos )

Therefore resultant voltage at the output of the loop antenna will be
e = e1 – e2 = aE Cos (t - b Cos ) - aE Cos (t + b Cos )
 
Or
e = 2 aE. Sin t . Sin b Cos


Since “b” is very small in comparison to  then we could do approximation as

Sin b Cos = b Cos

 

Hence e = 2 E . ab Sin t. Cos



From the above formula we could make the following conclusions :

a) Output of the loop antenna is dependent of the incident angle “”. When the plane of
the loop antenna is perpendicular to the incident radio signal , i.e. when “” is 90
the output from the loop is zero and maximum when “” is 0

b) Output from the loop antenna will increase when the dimensions “a” and “b” will
increase. That is, output is directly proportional to the area of the loop. Accordingly,
if there are “N” turns in the loop then output voltage will also increase by “N” times.
Accordingly, a Loop Aerial may have two distinct positions as follows:
Null Position

153
If the plane of the loop is at right angle to the direction of the waves coming from the
radio beacon, the two sides of the loop will be at the same distance from the station. Thus
the signals will arrive at the same time without any phase difference, causing current
induced in both sides of the loop to be the same. However, since they are opposite in
direction, they will cancel each other producing no rf output from the antenna. This is the
null position of the loop aerial.

rf waves

Min. or no signal

Maximum Position

If the plane of the loop aerial becomes parallel to the direction of the waves, signals will
reach at both sides with maximum difference in phase. That will produce maximum
signal strength.

Max. phase difference

rf waves

Max. signal

The Null position is preferred in direction finding because:

# It is easy to determine a null than a maximum

# It is more accurate and sharper.

Sensing

There are always two null positions and two maximum positions for a loop antenna. The
loop aerial will always receive the same signal by turning it to 180 degrees. This may
create confusion about a station and there will be an ambiguity of 180 degrees regarding
the direction of the station.

154
The ambiguity is solved in the modern aircraft receivers by addition of another non-
directional antenna for sensing. The ADF receiver uses a rotating loop antenna, which
gives the figure of eight pattern, and a fixed sense antenna that gives an Omni-directional
pattern.

The figure of eight pattern from the loop antenna has positive (+) and negative (-) phase
as indicated below. The sensing antenna has omni-directional circular pattern with (+)
phase. The composite pattern therefore will be a cardioid as shown below.

Circular pattern
+ Cardioid
- +

Figure of eight pattern

When pilot tunes to an NDB station the ADF loop antenna automatically turns the
indicator towards the direction of the station with reference to magnetic north. This is
interpreted in the needle as the Radio Magnetic Bearing Indication.

1. 4 ADF DISPLAY
The Automatic Direction Finders (ADF) are manufactured with either analog or digital
display. In either case, in ADF receiver, bearing information is presented on either a
Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI) or the more complex Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI).

155
1.4.1 Relative Bearing Indicator :
This is the simplest type of display, shows the pilot the bearing of the tuned NDB
transmitter relative to the axis of the aircraft. The RBI is measured clockwise in degrees
(O - 360) from the nose of the aircraft. See Figure above.

1.4.2 Radio Magnetic Indicator:

This instrument displays the magnetic bearing of the NDB as well as the heading of the
aircraft. Therefore it is more convenient for the pilots. The figure above shows the
method of measuring RMI.

1.5 USE OF NDB

156
By using relative or magnetic bearings, NDB can be utilized for various navigation
purposes. Depending upon their use and where they are placed.

5.1 Homing: NDB is installed at the vicinity of the airport. Aircraft find their way to the
airport by tracking on to the beacon.

5.2 En-route: NDB is installed in between the airports on the prescribed routes.
Sometimes the beacon may be offset from the route. However, by using relative bearing a
position fix can be determined.

5.3 Holding: Such an NDB is called Locator Beacon and is placed a few miles away from
the airport area. Aircraft circle the beacon at different heights waiting for permission to
land.

5.4 Instrument approach: NDB is installed on the center line of the runway. Aircraft
make straight-in approach by using the NDB.

1.6 ADVANTAGES OF NDB

Although there are now several more accurate navigational systems available on other
radio frequency bands, the NDB is still used in every country in the world, and will
continue to do so for many more years to come. The reasons are obvious which can be
outlined as follows:

# Very simple air-borne and ground equipment

# Inexpensive to install and maintain
# Omni-directional information
# Any number of aircraft can use the same radio beacon
# Responsibility of accuracy mainly depends on airborne receiver
# Multi-purpose uses

1.7 LIMITATIONS OF NDB

Like any other equipment, NDB also have its own limitations. If an NDB is used under
certain condition pilots may get sometime large and potentially dangerous bearing errors.
Therefore, NDB cannot be considered as a precision aid and should be used with caution.
The principal factors liable to affect the NDB performance are as follows:

1.7.1.Quadrantal Error: Due metallic portions of the aircraft the radio waves get
deflected. Error produced by such a phenomenon is called quadrantal error because it is
maximum in all four quadrants. Quadrantal error differs for one aircraft to other, which
can be corrected by using the correction curve for that particular aircraft.

Max error Max error

157
 Max. error Max. error

A typical quadrantal error curve:

+10
+5
0 90 180 270 360
0
-5

-10

1.7.2. Coastal refraction:

In coastal areas the differing radio energy absorption properties of land and water result
in refraction of NDB transmissions. This causes error, known as coastal refraction. It is
most marked when transmission cross the coastline at an angle other than right angle and
when the transmitting station is located away from the coast. If the angle is less than 30
the error gets worst. Therefore NDB's in the coastal areas should be used with utmost
caution.

True bearing

NDB

158
 Apparent bearing
Land Sea

1.7.3. Night Effect:

At night, in addition to the interference that can occur due to transmissions from different
stations, it is possible to receive the ground wave signals contaminated by the sky wave
signals from the same station. This will give rise to bearing errors of varying magnitudes
depending on the heights of the ionized layers and the polarization of the signals on
arrival at the receiver. Night effect is especially most marked during the twilight hours
when skywave contamination can cause fading of signal strength, which will cause
wandering of the ADF bearing needle.

1.7.4. Mountain effect:

ADF receivers may be subject to errors caused by the reflection and refraction of the
transmitted radio waves in mountainous areas. High ground between the aircraft and the
beacon may increase the errors especially at low altitudes.

1.7.5. Static interference: All kinds of precipitation, including falling snow and
thunderstorm can cause static interference of varying intensity to the ADF receivers.
Precipitation reduces the effective range and accuracy of bearing information.
Thunderstorm can produce errors of considerable magnitude including even entirely false
indication. Indeed it is often said that in an area affected by thunderstorm activity, the
ADF bearing pointer would rather indicate the direction of thunder than the NDB station.

1.7.6. Lack of failure warning system:

Because of lack of failure warning devices on ADF receivers, failure of an NDB station
may produce wrong indication which will go unnoticed. Constant monitoring and
hearing of identification signal is the only way to detect the failure of the ground station.

1.8. SITING REQUIREMENTS

An NDB may be located on or adjacent to the airport. If it is used as an approach aid then
it should be located on the centerline of the runway. In any case, the siting criterion is
not very complicated. However, the following should be observed:

The NDB site should be smooth, level and well drained. The antenna system should not
penetrate the approach or transitional surfaces of the airport. There should be no metal
buildings, power lines or heavy metal fences around the NDB station at a distance closer
than 100 feet.

1.9. ANTENNA SYSTEM

159
NDB antennas are similar to normal LW/MW antennas. Because of dominating
transmission by the ground wave, vertically polarization is necessary. Hence vertical
wires or self-supporting structures are the solution. Since, NDB operating frequency is in
order of only a few hundred KHz, the practical length of an antenna must be much lower
than /4 wave length. For example, for an NDB station working on 250 KHz, its
wavelength will be:

 = 300/ 0.250 = 1200 meters

or /4 = 300 meters

To erect an antenna 300 meters tall is not only very expensive but also prohibited near the
airport areas due to possible obstruction to the aircraft. In practice much shorter antennas
(from 20 to 40 meters) are used. Because the antennas are relatively very short they are
always capacitive in nature. Therefore, to resonate a NDB antenna some tuning
inductance must be used. As described above, NDB antennas are vertically polarized.
Therefore the radiator is kept in vertical position from ground. The earth acts as an image
to the radiator. To increase the capacitance of the antenna, a ground radial system has to
be provided. A ground radial system, which is also called counterpoise, is a system of
copper wires buried approximately 15 cm below the surface of the ground. The size and
shape of the counterpoise will vary with the type of antenna system used. Normally the
wires are laid at 5 to 10from the center, just below the radiator. Fig. 2.1-M below
shows a typical ground counterpoise of an NDB.

1.9.1Radiation pattern
The polar diagram of an NDB antenna radiation is shown below. It is Omnidirectional in
the horizontal plane (H-plane) and directive in vertical plane (E-plane). Theoretically
there is maximum gain along the earth surface, but in practice we will have maximum
field strength at some angle from the surface due to losses in the ground wave
component.

Theoretical
Practical

(H-plane) (E-plane)

Polar diagram of NDB antenna

1.9.2 Types of antennas

A very simple, effective and widely used NDB antenna is T-antenna, which is illustrated
below. The vertical wire is, of course, the actual radiating element and the horizontal wire
provides additional antenna capacitance to the ground. To increase the capacitance of the
antenna three or more parallel wires are used in the horizontal portion. The normal height
of T-antenna is approximately 20 to 30 meters. Sometimes an inverted L-antenna is also
used. However, it is more sensitive to unwanted horizontally polarized electric field
component compared to a T-antenna.

160
The self-supporting mast or a mast radiator is also a popular NDB antenna. The normal
height of such an antenna is 20 to 40 meters. Top-loaded insulated guy wires increase
capacitance. Such an antenna is more efficient than a T-antenna and therefore widely
used for long range NDB as well as MW/LW broadcasting.

For locator beacons or for the beacons used for approach purposes, since the coverage
required is very small, relatively short antennas are used. One of such antennas is
Umbrella type. It is a small self supporting mast radiator with several top-loading
elements like an umbrella. The top loading increases the capacitance of the antenna,
hence it becomes easier to resonate. The normal height of an umbrella antenna is not
more than 12 meters.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Top loading

Radiator

NDB
shelter
20 m

12.5 m 30 m 12.5 m
GND

(A TYPICAL T-ANTENNA)

(Fig. 2.1-L)

161
 Copper wire
buried 15 cm under ground

5 to 10
degrees

(EARTH RADIALS OF NDB ANTENNA)

Mast radiator

Top capacitance

10m

Top loading

25m

wooden pole antenna

insulator

12m

GND GND
( A TYPICAL MAST RADIATOR)
(UMBRELLA ANTENNA)

162
1.10 FACTORS AFFECTING NDB ANTENNA

The radiation resistance of an NDB antenna is very low and equals to only a few ohms. If
it were possible to match a source of radio frequency energy so that all the power is
dissipated into the radiation resistance then these antennas would have been equally
efficient as one with much higher radiation resistance. However, in practice the total loss
resistance of the antenna is much higher than the radiation resistance. Therefore, most of
the energy gets wasted and the efficiency of the antenna becomes too low.

There are several factors that affect the efficiency of an NDB antenna. These are briefly
described below:

1.10.1 Antenna Reactance :

NDB antennas are capacitive in nature. The capacitance of antenna is important to know
because it provides the basis for knowing the amount of tuning inductance required for
resonance.

Since, for resonance : L =1/ C

Smaller capacitance will need bigger inductance, causing more loss of energy in the
conductor. Thus the capacitance of an antenna should be as higher as possible. This can
be done either by increase in height of the antenna, or simply by additional top-loading.
The second option is more economical and favourable. The capacitance of an electrically
short vertical antenna may be calculated by the use of well known transmission line
formula. For a simple vertical radiator (insulated from ground) having a height “H” from
the ground and diameter “D”, its capacitance can be roughly calculated from the
following formula:

C = 5766 X Tan θ
Log 2H
D
Here C in pF, H and D in feet, and θ- electrical length of the radiator in degree.
The following table gives approximate values of a vertical radiator without top loading in
pF. From this it is evident that antenna capacitance is dependent of vertical height and
diameter of the radiator element.

Antenna diameter in inches

Antenna Height (ft) 0.1 1 12
50 90 120 184
75 131 170 254
100 167 219 308
150 245 314 451
200 322 428 654
250 399 504 795

163
Where antenna length is desirable to keep short, top loading is used. This greatly
increases the capacitance of the antenna thereby reducing the requirement of large
antenna tuning inductance. Additional capacitance generated by top loading in a T-
antenna can be calculated as follows:

C = 5766 X Tan (0.07315L)

Log 4H
D

Here C in pF, H, L and D in feet. L – Length of top loading wire.

1.10.2 Radiation resistance :

The base radiation resistance is another important characteristic. It is a characteristic,

which has a direct relationship to the radiated power and consequently to effective range
of the NDB. Because the NDB antennas are electrically very short (less than 30), the
current distribution along the antenna is linear and radiation resistance may be calculated
to reasonably close approximation by the formula:

R = 2 /328 , where  is the electric length of the antenna in degree.  = 360

With the above formula it is evident that by increasing the length of the antenna its
radiation resistance increases, and hence the efficiency increases. See following table.

Radiation resistance in Ohms

Antenna Height (ft) 200KHz 300KHz 450KHz
50 0.041 0.092 0.206
75 0.092 0.207 0.466
100 0.163 0.367 0.825
150 0.367 0.825 1.857
200 0.657 1.467 3.300
250 1.020 2.295 5.164

1.10.3 Antenna Q :

Antenna system Q is the ratio of the reactance of the antenna capacitance to the antenna
total system resistance. It is always preferable to keep the Q as low as possible to reduce
losses in the antenna system.

Since Q = Xc/R ,

Q can be reduced by increasing capacitance of the aerial. I.e. by addition of top loading
or by increasing the height. NDB transmitters are usually required to have a bandwidth of
at least 2X1020 Hz. 1020 Hz being the max ident frequency.

164
Bandwidth = f/Q

Therefore, at 300 KHz Q = 300,000/2040 = 147

Which means a Q of 147 at 300 KHz NDB station will insure that the ident modulation
will be radiated without any distortion. If bandwidth of the antenna is low ( Q is high)
then instead of 1020 Hz ident modulation of 400Hz should be used.

1.10.4 Expected range

NDB antenna should be designed in such a way that it should radiate reliable signal up to
the required coverage area. ICAO has specified that in the coverage areas the field
strength should not be less than 70V per meter. Between the latitudes 30N and 30S
field strength of 120V may be required.

1.10.5 Voltage at the antenna base

The peak voltage at the antenna base for usual NDB is :

V = IA x XC Where IA - Antenna current and XC - Antenna reactance.

Example: For an NDB with T-antenna top loaded with three wires and 50 ft high and
100 watts transmitter C = 581 pF and antenna Current IA = say 7 Amps
at 200KHz XC = 1370 Ohm
then V = 9590 Volts

For the same antenna without additional top loading, C = 90 pF  XC = 8842 

Hence V = 61,894V

This amount of voltage is difficult to contain and would probably cause considerable
difficulty due to corona, flashover, etc. Therefore the antenna capacitance of an NDB
antenna should be kept around 500 pF or more.

Conclusion : To increase the efficiency and to improve the performance of an NDB

antenna its capacitance should be as high as possible and should be more than 500pF
at the lower frequencies. This can be achieved either by increasing the height of the
antenna or by providing additional top loading.

165
1.11 TRANSMITTING EQUIPMENT

The NDB transmitter is relatively very simple equipment. The RF carrier is amplitude
modulated either by 400Hz or by 1020 Hz tone, which is coded with two to three letters
station identification in Morse Code. A simplified block diagram is shown in Fig. 2.1-Q:

Antenna
IDENT TRANSMITT
UNIT ER UNIT

MONITOR

A monitor equipment monitors the performance of the radiating signal. Radiation is done
in A0/A2 mode. Depending upon the use an NDB could be classifies as one of the
following:

High Power: usable range extends up to 400 NM. Radio beacons of this type are
considered as en-route or homing radio navigational aids. The transmitter output is
normally 100W to 5KW.
Low Power : usable range extends from 10 NM to 25 NM. Radio beacons of this type are
called locators and are normally used for approach or holding purposes. The transmitter
output power is kept below 100W.

1.12 MONITORING AND CALIBRATION

Normally the NDB beacon has two transmitters and two monitors, i.e. dual equipment
system. Monitor analyzes the radiated signal and checks the following:

# Gives alarm if the transmitted carrier power is reduced more than 3dB. i.e. 50%

# Gives alarm if the identification signal is removed or continuous by any reason.

# Gives alarm if the monitor itself becomes faulty.

When one of the above conditions occurs the monitor unit commands the changeover unit
to shut sown the faulty transmitter and to start the standby. The NDB stations are

166
normally unattended, which are monitored for a failure by the technicians through radio.
To distinguish main transmitter from standby normally the main is modulated with 1020
Hz and the standby with 400Hz.

CHAPTER - 5
SURVEILLANCE RADAR
(Radar)

5. RADAR THEORY

5.1. Introduction

The word RADAR was originally derived from the descriptive phrase "Radio Detection
And Ranging". Although this phrase has for a long time been used, it seems to be an
incomplete description of what Radar can be used for. The present-day RADAR can
provide much more information than finding the range of an object. The fundamental
principal of all Radar systems is to calculate the distance of an object from the Radar site
by measuring the time a pulse of radio energy takes to travel to the object and back again.
The importance of radar in aviation is that it can provide information about the precise
position and velocity of the aircraft. In addition, the more complex equipment can supply
other useful data, such as, velocity, identification, height, etc. Radar can contribute to the

167
safety and surveillance of the aircraft in thick density areas. For example, near an
aerodrome, where the air traffic density is very high, radar may be used to sequence the
aircraft onto final approach as a final approach aid, and for separation soon after take off.
There are two basic types of Radar system:

 Primary Radar - A system, which uses reflected radio, signals.

 Secondary Radar - A system in which radio signals transmitted from the
Radar station on the ground initiates the transmission
of radio signals from another station, e.g. aircraft.

A basic primary radar system is illustrated in fig.1-1 below. Pulses of radar energy are
transmitted in the desired direction. Some of the pulses of energy may encounter the
target. A portion of this energy is reflected by the target and returns back to radar
receiver. Information about this target is then extracted and displayed in a suitable display
system such as radarscope.

Antenna
Target

Tx. Rx.

Display (Radarscope)

(Fig.5.1: Basic block diagram of Radar)

The basic principal of secondary radar is much the same but there is one important
difference which should be clearly understood. While primary radar employs reflected
pulses, the secondary radar requires the object to transmit its own energy. The secondary
radar systems have become more complicated than the primary radar and now they are
capable of providing much more information than the primary radar. Both primary and
secondary radar shall be dealt with in detail in the following paragraphs. Some of the
terminologies being used in Radar are:

Radar Energy: part of radio energy spectrum between about 1mm and 100cm which is
transmitted in a series of pulses of fairly short duration in the region of 5 µs.

Radar Echo: visual indication on a display of a signal reflected from an object in the
Primary Radar.

168
Radar Response: visual indication on a display of a Radar signal transmitted from an
object in reply to an interrogation in the Secondary Radar.

Radar Blip: a collective term meaning either Echo or Response.

Use of Radar in Civil Aviation

Surveillance is one of the most important elements in aviation. Through surveillance an

air traffic control post can monitor the movements of aircraft as well as can provide
guidance and avert accidents. In aviation surveillance is done in two ways:

a) Through position reporting

b) Through Radar.

Providing surveillance through position reporting by aircraft is highly unreliable and

could cause misunderstandings resulting in fatal accidents. Therefore, radar has been
widely used in civil aviation as one of the major surveillance tools for many years now.
The prime purpose is to detect the aircraft flying within the controlled as well as
uncontrolled airspace for traffic separation and control, and also for providing guidance
during landing. Some of the uses of radar in aviation are as follows:

 ASR (Airport Surveillance Radar)

It is a medium to low power primary radar installed for surveillance and traffic
separation in the airport terminal area. It works in S-band with pulse power up to 1
MW and antenna revolution around 15rpm.

 PAR (Precision Approach Radar)

With this radar an air traffic controller guides the approaching aircraft to take the
correct approach to the airport. PAR works in the band 9000 - 9180 MHz and
normally of low power.

 ARSR (Air Route Surveillance Radar)

As the name denotes, ARSR works as an air-route surveillance radar with relatively
high coverage range of 200 to 300NM. It works in L-band (1250 - 1350 MHz) and
normally placed in the air routes with high traffic density.
5.2 PRIMARY RADAR

5.2.1 General Block Diagramme

The purpose of primary radar system in aviation is to present a continuous supply of

useful information to the air traffic controllers on the ground regarding the range, bearing
and, in some cases, elevation of the aircraft within the operational range of the radar
system. Thus, every primary radar system must be capable of:

169
  Transmission
 Reception
 Display

A basic block diagram of the primary radar is shown in Fig.1-2. Trigger Unit, which is
also called as the Master Timer, provides triggering signals in the form of a series of very
brief electrical pulses at a regular interval. Each pulse fires the modulator to send a high
power high voltage pulses to the transmitter. The duration of square wave pulses from the
modulator is determined by certain design characteristics in the modulator. The beginning
of each pulse from the modulator unit switches on the transmitter and the end of the same
pulse switches it off. Thus the modulator pulses represent a kind of on/off switch for the
transmitter.

Antenna

Antenna
T/R
movement control SW
Tx. RF Energy Pulses

High Gain
Transmitter Low
Noise
Receiver

Modulator

Radar
Switching
Time pulses
Trigger Unit Base Displa Signal
Unit y
from Receiver
Unit
Trigger pulses

Sync signal
from Trigger unit

Reference Data

170
 (FIG. 5.2 Basic primary radar block diagram)
In primary radar, since the incoming signal has to return back from a long distance, high
transmission power is desirable so as the received signal is not too weak to be detected.
Therefore, the Transmitter unit is consists of a Magnetron or Klystron. For low powered
systems requiring smaller coverage, solid state transmitters are also used. As seen from
the block diagram, the transmitter is radiating only for a very brief duration - usually in
the region of millionth of a second. The output of the transmitter is a series of pulses of
radar energy. Each pulse thus produced is delivered to the aerial. Electromagnetic energy
from the transmitter is radiated from the aerial at a regular interval. The radiated energy is
confined within a fairly narrow beam. The receiving aerial should be sensitive within the
same fairly narrow angle so that echoes from the objects illuminated by the transmitter
can also be detected. Therefore, normally same aerial is employed for both transmission
and reception. However, because the receiver has to be very sensitive, it must be
protected each time a pulse of high power is transmitted by the transmitter. This is
achieved by isolating the receiver during transmission with a Transmit/Receive Switch.

If the radar system has to search an appreciable sector with a narrow beam, then the beam
must be moved about in that sector. One way of achieving this movement, which is
referred to as "scanning", is to rotate the whole aerial unit. Therefore, the radar antenna is
being rotated at a constant speed.

The signal reception block detects energy reflected from the objects within the
operational range of the radar system. The received signal, being very weak, is first of all
amplified and suitably treated by the high gain low noise receiver prior to sending it to
the display unit. The received signal is displayed on the screen of the display unit. As
range is calculated by measuring the time between transmission and reception, it is
necessary to synchronize the start of the time base with the beginning of transmitted
pulse. This is done in the time base unit upon information from the trigger unit. The
reference data is added in order to isolate the unwanted echoes.

To summarize, while the system is transmitting the reception block is inoperative and
during reception the transmitter block is isolated. The aerial is connected alternatively
from transmitter to receiver by the transmit/receive switch. Information from trigger unit
starts the whole cycle of operation in the transmission block and is also used to
synchronize the display block. Finally, the display unit gives the precise information on
target.

171
5.2.2 Radiation Pattern

Primary radar produces a very narrow beamwidth to the tune of 2- 3. A beamwidth is
defined as the angle between the two directions that pass through the power radiation
pattern at the half maximum point.

A coverage diagramme is a general indication of the performance of a specific radar

system and is one of the ways manufacturers summarize the anticipated performance of
their radar system. The vertical coverage diagramme of a radar system takes into account
the inherent design factors and general environmental factors, such as effect of ground,
curvature of earth, atmospheric refraction, absorption due to gas and vapour, etc. The
angle of tilt of the aerial and its height above the ground will have a considerable
influence on performance of radar. In civil aviation, aircraft are unlikely to exceed a
given altitude. For the tracking of an approaching aircraft less energy will be required
from the ground radar as the range decreases. This knowledge to used to determine a
special vertical radiation pattern for the radar aerial. Fig 1-3 indicates that as the aircraft
flies towards the radar at constant altitude "h", the range is equal to "h Cosec ".

 Line of flight
h Cosec 
h

Radar
(Fig.5-3)

To maintain this relationship the radiation pattern should be such that the signal strength
is caused to vary as "Cosec " and power as "Cosec2 " since (P  E2 ). Figure 1-4
illustrates a typical vertical coverage diagramme of radar.

40 20 10 9 8 7 6 5

4

3
2
1

0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 NM

172
 (Fig 5-4 Vertical coverage diagram of radar)

The actual coverage diagramme of a radar system will not be quite the same as above due
to modifications by hills, valleys, etc. It is therefore, necessary to assess the actual
coverage using an aircraft by flying a series of predetermined tracks at various heights
and plotting the actual coverage map. From the flight check an actual coverage
diagramme is prepared and this information determines the extent to which a particular
radar system can be used.

The operational requirements of a radar system may require a narrow beam for accurate
tracking of aircraft, or they may require a broad beam for search purposes. Therefore, for
a given beamwidth the longer the wavelength the larger must be the aerial system. The
problem of mechanical design and the question of cost tend to favour smaller aerial
systems and, hence, shorter operational wave lengths desirable.

5.2.3 Antenna System

An aerial is that part of radar system which is designed to radiate and/or receive
electromagnetic energy. If a narrow beam is required the aerial dimensions must be large
in relation to the wavelength. A narrow beam in azimuth is combined with a wide beam
in elevation is the usual requirement in air traffic control. Such a combination is obtained
by use of one or both of the following:

 Linear arrays
 Shaped reflector

A linear array consists of a number of sources of electromagnetic radiation equally

spaced along a straight line. These sources maybe either the "Dipoles" or "Slots in a
waveguide". At any point in space the electromagnetic radiation from these sources have
phase differences causing additions and subtractions of field strengths. This property is
being used to design an aerial with specific field pattern and strength. In radar antenna
use of reflector is mandatory which improves the pattern in the forward direction by
reducing wastage in the backward direction. The basic shape of the reflector used in radar
system is normally a parabola. Parabola is one of the curves most used in science because
it posses useful geometric properties. A parabola reflector is illustrated in Fig 1-5.

A B

C D

Axis
F

173
 (Fig. 5-5 Properties of Parabola)
Out of many properties of parabola, the two most useful for antenna design are the
following:

 All the rays generated from the focal point or focus "F" will strike
the parabola and reflect back as the parallel rays. Thus AB will be
parallel to CD and so on.

 Another property of parabola is that all rays, which strike the reflector, have
equal path length from a perpendicular to the axis of parabola to its focus. .
For example, path length BAF= path length DCF.

Therefore, echo signals at focus will arrive in phase and add together producing large
signal strength. Many radar reflectors are based on parabolic section.

5. 2.4 Choice of wavelength and factors affecting radiation

For a variety of reasons much of the electromagnetic spectrum is not suitable in air traffic
control radar. On a cloudy day the use of any part of the visible spectrum would be very
restricted due to absorption factor, whilst the use of X-ray band is dangerous to life and
limb. The long wavelength in "wireless region" could be used but would require
enormous aerial system if any kind of directivity is required. Therefore, choice of
wavelength from  =1mm to  = 100cm is being of interest and is considered for radar
operation. For better performance, it is preferable that the number of cycles of radio
energy transmitted during the time of pulse length should be as high as possible. A 1 s
wavelength at 3GHz contains 3000 cycles, whereas at 300 MHz would contain only 300
cycles.

When a radar system has to be designed for a specific role the relative importance of the
factors which affect the choice of the wavelength must be carefully examined. A factor,
which may be important in one type of radar system, may be of relatively less importance
in another. Compromises have to be therefore made. While choosing a wavelength for a
particular radar installation, the following factors should be taken into consideration:

5.2.4.1 Range

From the radar equation, explained in detail in paragraph 2.5 and shown hereunder, it is
evident that there is no simple dependence of maximum radar range upon wavelength .
However, the maximum range seems to be possible to increase by increasing 

Rmax = 4 Pt G2 2 s
64  3 Pr

174
On the other hand, if the aerial gain G, in the above equation is substituted, the Maximum
range can be written as:

G = Ar 4 or
2

Rmax = 4 Pt Ar2 s
4 2 Pr

From above it is seen that maximum range can be obtained by making the wavelength as
small as possible. The above two equations are contradictory to each other. This is
because the maximum range is not only dependent on  itself. Therefore, maximum
range is not usually the prime consideration while determining the frequency for a
particular radar installation.

5.2.4.2 Effect of frequency on vertical coverage

The free space vertical radiation pattern of an aerial system is considerably modified
when the aerial system is used near the ground. The shape of vertical radiation pattern is
partly dependent upon the wavelength  of the transmitted energy in that:

 The pattern has more lobes with the shorter wavelength.

 The ground coverage is better with the shorter wavelength.

Longer wavelength Shorter wavelength

(Fig. 5-6 Radiation characteristics of radio waves)

The relationship between wavelength and coverage is given in the equation:

 = /H
Where the radiation angle  is in radian,  is the wavelength and H is the height of the
antenna above ground. From above it is evident that the shorter the wavelength smaller
the angle of radiation and better the coverage.

5.2.4.3 Atmospheric effects

When electromagnetic energy is propagated through the atmosphere some loss of energy
may occur due to absorption by molecules, gases and vapour present in the atmosphere.
Some energy may also be absorbed and/or scattered by 'particles' such as raindrops,
snow, etc. Because of this not only is a radar signal attenuated but unwanted 'masking'
effects may also appear on the display screen due to scattered energy. All these effects
are dependent upon the wavelength and explained below.

175
a) Attenuation by Gases and vapour.
The process of absorption is very much dependent on the molecular structure of the gas
or vapour. For a given gas or vapour the absorption has peaks at certain values of .
Oxygen can heavily attenuate electromagnetic energy at wavelengths between 0.25 cm to
0.5cm. At wavelengths longer than 0.5cm the attenuation due to oxygen is very small.
Similarly, for water vapour there is considerable absorption of electromagnetic energy at
wavelengths shorter than about 0.5 cm. However, at wavelengths longer than 2 cm
(15GHz) the attenuation due to water vapour is very small. Therefore, attenuation by
gases and vapour is not a threat in radar.

b) Attenuation by Raindrops
When electromagnetic energy encounters a raindrop, part of the energy may be absorbed
and part may be scattered. The incident energy thus suffers attenuation, which is
dependent upon the wavelength of the radiation and the drop size. Since the drop size
distribution varies in a known manner with the intensity of precipitation (i.e. with 'how
hard it is raining'), theoretically it is possible to calculate signal attenuation in terms of
the precipitation rate. For wavelengths longer than 10 cm (3 GHz) the attenuation due to
raindrops is negligible. For wavelengths from 10cm to 4cm (7.5 GHz to 3 GHz)
attenuation is significant only during heavy rains. The wavelengths shorter than 4-cm
attenuation becomes significant in temperate climates whereas, in wavelengths shorter
than 1 cm (30 GHz) attenuation by raindrops is a serious problem even in quite light rain.

One conclusion which could be drawn from the above is that wavelengths shorter than 3
cm (10 GHz)should not be used for long range radar systems due to heavy absorption by
gas and water vapour or drops.

c)Attenuation by Cloud and Fog

In cloud and fog the 'drop' sizes are very small compared to rain. Calculations show that
the attenuation due to cloud or fog is proportional to the mass of water present in per unit
volume. Therefore, more dense the fog (or cloud) more signal attenuation. It has been
found that the attenuation due to cloud and fog becomes a serious problem only when
wavelength used is shorter than 1cm (30 GHz).

d) Attenuation by Hail
For wavelengths shorter than 1-cm, attenuation by hailstones is small compared with that
caused by rain of equivalent water content. For wavelengths longer than 1 cm the
attenuation by hail is comparable with that caused by rain of equivalent water content.

e)Echoes from Rain

Some electromagnetic energy may be scattered by raindrops. Part of the scattered energy
may be received in the radar receiver and may show up on the display. If the radar system
has been designed to provide information on storms. etc., this is desirable, but if the radar
system has been designed to give information on aircraft movements, the masking effect
of the rain echoes could be very serious.
As a general rule the shorter the wavelength the greater will be the reflection from rain
drops and more masking effect.

176
The masking effect of echoes from rain may be greatly reduced by the use of circularly
polarized radar energy.

f) Supper refraction

The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere which, even ignoring phenomena such as cloud
and fog, is not uniform in all its properties. One of these non-uniform properties is the
refractive index. The decrease in refractive index with increasing altitude causes the path
of a beam of radar energy to bend. Usually the change in refractive index is small and the
bending of the radar beam is slight enabling the radar system to see a little beyond the
geometric horizon. Under certain circumstances the refractive index of the atmosphere
decreases with height more rapidly than is usual and a more marked downward bending
of the radar beam occurs. For the shorter-wavelength radar this can lead to strikingly
improved low coverage at long range.

Line of horizon

Refraction of waves

Earth's curvature extended coverage

Radar

(Fig. 5-7 Extension of radar range due to refraction)

In exceptional circumstances the radar energy may be so concentrated in paths following

the earth's curvature that echoes may be received from objects at ranges far in excess of
those allowed for in the radar design. Under these atmospheric circumstances the radar
energy is trapped in atmospheric ducts and its behaviour is similar to what it would be in
a waveguide. For a particular height of atmospheric duct. Super refraction can occur at
particular wavelengths of transmission. The most common duct heights seldom exceed 10
metres and the centimetric wavelengths are the ones most affected. Super-refraction is
rarely experienced when using  greater than 10 meters.

Super-refraction helps production of echoes from low-lying ground or low-flying aircraft,

which would not usually be detected by the radar. It also helps in reception of echoes
from ranges in excess of those allowed for in the radar design.

5.2.5 Radar equation and radar range

177
5.2.5.1 Free space Radar equation

The ground radar systems being used in civil aviation have been designed for various
specific purposes. Some of them are used for short distances whereas others for great
distances. One of the important factors is to establish the maximum range. Maximum
range is dependent on the characteristics of the aerial, transmitter, receiver and the size of
the target. Ignoring for the time being the effect of ground on the radiation pattern from
the aerial, let's examine the relationship between maximum range and the following
parameters:

 R - Range of the aircraft in meters

 Pt - Transmitted power in Watts
 G - Gain of the aerial
 S - Equivalent echoing area of the aircraft
 Ar - Effective absorbing area of the aerial while receiving
 Pr - Received power in Watts

The transmitted power is the power that is transmitted for the duration of the pulse. In
radar terminology this is known as the "peak power". During the period between pulses
the transmitter is not generating any power. The "effective mean power" will be
somewhat much smaller than the peak power and can be expressed as follows:

Mean power = Pt X Pulse length = Pt x Pulse Length x PRF

PRI
Therefore, for example, if the peak power Pt is 1MW, Pulse length is 1 µs and pulse
repetition frequency (PRF) is 500/sec then the mean power will be:

Mean power = 1x106 x1x10-6 x500 = 500W

If we first of all assume that the transmitted power is radiated equally in all directions, it
will be spread out progressively over great areas as it travels further away from the
transmitter. As the received power density is inversely proportional to the distance from
the transmitter, the power density intercepted at a distance R at the target will be:
Pt W/m2
4 R 2

Now if the aerial is designed to concentrate its power in one direction only, the power
density will be increased by an amount G, the gain of the antenna. Therefore the density
intercepted at R will be:

Pt x G W/m2
4 R2

178
 

(Fig. 5-8 Power density at interception)

In Fig. 1-8 an aircraft at range R meters intercepts the transmitted power. Some of its
energy is reflected back to the radar on the ground. The amount of reflection will depend
upon the particular echoing characteristics of the aircraft and a factor equivalent to
echoing area; s. Therefore, the power Pd radiated from the aircraft is given by the
formula:

Pd = Pt x GxS Watts

4R2

As the power travels towards the radar site it is further attenuated according to the inverse
square law. Therefore power density intercepted by the radar aerial Pa will be:

Pa = Pt xGxS W/m2

16R4

The power actually fed into the receiver, Pr will be dependent upon the effective
absorbing area, Ar of the aerial. Therefore:

Pr = Pt xGxSx Ar W/m2

16  2 R4

5.2.5.2 Radar Range

Transposing the above we could get the equation for the radar range as follows:

R= 4 PtxGxSx Ar meters

16  2 Pr

179
From the above equation it is evident that the maximum range of a primary radar is
dependent on several factors, such as transmitted power, gain of the antenna, area of the
reflecting object, effective absorbing area of the radar antenna and received power.
However, one factor that will affect more than others is the capability of the radar
receiver to receive the smallest possible signal Pr that can be identified and accepted by
its threshold. If the other parameters are considered to be constant then the formula can
be written as

Rmax = k. 4 Pt

From the above it is seen that if it is required to double the maximum range by increasing
the transmitted power, the increase has to be 16 fold, which is not an ideal solution.
Conversely, the effect of doubling the transmitted power would be to increase the
maximum range by just 4…2…..times. i.e.1.19 times, which is an increase of only 19%.

Further, the absorbing area of the antenna can be written as: Ar = G 2 / 4

Therefore the radar equation can be now written as:

Rmax = 4 Pt G2 2 s
64 3 Pr

The above equation shows that for the fixed wavelength , the maximum range varies as
the square root of the antenna gain, G. Therefore, if it is required to increase the range of
the radar it is more practical to increase the antenna gain than to increase the transmitter
power. Antenna gain can be easily increased by using special techniques available in
modern-day antenna engineering.

5.2.6 Aircraft echoing area

An aircraft provides a complete reflecting surface, which intercepts a small part of the
radar beam cross section. Echoes from the same type of aircraft may differ from each
other depending upon the position of the aircraft during the strike of the incoming signal.
An aircraft in flight produces fluctuating echoes of a random nature. The average of these
is the "equivalent echoing area". In other terms, the equivalent echoing area of an aircraft
is defined as the cross section area of the transmitted power beam which must be
intercepted to re-radiate the power which when received by the antenna is equivalent to
the actual energy reflected from the aircraft. It is a convenient way of providing a figure
for calculating various quantities, such as the maximum range of a radar installation. The
ICAO standard target is 15 m2 , but the equivalent echoing area can be as small as 1 m2
for medium size jet aircraft head on or as large as 1000 m2 for a wide bodied aircraft for
full length. Most aircraft are of a complex shape presenting reflecting surfaces, which can
reflect differently with different aircraft attitudes. It has been shown, as a result of
experiments, that for different wavelengths the same aircraft can give widely varying
echoes.
2.6 Pulse length and pulse recurrent frequency

180
As described earlier, the modulator unit produces square wave pulses Fig.1-9B, which
when modulates the transmitter it produces the pulses of radio energy Fig.1-9A with the
same length and at the same pulse recurrent frequency.

(A)

Pulse Length Pulse Recurrence Interval

(PRI)

(B)

(Fig. 5-9 Tx pulse characteristics)

The time interval between pulses is known as the Pulse Recurrence Interval (PRI). The
rate at which the pulses occur is known as Pulse Recurrence Frequency (PRF)

Thus, PRF = 1
PRI

For example, a PRF of 500 pulses per second would result a PRI of 2000 µs. The
duration of pulses is usually known as Pulse Length, although the term Pulse Width is
also used. The actual duration depends upon the specifications and design of the radar
system and for Air Traffic Radar it is fixed somewhere between 0.05µs and 10µs.
Generally an increase in pulse length improves the chances of detecting an aircraft, but
by increasing the pulse length the range may decrease.

5.2.7 Minimum and Maximum Range

Minimum Range
The radar energy received by the radar aerial has had to travel a distance equal to twice
the range, i.e. 2R.

Since Time T = 2R Where V being the velocity of light, 300,000 Km/Sec.

V
Then, R = TV, Hence, for pulse width of T= 1µs, R = 150 meters.
2

The minimum range of a radar installation is determined by the period between the
beginning of the transmission of the pulse and the earliest time that its return can be
registered. Two factors affect this time:

181
1. The pulse width - It is not possible to start measuring the time until the whole pulse
has been transmitted. Hence width of a pulse determines the minimum range. For
example, for a pulse width of 1µs the minimum range is 150m.

2. Receiver restoration time - The time the receiver takes to recover to normal after
transmission has taken place, which in turn, depends upon the design of a particular
equipment.

Maximum range

In Radar the next energy pulse is only transmitted after the first one has traveled to its
maximum range and had time to travel back. Therefore, the time interval between two
pulses will limit the theoretical maximum range of radar.

Since R = TV and T=1 Hence, R = V Hence R  1/PRF

2 PRF 2PRF

1. From the above it is seen that the maximum range attainable by a radar is inversely
proportional to the pulse repetition frequency. More the pulse repetition frequency
lesser the maximum attainable range by a radar installation.

2. For a particular radar system design, Pt, G and Ar will remain constant. Therefore,
from the radar range equation shown hereunder it is evident that the maximum range
of a radar installation will depend upon received reflected power Pr by the radar
antenna. Pr is the smallest power that can be identified as a signal after passing
through the receiver to the display.

R= 4 PtxGxSx Ar meters
16  2 Pr

Identification of a signal maybe hampered by the presence of noise. At low frequencies

the noise may arrive at the aerial mixed with the signal. However, it is the internal
receiver noise that matters most. As the receiver itself generates the receiver internal
noise, Pr will depend upon the quality of the receiver and will be responsible for
maximum range of a particular radar for its transmitted power and aerial system. To
combat the problem of receiver noise "parametric amplifiers" are commonly used in radar
receivers. Research on low noise receivers continues in an attempt to achieve further
improvements.

182
5.2.8 Display
The information made available by the radar system must be visually displayed in a way
which makes interpretation as easy as possible. Displaying the echoes using cathode ray
tube (CRT) is fairly common and most used in air traffic control radar systems. An echo
is displayed by the radar system appears as a bright spot on the screen of the CRT. This
information will not mean much to an air traffic controller if the rest of the screen is
blank. Therefore, useful reference data, such as range marks, bearing marks, video map,
etc. are available on the screen to find out the position of a target.
0 Range in NM

315 45

270 90

225 135

180
(Fig. 5-10 Display CRT Graticules)
5.2.9 Summary
The accuracy of a radar system is gauged by its ability to indicate the true position
(range and bearing) of the target on the display. The overall accuracy depends upon
the design of equipment with better synchronization and calibration. It should be
noted that accuracy is not only related to good resolution of the display. A display
with good resolution may be incorrect, whereas an accurate display may have poor
resolution. Similarly, the range of the radar is dependent on several factors. The
following Fig.1- 11 summarizes what has been stated in the previous paragraphs.
RADAR RANGE

Rx.Efficiency Antenna Gain No. of Strikes Tx. Power

Pulse Width

PRF RADAR DISPLAY

Beamwidth Scanner Rate

183
 Beam Width PRF Spot Size Scanner
Rate Pulse Width

(FIG. 5-11 Summary of radar range & display)

5.3 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR)

5.3.1 General Introduction

Secondary radar is described in civil aviation as the Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR).
It consists of a ground-based transmitter/Receiver, which works in conjunction with
airborne Transmitter/Receiver. The ground-based unit triggers the airborne transponder
into operation when particular conditions are satisfied. SSR is used all over the world by
civil aviation in only two frequencies. The ground-based transmitter, known as the
"interrogator", transmits on 1030 MHz to the aircraft transceiver, known as
"transponder". The transponder, having received the ground transmission on 1030 MHz,
transmits back its information on 1090 MHz. The ground receiver then accepts
information on 1090MHz providing air traffic controllers with vital statistics about the
flight of the aircraft.

Rx/Tx
1030/1090
MHz

Antenna

Tx/Rx
1030/1090
MHz

(Fig. 5-12 Basic SSR Principal)

5.3.2 Comparison with Primary Radar

Primary Radar depends on the reflection of radar signal and operates on one frequency.
As a consequence reflections from ground, buildings, precipitations, etc., will be fed to

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the display along with aircraft echoes. This can cause the display to be cluttered with
unwanted signals. Also, the power output of a primary radar must be sufficiently high to
allow for the two-way path and for the losses on reflection. Nevertheless, primary radar is
self-contained and does not require equipment to be installed in the aircraft.
Secondary radar is independent of aircraft echoeing area. In fact, because the airborne
equipment has its own transmitter, much less power is needed than in primary radar for
the same operational range. Also, as the airborne responses of the secondary radar is on a
different frequency to the ground transmission, ground clutter and other unwanted echoes
are not accepted for presentation. With suitable coding, secondary radar can provide
aircraft indentification without aircraft maneuvres and thus with much less use of other
communication system. The coding system may also be used to send printed information
from aircraft to air-traffic controllers on ground. Unfortunately, the coding system relies
on pulses being either “present” or “not present” and therefore weak signals cannot be
tolerated as they may generate false information. Secondary radar also suffers from the
disadvantage that it requires each aircraft to carry a transponder.

5.3.3 The Coding System

The method used in SSR for communicating information consists of the transmission and
reception of pulses. The ground interrogator first transmits a pair of pulses with definite
width and spacing to the aircraft. Depending upon various modes used in radar for
various purposes, the pulse spacing could vary from each other. In secondary radar it is
necessary to design the system to reduce the chances of transponder operation as a result
of receiving spurious pulses. For this reason, two pulses with a known spacing are
transmitted from the interrogator. The ground based interrogation pulses are produced
differently depending upon “mode of operation” of the secondary radar.

0.8  0.1s

Mode-A
8  0.2s

Mode-B
17  0.2s

Mode-C
21  0.2s

Mode-D
25  0.2s

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 (Fig. 5.13 Various modes of SR and their pulse spacing)
After receiving the interrogation pair of pulses from the ground interrogator, the aircraft
transponder transmits back a reply to ground. In the process of replying, the aircraft
transponder does not reply to any other signals at least for the duration of the reply pulses
train. It is known as receiver dead time of radar transponder. This dead time does not last
more than 125 microseconds after transmission of the last reply pulses. The aircraft
transponder recognizes the interrogation mode by the time spacing between two pulses.
The transponder reply, as illustrated below, consists of a train of pulses each of which is
0.45 s wide and 1s apart.
.

0.45s
F1 6 or 12 information pulses F2 Ident

1.45s

20.3s 4.35s

(Fig. 5.14 Reply Pulse Train from transponder)

The train of pulses is built up as follows:

Two framing pulses 20.3s apart (F1 and F2). The first frame pulse is always the first
pulse in the train. The information pulses lie between two frame pulses and composed of
either 6 or 12 pulses. The information signal is formed in binary codes, which means
either presence or absence of pulses. If six pulse positions are used then the number of
codes available is 26 = 64. For 12 positions the number of codes available is 2 12 = 4096.
The identity pulse is transmitted only when the switch is activated in the aircraft at the
request of the air trafic controller. The identity pulses are then transmitted automatically
for a period of twenty seconds.

5.3.4 Unwanted Responses

5.3.4.1 Fruit

The transponder radiates in all directions and as a result the transmission will be received
by all ground equipment within operational range. The radiation of the transponder is

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determined by its aerial radiation pattern which itself may be altered by the masking
effect of the aircraft. At each ground station, therefore, many signals will be received,
which are not in synchronization with its own interrogations. These unsynchronized
signals are termed as “Fruit”. This unwanted “fruit” is rejected by a detection unit known
as a “defruiter” which is installed in the ground equipment.

5.3.4.2 Garbling

If the aircrafts are too close with each other (less than half a pulse length apart) then the
echoes may merge while received by the ground interrogator. Consequently, false codes
may be displayed due to overlapping of their signals. In this case replies are said to be
“garbled”. The effect is minimised by introducing a “degarbler” into the system.

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 TRAFFIC ALERT & COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS)

Commercial air transport is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. Statistics
show that in the year 1997 alone, more than 12000 commercial jet aircraft operated some
15 million flights all over the world. Those 15 million flights carried a record 1.5 billion
passenger on schedule services and transported one third of the world's manufactured
goods by value. By the turn of the century, 2 billion passengers are expected to fly. Due
to this increased traffic volume, the airspace is very congested and in some parts of the
world mid-air collision is a big threat. Statistics show that in the United States alone there
were 131 "near miss" posing risk of mid-air collision. On November 12, 1997 the mid-air
collision of B-747 and IL-76 at 14,000' west of Delhi airport was disastrous. Aircraft
manufacturers, Government regulatory bodies and Aircraft operators are aiming to reduce
the present accident and risk rates.

To avoid the mid-air collision risk, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
has recommended the use of Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS), which in
the USA named as Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). Both are the
same except for difference in terminology.

TCAS was made compulsory in the United States since 1991. In the Year 1989 when the
near miss was 131, the number was reduced to 23 in 1996 after introduction of TCAS. To
avoid collision risk, many countries in the world have started making this equipment
mandatory in their airspace. Due to serious mid-air collision, which had killed over 500
people and near miss every now and then, the Indian Government has made TCAS
(ACAS) mandatory in their airspace since 31 December 1998. Now no aircraft carrying
more than 30 passengers or maximum payload capacity of 3 tons can fly the Indian
airspace without TCAS fitted on board.

How Does it work?

TCAS is a self-contained airborne collision avoidance system. Its function is to enhance

awareness of nearby aircraft to the pilot, which may pose danger, and a risk of collision.
The system only works if the other aircraft is within the radius of 40 nautical miles and it
should be fitted with the Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transponder with Mode-S.
There are three different modes on SSR transponder signal. Mode-A shows position only.
Mode-c shows position plus height on ATC radarscope. The third one is Mode-S, which
has selective address capability and is used for data communication. The airborne
equipment must have Mode-S transponder to get full benefit of TCAS. It is very
expensive equipment and may cost over 100,000 US$.

The TCAS system interrogates the nearby aircraft up to 40-nm radius having the similar
TCAS transponder and analyzes the series of replies received from it. The computer then

188
calculates the distance, height and position of the other aircraft and informs the pilot if it
is dangerous from the collision point of view.

Depending upon the level of collision threat and software being used, TCAS provides the
following two classes of advisories to the pilot:

(a) Traffic Advisory (TA)

If the approaching aircraft is not of significant collision threat, Traffic Advisory (TA) is
issued 30-40 seconds prior to the collision point of Approach (CPA). Pilot has to search
for the aircraft visually and change the direction of his aircraft only if the visual contact
confirms that the separation is not adequate. Collision Point of Approach (CPA) is a point
where two aircraft cross each other.

1000'

Collision Point of Approach

(b) Resolution Advisory (RA)

Resolution Advisory is issued if the TCAS computer determines that the separation from
the approaching traffic is not sufficient to avoid possible collision. Depending upon
aircraft's own altitude, RA warning is issued 20=30 seconds prior to the calculated
collision point of approach.

Climb - Climb
1000' min.

Descend - Descend

The position of the intruder aircraft is displayed on the cockpit of the aircraft either on the
weather Radar screen or on some other screen. In all types of indicator, intruder aircraft
are indicated by four different symbols:

189
1. An open while Diamond. For the non-threat aircraft. i.e. the aircraft above or below
2700' clearance from each other.

2. A filled white Diamond. If the aircraft are 1200' above or below each other and the
horizontal radius is within 6-nm.

3. Yellow Circle. For potentially hazardous traffic with voice announcement

"Traffic-Traffic".

4. Solid Red Square. When there is collision threat. A voice announcement is made
"Climb-Climb" or "Descend-Descend" or "Maintain Present Vertical Climb" if the
aircraft is climbing. When the risk is cleared the symbol will change and voice message
will come " Clear of Conflict- Clear of Conflict".

Thus after visualizing the display a pilot can determine the risk factor and avoid collision.
TCAS transponder in the aircraft can exchange data with up to 30 aircraft simultaneously
and can continuously monitor up to three aircraft on collision threat.

Most of the International airlines are now equipped with TCAS. Similarly, most of the
countries in the world are going to make it mandatory in the near future. USA has already
implemented in the year 1991. India has introduced it from 31 December 1998. From 1
January 2000 it is going to be mandatory in the European countries and from 4-th of
January 2001 in Japan. In Nepal most of the aircraft in domestic service do not carry
TCAS except for Buddha Air, which is equipped with all the modern facilities. All Royal
Nepal Airlines aircraft flying overseas are now equipped with TCAS.

With the mandatory carriage of ACAS/TCAS, both the pilots and the passengers can
forget about the mid-air collision and can relax and enjoy smooth and safer air tr

CHAPTER - 6

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 SATELLITE NAVIGATION

6. FUTURE AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEMS (FANS)

6.1 General Introduction

Today's air traffic demand is steadily growing in most parts of the world. Although this
growth rate is not the same in all regions, the overall air traffic demand is on the rise.
Such growth will soon present increasing pressure to air traffic service providers as well
as the users if the current aeronautical communications, navigation and surveillance
systems are not upgraded in time. The result will be increased congestion and delays due
to capacity limitations of today's system. It will not be possible to meet these challenges
by simply expanding the current system, which is already constrained by a number of
factors:

# Limitations due to line-of-sight propagation of current VHF systems.

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# Difficulties in implementing communication, navigation and surveillance (CNS)
systems in a consistent manner in large parts of the world.

# The limitations of voice communications and lack of digital air-ground data exchange
systems.

Over the oceanic routes, where to install a dependable long range equipment is not
possible, for decades inertial navigation has been used as the prime navigation system.
The inertial system is based on geometrical calculations of distances by on-board
computer with reference to earth's center using the principal of Gyroscope. While using
inertial navigation, the entire route is pre-programmed prior to take off. This system has
its own limitations.

Many new technologies are available these days, which are largely based on artificial
satellites. Exploitation of these technologies by civil aviation is the only means to
overcome the current shortcomings.

Recognizing the increasing limitations of the current systems and the need for
improvements to take civil aviation into the next millenium, in 1983 the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established a special committee on Future Air
Navigation Systems (FANS). The main task of this committee was to explore the
possibilities of improving the aeronautical CNS systems based on new technologies, and
to make appropriate recommendations. The FANS committee completed its task in 1988
with a system concept largely based on Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) for
navigation and surveillance, and Aeronautical Mobile Satellite System (AMSS) for
communication. On the basis of acquired new technology FANS committee suggested to
design the modern air traffic management (ATM) system.

6.2 ICAO CNS/ATM SYSTEMS

The ICAO CNS/ATM concept is a judicious mix of satellite technology and the best of
line-of-sight systems available today to achieve an overall optimum result. It is important
to note that the new ICAO CNS/ATM concept may be viewed as the general guidelines,
which may be implemented as per specific need of the particular airspace by the member
countries of International Civil Aviation Organization. The following are the essential
elements of the new CNS/ATM concept:

6.2.1 COMMUNICATIONS

Basic concept

The architecture of the communications system under the new ICAO CNS/ATM concept
provides a broad spectrum of capabilities to meet the need of air traffic service providers
and the users. Here service provides means local civil aviation authorities and the users

192
are the airlines. These capabilities range from low-speed data to high-speed data and
voice

In the future, it is expected that communications with aircraft will be increasingly by

means of data. This will allow more direct and efficient linkages between ground and
cockpit systems. Use of voice will largely be replaced by whole new system of automated
data exchange between the aircraft and ground. The voice transmissions will be used only
during emergencies and for transmissions of non-standard messages. Even the voice
transmissions will become digital in future.

The global Aeronautical Telecommunication Network (ATN) will integrate the various
communications media. It will support the interconnection of automation systems
operating in aeronautical ground facilities with those operating in the aircraft. Thus it will
provide reliable exchange of digital data between air-ground and ground-to ground
networks.

The following are the three basic communication media foreseen by FANS for the new
communication system:

1. Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Service (AMSS) for voice and data

2. VHF voice and data links
3. Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) Mode S data link

FANS concept on future aeronautical communications with aircraft has been illustrated in
Fig. 1-A.

AMSS

VHF

SSR Earth Station

ATS Center
193
 (Fig. 6.1 Future communication system)

Under the FANS communication proposal, in the terminal and high density traffic areas
VHF voice/data and SSR Mode-S data communications should be used. However, in the
remote areas and in the areas where VHF or SSR services are not available (due to line-
of-sight conditions or remoteness of the place), satellite communications should be used
to get the coverage.

Satellite communications (SATCOM) can provide high quality voice and data
communications no matter where an aircraft is located. Under the Aeronautical Mobile
Satellite Service (AMSS) several satellites are available these days. International
Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT), which until few years back had only been operating in
marine frequency bands, has started operating in aeronautical bands since November
1990. Ever since then Inmarsat has been providing air-ground voice and data
communications to an increasing population of aircraft all over the world. In 1995 new
generation of Inmarsat-3 series was launched with better communication and navigation
support facilities for aeronautical use.

Under the FANS communication concept, aircraft transmits to a satellite for relay to
ground based earth station, which is connected to the Air Traffic Services (ATS) center
by Aeronautical Telecommunications Network (ATN). The aeronautical communication
links with satellites operate in the frequency bands 1545-1555 MHz and 1646.5 - 1656.5
MHz. These frequency bands are specifically allocated for aeronautical satellite
communications. AMSS is being used for entire aeronautical communications including
air traffic services, aeronautical control, airline administrative communications, and
aeronautical passenger communications. It is expected that full implementation of AMSS
will ultimately eliminate the need for high frequency (HF) voice, although HF may
continue to be retained over polar areas and various other regions, for economical and/or
technical reasons for a while.

Under the new concept, terrestrial based air-ground communications will continue
utilizing VHF and Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) Mode-S. While VHF will be
used for both voice and data, SSR Mode-S will be purely used for data communication.
The Aeronautical Telecommunication Network (ATN) integrate all communication
media, e.g. AMSS, VHF data link and Mode-S data link.

Benefits of the new communication system

194
a) Linkage between ground and airborne systems will be more direct and efficient,
resulting in improved air traffic management services.

b) Handing and transfer of data among the operators, aircraft and air traffic service
providers will be improved.

c) Channel congestion will be reduced.

d) Errors due to faulty communications will be reduced which will ensure higher safety
standard.

e) Automatic data communication will reduce workload and increase efficiency.

f) Operation of less ground equipment will save high expenditures in providing

communication facilities.

Aeronautical satellite communications was commenced within the Pacific Ocean region
in 1992. Now it has spread to North Atlantic Ocean and European regions and in many
other countries. Statistics predict that use of satellite data link, which is approximately
3500 aircraft now, will grow to 8000 aircraft by the end of year 2000. VHF data link is
already operational in North America, Europe, Asia and Pacific. Mode-S data link is
mainly operational in North America and pacific regions and about to commence in
European countries. It is expected that by the year 2003 more than 3000 aircraft will be
equipped with Mode-S data link.

6.2.2 NAVIGATION

Basic concept

The current air navigation is based on several short-range and long-range ground radio
equipment (VOR/DME, NDB, ILS, etc.). Although the system has been working
satisfactorily for years, there are several limitations.

1. Being terrestrial system line-of-sight conditions apply to them. Therefore, too many
ground equipment have to be installed and maintained by the service providers. Careful
planning has to be done to install the equipment at specific locations.

2. On the oceanic routes and in the remote areas navigational aid coverage is extremely
difficult to provide and uneconomical.

195
 3. The current practice of requiring mandatory carriage of specified radio navigation
equipment constrains the optimum application of modern airborne equipment.

To overcome these limitations, FANS committee has identified space technology as the
most likely source of enhanced navigation systems for civil aviation. Satellite navigation
systems can support accurate aircraft navigation over remote land areas much more cost
effectively than terrestrial systems because no resources for the procurement, installation
and maintenance of ground based equipment are required. With suitable enhancements,
the performance of such systems is so accurate that they can be used for terminal and en-
route navigation, and for non-precision approach guidance of Cat-I standard. With further
perfection in technology, in future precision approach guidance may also be possible.

Recognizing the above facts ICAO developed the concept of Required Navigation
Performance (RNP). This concept defines the capability an aircraft must have to navigate
in a given airspace segment rather than forcing them to use any specific equipment.
Therefore, it allows aircraft operators (airlines) to choose the equipment most suitable to
their needs in meeting these requirements.

Central to the ICAO navigation concept is the global navigation satellite system (GNSS),
a worldwide position and time determination system. The system comprises of a
constellation of artificial satellites; associated aircraft receivers and ground based system
integrity monitoring stations. For GNSS several systems are available The United States'
Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Commonwealth of Independent States' Global
Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) are currently the focus of much
attention as candidate systems for this purpose. The two systems, designed initially for
military use, operate on similar principals and are potentially accurate to within a few
meters in three dimensions. ICAO recognizes the Microwave Landing System (MLS) as
the standard system for precision approach landing service. Fig. 1-B illustrates the ICAO
concept for future air navigation.

INMARSAT

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4

Augm entation: LADGPS

196
 (Fig. 6.2 Future air navigation concept)

Airborne equipment comprises of a receiver/computer unit, which derives aircraft

position by performing range measurements to the satellites in view, whose own
positions are accurately known. This information may be used directly on board the
aircraft or indirectly as an input to a Flight Management System (FMS). The member
countries of ICAO have adopted the World Geodetic Survey WGS-84 system as the
standard of latitude and longitude. It is a decimal system in which the receivers compute
the coordinates. The GNSS satellites are capable of providing highly accurate and
reliable position fixes. However, in the case of GPS, which is more widely used than
GLONASS, the US Department of Defense has deliberately downgraded its potential
accuracy using a facility known as Selective Availability (S/A). If this was not done an
accuracy of few centimeters could have been achieved.
At present GNSS accuracy level is 100m in the horizontal plane and 150m in vertical
plane. The figure may increase at times to as much as 300m. Nevertheless, the system can
be safely used for en-route navigation and in the terminal areas on visual flight rules
(VFR) where GPS is only used as supplementary aid. However, for approaches and
landings, and for instrument flight rules (IFR) better accuracy is needed. It is achieved
through Augmentation via Differential GPS (DGPS).

Differential GPS

GPS signals can produce wrong position fix due to several factors; such as, ionospheric
conditions, weather conditions, clock accuracy, and position errors of the satellites.
Therefore, at times GPS will not satisfy civil aviation requirements. DGPS is based on
Ground Earth Station (GES) whose position is known accurately and is capable of
comparing it with incoming GPS signals. If an error in GPS signal is detected, GES sends
correction signals to the aircraft via high altitude geostationary AMSS satellites. The
DGPS receiver in the aircraft then indicates the pilot the actual amount of correction
required. The differential signal is also sent directly to computerized flight management
system (FMS) for automatic route correction.

197
This service can be provided either in a small area, which is referred to as Local Area
Differential GPS (LADGPS) or in a bigger area, which is called Wide Area Differential
GPS (WADGPS). Fig.5-B shows LADGPS using Inmarsat geostationary satellite.
LADGPS is used where an instrument approach is needed. With LADGPS an accuracy of
3m can be achieved, thus enabling ILS CAT-I performance. Use of GNSS with
LADGPS is a big hope for the airports where an ILS or a MLS is either not available or
not possible to install due to technical reasons.

GNSS system integrity and correction techniques

Of concern to the Civil Aviation community is the possibility of unannounced GPS or

GLONASS failure producing undetectable course errors on board aircraft. System
integrity refers to the ability of a system to provide timely warning to the users when
system should not be used for navigation.

The traditional way of assuring integrity in the electronic equipment is to monitor the
transmitted signals and, if the signals are detected to be out of specifications for any
reason, a timely warning is provided to the maintenance technicians. This is certainly
appropriate in two dimensional (2D) systems like VOR/DME where the accuracy of the
signal in space can be related directly to the horizontal position in a particular direction.
GPS or GLONASS is somewhat more complicated since it is four dimensional (4D)
system involving three components of positions and time, and very complex satellite
geometry.

Although concerned authorities of GPS and GLONASS constantly monitor the optimum
performance of the satellites, as a user, a pilot would not know the failure of a satellite if
the integrity monitoring provision were not made. At present two methods exist within
airborne equipment to provide the integrity of navigation system while using GPS.

a) Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

RAIM is a self-contained integrity monitoring system within the airborne receiver.

Airborne equipment using GPS or GLONASS requires 4 satellites in view with adequate
elevation and suitable geometry to calculate three-dimensional position. Here in view
means any satellite with more than 7.5 elevation angle. If there are more than four
satellites in view, the receiver will automatically select the four satellites with acceptable
geometry. A fifth satellite is needed to perform RAIM function. If the receiver cannot
find five satellites that satisfy the acceptable geometry criterion, it gives an alarm that
position check on integrity cannot be made.

A sixth satellite is required so that the receiver can identify and isolate the faulty satellite
and remove it from navigation solution. In some receivers barometric altitude is used to
augment the RAIM function. This reduces the number of satellites required to just 5. Not

198
all receivers have RAIM function, but where GPS has to be used as the sole mean for
navigation, RAIM function is necessary.

b) GPS integrity channel (GIC)

The GPS integrity channel or GIC is an internationally accepted concept using a system
external to GPS that continuously monitors GPS signals and broadcasts integrity
information to the airborne receivers using geostationary satellite. This concept is not yet
implemented and is similar to WADGPS. It is more likely that the suitable equipment
will be integrated with WADGPS, which would provide differential corrections as well
as integrity information.

Benefits of the new navigation system

a) The global navigation satellite system provides a high-integrity, high accuracy,

worldwide navigation service for the en-route, terminal, and non-precision phases of the
flight, and Category-I precision approach and landing operations at limited cost
throughout the world.

b) Aircraft are able to navigate in all airspace in any part of the world using a single set of
airborne navigation avionics.

c) Three and four dimensional navigation accuracy.

d) Reduction in costs for providing quality air navigation.

e) The new system can be used with other systems, such as inertial navigation system, to
support required navigation performance (RNP).

Many countries are engaged in research, development, trials and demonstrations

(RDT&D), and planning of GNSS capabilities. Demonstrations of GNSS systems began
in early 1992, which are being perfected day by day. Many countries have already started
using GNSS air navigation for various phases of the flights. Statistics show that
commercial and general aviation equipage for the global navigation satellite system,
which is at a level of 5000 at this moment, is expected to rise by 80000 aircraft by the
year 2000 and 200000 by the end of 2010. These figures show overwhelming support to
use GNSS for future navigation.

In June 1997, the Department of Civil Aviation of Nepal conducted a study to carryout
the design works for GPS based air navigation procedures for Tribhuvan International
Airport (TIA) and GPS air routes for domestic airports. Coordinates of all domestic
airports in WGS-84 format were also determined. This will allow to design more GPS
based procedures in future. Now HMG is in the process of conducting another GPS

199
based design procedures for six domestic airports. Once implemented, GPS based air
navigation will provide additional security to the airlines, efficient takeoffs and landings
at Tribhuvan International Airport and will save big capital expenditures to HMG in
maintaining current terrestrial systems.

6.2.3 SURVEILLANCE

Basic concept

At present, aircraft surveillance is achieved either through voice confirmation by the pilot
or by using terminal and en-route Radar. The first one is not very dependable, whereas
the second one may not be feasible at many places due to technical or financial reasons.
In many remote areas of the world aircraft surveillance is not available at all.

Therefore, FANS has developed the concept of Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS)
based on satellites and ground systems for civil aviation application. With ADS an
aircraft automatically transmits its position and other relevant data, such as aircraft
destination, speed, weather, etc., to the air traffic service center via satellite or through
VHF data communication link. Aircraft surveillance is very important for air traffic
management and in particular for collision and alerting functions. Using ADS techniques
aircraft position can be displayed in a manner similar to that of present Radar displays.
Fig. 1-C illustrates the FANS' concept of ADS.

AMSS
GNSS

VHF DATA

Terminal

200
 (Fig. 6.3: Automatic Dependence Surveillance concept)

This service is intended initially for oceanic operations, remote land areas, and areas
where primary and secondary radar cannot be justified. In the terminal and high traffic
density airspace, SSR will remain as the main surveillance system where line-of-sight is
not a problem. In these areas ADS will serve as a complement and back up system to
SSR. Enhancing SSR with Mode-S will provide selective address and data link
capabilities to better utilization of Radar for surveillance purposes.

Benefits of the new surveillance system

a) Automatic dependent surveillance (ADS) will extend surveillance service to non-radar

areas where voice position reporting is the only available means of surveillance. In
remote areas of the world, such as, over the oceanic routes, the deserts of Africa, forests
of South America, vast sub-Arctic regions of Canada and USSR and mountainous
country like Nepal, ADS will provide surveillance service in the same way as in the radar
covered regions.

b) Use of ADS, supported by Controller-Pilot Data Link Communication (CPDLC), will

provide service and monitor display in the same manner as in today's radar airspace.

c) ADS will support air traffic control flexibility all over the world. This will enable the
controllers to be more responsive in terms of clearance, separation and other relevant
instructions to the aircraft. Consequently, flights will be safer and cost effective for flight
operations.

d) SSR Mode-S in combination with ADS will facilitate uniform surveillance service
worldwide. It will provide high-accuracy, interference-protected surveillance in high-
density airspace.

e) Civil Aviation authorities will see significant cost saving through gradual elimination
of various ground systems.

ADS are operational in several countries now. In India, Calcutta and Madras have already
installed ADS system to cover bay-of-Bengal regions. However, to install the ground
system with associated monitoring equipment is still a very expensive venture. In a small

201
developing country like Nepal, it may take several years before the system can be
justified.

Statistics show that at present approximately 5000 aircraft are equipped with ADS, which
is projected to grow at an increasing rate in the developed world.

6.2.4 AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT (ATM)

As stated earlier, implementation of new ICAO CNS system provides far better capability
for closer interaction between ground and air - before, during and after the flights.
Therefore, new CNS capabilities make it possible to improve the current Air Traffic
Management (ATM) services significantly. ICAO has recently produced guidelines on
new ATM, however, this will continue towards perfection day by day.

The new ATM system makes increasing use of automation to reduce or eliminate
constraints imposed on ATM operations by current systems. The flexibility afforded by
the new CNS systems makes it possible for the introduction of automation capabilities
from the simplest to the most advanced as needed by the individual countries, but in a
globally consistent manner.

The future Air Traffic Management system, based on new CNS, will have two distinct
advantages over the current systems:

a) Traffic Flow Management

Due to extensive use of automation and computerized database, the air traffic can be
managed more economically. Aircraft computer will automatically coordinate with
ground based flow management system negotiating traffic congestion, flight delays,
trajectories that best satisfy the airline etc., and will provide better solution.

b) Tactical Control

A pilot will be able to amend his flight plan while on the air. This can be achieved via
automatic data link. When the flight plan is amended due to some reason, the aircraft's
flight management system and ground based tactical control will negotiate via data link
to give clearance for a new trajectory that best satisfy for the particular flight. Similarly,
when the ground based tactical control will recognize the need for change of agreed flight
plan due to any reason that will be done in the similar manner. Aircraft not equipped with
flight management systems capable of negotiating with ATM under automated conditions
will communicate with the ground-based system via data link and voice channel. In such
case, automation aids will be available to the air traffic manager to assist in approving
flight plan management.

202
Fig. 1-D illustrates the basic air traffic management (ATM) functions that will be
provided through new satellite based communication, navigation and surveillance when it
will be fully operational. The on-board Flight Management system (FMS) and
Aeronautical Telecommunication Network (ATN) are the essential equipment that will
control the entire navigation, communication and surveillance during the flights.

203
 PILOT
INERTIAL

Data Link GNSS

I/P & O/P

Airborne FMS/RNAV
ATN

VHF AMSS VHF SSR MLS Autopilot

Voice Voice/Dat Data link Mode-S Cat II &
a III

VHF Gnd.Eart VHF SSR MLS

Voice h Data Link Mode-S Cat II &
Station III
Ground
ATN
Other centers

Automation

(Fig.6.4: ICAO CNS/ATM Concept)

Air Traffic Services

204
Inertial navigation will continue to be used in addition to GNSS for autopilot capabilities.
For navigation and surveillance, GNSS will provide required signals to Flight
Management System (FMS), which will then control the Area Navigation (RNAV), and
Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) via ATN. The on-board aeronautical
telecommunication network (ATN) will be capable of receiving all the input and output
signals for data exchange between ground and air via VHF, AMSS and SSR Mode-S. A
pilot will be able to change his flight plan during the flight by automatic negotiations with
the ground services, and by providing appropriate inputs to FMS.

The ground system will be provided with enough automation and will be connected
through voice and data links to the aircraft. The ground ATN will receive information
from air as well as from various other ground stations, such as meteorology, airline
offices, communication centers, airport administrations, etc. Therefore, air traffic service
center will be able to provide required information to the aircraft and will help in taking
decision for change in flight plans and other air traffic decisions.

When the full CNS/ATM will be implemented the following ground navigation and
communication systems can be withdrawn:

a) HF
b) ADF/NDB
c) VOR/DME
d) ILS/Markers, MLS Cat-I
e) ATC Radio Broadcast Service (ATCRBS)

15
6.3 AN INTRODUCTION TO SATELLITES

6.3.1 General Introduction

The word "Satellite" in astronomy means a body that revolves about a planet. Thus all
heavenly bodies revolve with respect to each other in a set pattern. The article described
below deals with the "artificial satellites" built by human to orbit around the earth and
other planets of our solar system. People use them to study the universe, help forecast the
weather, relay telecommunications signals, assist in navigation of ships and aircraft,
observe military movements on ground, etc. The former Soviet Union launched the first
artificial satellite, Sputnik-1, in 1957.Since then, the United States and many other
countries have developed, launched and operated satellites. Today, more than 2000
satellites orbit our globe.

The concept of global telecommunications system-using the artificial satellites was first
put forward by a scientific fiction author Mr. Arthur C. Clarke in his article in "Wireless
World" magazine in May 1945. A brief extract from this article addressing the issue of
orbital location of the geostationary communications satellite is quoted below:

".... All these problems can be solved by the use of a chain of space stations with an
orbital period of 24 hours, which would require them to be at a distance of 42000 Km
from the centre of the earth. There are a number of possible arrangements for such a
chain but one over the equator is the simplest. The stations would lie in the earth's
equatorial plane and would thus remain fixed in the same spot in the sky, from the point
of view of the terrestrial observers. Unlike all other heavenly bodies they would never
rise nor set. This would greatly simplify the use of the directive receivers installed on
earth...."

6.3.2 Kepler's Laws

Before discussing further on satellites and their various orbits, it is important to

understand the natural laws that control the movement of satellites. These are based on
Kepler's Laws and state that:

1. The orbital plane of any earth satellite must bisect the Earth centrally
2. The Earth must be at the centre of any orbit.

Thus, a satellite can circle around the globe in two ways; namely, Circular and
Elliptically inclined. Each one has its own merits and demerits. The following paragraphs
will discuss about various orbits in detail.
A communication satellite is basically an electronic repeater station placed in orbit to
circle around the earth. Its prime objective is to facilitate communication transmission
from one point to another point on earth. The transponder receives the uplink carriers,
amplifies them, converts them to the correct downlink frequency band, and then

16
retransmits them via a high power amplifier back to earth. Several factors have to be
taken in to consideration while designing a satellite. These include:

1. Maximums weight that a particular launch vehicle can carry into orbit.
2. Bandwidth allocated for a particular band.
3. Maximum RF Power to be used.

6.3.3 Orbits

A satellite remains in orbit because of a balance between two factors:

a) The satellites "velocity" (the speed at which it travels in a straight line)

b) The "gravitational force" between the satellite and the earth

To help understand the balance between gravity and velocity in a satellite, take an
example of a small stone tied to a string and swirl around at a constant velocity. Were it
not for the pull of the string, the stone's velocity would send it flying away in a straight
line. But were it not for the velocity, the string would pull the stone back to the centre.
The same thing can happen in a satellite too. The weight and the length of the string can
also show the relationship between a satellite's altitude and its orbital period. A long
string is like a high altitude of the satellite. Depending upon the length of the string the
motion of the stone in the swing can be slow or fast. Similarly, depending upon the
altitude of the satellite its orbital period could be slower or faster. There are following
five types of satellite orbits currently being used. These are:

LEO - Low Earth Orbit

MEO - Medium Earth Orbit
GEO - Geostationary Earth Orbit
SSO - Sun-synchronous Orbit
HEO - Highly Elliptical Orbit

17
 (Fig.6.5 various Earth Orbits)

For communication and navigation purposes, the following three types are most
commonly used:

a) Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

b) Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
c) Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)

6.3.3.1 Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

The low earth orbit is normally circular and up to 1000 km above the earth. They are not
confined to the equatorial plane and may have any inclination from 0 to 90. They may
also be elliptical. Because of low altitude, satellites in LEO tend to circle the earth in
about 100 min. Individual communication satellites are normally not stationed in LEO,
but in recent years several constellation of satellites for mobile communications services
have been placed in LEO. Due to low orbital altitude the number of satellites required to
cover large area could be significantly higher. The best known are Iridium (66),
Globalstar (48) and Orbcomm (24). Therefore, this orbit is mainly used for scientific
research works such as, astronomy, weather, etc.

18
6.3.3.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

The Medium Earth Orbit is also sometimes called Intermediate Circular Orbit (ICO).
Medium-altitude Earth Orbits (MEO) are not closely defined. They do, however, lie
between the LEO and GEO; typically at altitudes between 5000 Km to 25,000 Km. One
of the best known users of MEO is the Global Positioning System (GPS) constellation
whose satellites are based in six 19,150 Km high circular orbits spaced 60 degrees apart
around the globe at an inclination of 55 degrees. The orbital period of a satellite in MEO
is between those of satellites in LEO and GEO and normally measures in hours than in
minutes. However the period of rotation is always less than 24 hours. For example, GPS
satellites circle around the globe at every 12 hours. The orbits can be circular as well as
elliptical.

6.3.3.3 Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

Most of the world's communication satellites and some weather satellites are placed in
GEO, a circular orbit in the same plane as the Earth's equator. Geostationary Earth Orbit
is also sometimes called Geosynchronous Earth Orbit or Geostationary Satellite Orbit
(GSO). Its main parameters are as follows:

1. Satellites in GEO circle the earth in exactly the same time as it takes the earth
to turn on its axis. I.e. 24 hours. This means that ground stations do not have
to scan across the sky to track the satellites and the satellites can be given the
orbital positions related to the line of longitude above which they are
stationed.

2. Each one-degree slot of the orbital space is about 736 Km wide so chances of
collision are minimum.

3. Satellites are normally placed at an altitude of 36,000 Km from the earth at

almost circular pattern. Therefore three satellites can serve almost entire
planet.

4. Due to extremely low friction from the atmosphere the life span of the
satellites is much higher, which lasts up to 18 years or more. Although
satellites in this orbit perform better but these are expensive to launch.
The launch vehicles deliver the satellites to a temporary Geostationary Transfer Orbit
(GTO), an elliptical orbit with a perigee typically a few hundred km above the earth
and an apogee at geostationary height. Almost all communication and broadcasting
satellites are placed these days on this orbit. This includes Inmarsat and Intelsat,
which are very often used in aviation communication.

6.3.4 Satellite Design

19
The communication satellites are basically designed in two ways. These are explained
and illustrated hereunder:

1. Cylindrical spin-stabilized type

2. 3-Axis stabilized.

Cylindrical spin- stabilized

As seen from the figure, the satellite is cylindrical in shape and is made rotate at
approximately 30 rpm in order to maintain orbital stability. The antennas used are
directive and therefore mounted on a de-spun subassembly. The sub- assembly is
controlled by earth and spun sensors to ensure that the main beams from the antennas are
always pointing towards the earth. The outer skin of the cylinder is covered in solar cells
to provide the necessary power for the communication systems inside the satellite. Orbital
corrections are performed by a series of small motors mounted on the main body.

Antenna

Rotation speed
30 rpm

(FIG. 6.6 Cylindrical Spin Stabilized)

3-Axis Stabilized

The design is different from the cylindrical type. The body of the satellite remains
stationary, with its fixed antenna always pointing towards earth. A series of on-board
gyroscopes maintain orbital stability in three axis, X, Y, and Z. The advantage of this
construction is that complicated de-spinning machinery is not required. As a result, the
satellite is lighter to launch, and a greater number of solar cells can be mounted. These
panels are, however, rotable in order to maintain maximum illumination from the sun.

20
 Y - AXIS

Solar Panels Equipment housing

X - AXIS

Z-AXIS

Antenna

(FIG.6.7, 3-Axis Stabilized)

6.3.5 Frequency Band

The signal levels from the satellites are very low therefore any natural phenomena to
facilitate the reception of the incoming signal must be studied carefully. The graphical
illustration (Fig. 2-F) below shows the characteristics of microwave frequencies with
respect to sky noise. From the figure it is evident that the frequencies between 2 GHz to
10 GHz have less noise, and this band is known as "Microwave window". The
frequencies allocated to satellite communications are in this band. However, due to
increased demand for more bandwidth, higher frequencies up to 14 GHz are also used.

Letter designations for frequency bands

P- band - 0.23 - 1 GHz

L- band - 1 - 2 GHz - in mobile satellite communication, GPS
S- band - 2 - 4 GHz - Telemetry & Global Mobile communication
C- band - 4 - 8 GHz - widely in communication with lots of rains
X- band - 8 - 12 GHz - Military
Ku- band - 12 - 18 GHz - widely used for communication
K- band - 18 - 27 GHz - for up-linking
Ka-band - 27 - 40 GHz - Currently proposed for broadband uses.
O- band - 40 - 50 GHz
V- band - 50 - 75 GHz

Sky Temperature in Kelvin

21
 1000 K

100 K

10 K Microwave window

1 K
Freq. In GHz

0.5 5 10 50

(FIG. 6.8 Sky-noise and Frequency Bands)

6.4 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

Introduction

In 1983 a Korean Airlines Flight KAL007 was heading from Seoul to the United States.
Over the Sakhalin coast the aircraft strayed several miles away from its stated route and
entered into the Soviet military airspace. The Soviet military fired a missile tearing apart
the aircraft into pieces and killing hundreds of passengers. This caused worldwide anger
denouncing Soviet military action. However, nothing could have been done since the
aircraft had entered far inside the Soviet military sensitive area. It was believed that the
cause of this off route departure was due to a navigation error. This misfortune initiated
President Reagan to take a big step forward. He ordered the United States Department of
Defense (DOD) to expedite the development of satellite based Global Positioning System
(GPS) that was long been overseen.

The aircraft navigate from one point to other using ground based navigation electronics.
Over the land it is easier to provide such facility to cover the stated airspace. However,
over the ocean it is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to provide ground based
terrestrial navigation to the aircraft. Therefore, over the long oceanic routes, along with
other long-range navigation systems, inertial navigation is used. Inertial navigation does
not require any ground equipment but simply works on the principal of inertial
momentum of a rotating body, and calculation of distances by measuring the angle with
respect to earth using computer programming. Although widely used, this system has its
own deficiencies. Therefore, use of satellite for navigation is highly promising.
In fact, the United States navy had already commenced the development of satellite based
navigation system as early as 1964. Altogether, 7 plus a few more satellites were

22
launched under the name Transit. The system provided navigation information to the US
marine, which worked on measurement of Doppler shift of the transmitted signals. The
actual present day Global Positioning System (GPS) started by the name NAVSTAR in
1978. However, the pace of its development was too slow. President Reagan's initiative to
expedite the research works in 1983 led to the faster development of GPS. The
Government of Russia, ministry of defense has also developed a parallel system, called
Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) during the same period.

On 14-th February 1989, the first new generation GPS satellite was launched. By 1995,
all the satellites in the series were fully on the orbit. Now GPS satellites are fully
functional. The United States Department of Defense has allowed the GPS for civilian
use all over the world. On 17-th February 1994, the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) officially approved the use of GPS for air navigation by its member
countries.

How does it work?

GPS is a constellation of 24 satellites with 6 different orbits. Each orbit has 4 satellites.
These satellites are in the medium earth orbit (MEO) that is about, 20,000 KM above the
surface of the earth, in nearly circular orbits. Their orbits are staggered around the earth,
forming a pattern similar to a birdcage, in such a way that anybody on Earth has, at all
times, a line of sight to at least four, and at the most ten of them. GPS satellites circle the
earth twice a day. GPS can be used in almost any situation anywhere in the world, at any
time, in any weather condition, by anybody with a suitable receiver at no user cost. It can
be used to locate vehicles, structures, geographical features, etc. Depending on the
equipment used, positioning accuracy can be anything from 100m to a few millimeters.

The basic idea behind GPS is simple which is based on triangulation and simple
geometry. Suppose, our point of measurement is at a distance of R1 Km from satellite A
and R2 Km from satellite B. Then, by taking the positions of the satellites as the centers
of the spheres, our position must be at the point of intersection of two circles where two
spheres meet. Suppose we find another satellite C at a distance of R3 with an appropriate
geometry such that all the three spheres meet at the point of measurement. Then as per
geometrical rules there will be only two such points in space where that can be correct.
Fig.2-6 illustrates the above statement.

23
(Fig 6.9 GPS Satellites)

Two Points of intercession

One is illogical

24
 (FIG. 6.10 GPS Position Fixing)

Each satellite functions like an independent radio beacon. While orbiting the Earth, they
all transmit simultaneously their exact three-dimensional position at a given moment.
Suppose "xyz" are the unknown coordinates that should be located using a GPS receiver.
Then, if x1 y1 z1 , x2 y2 z2 and x3 y3 z3 are the coordinates of the three satellites and R1 , R2
and R3 are their respective ranges to the GPS receiver, then to fulfill the geometrical
condition that all three spheres, with their centers as the respective satellites, to meet at
two points including one at the given receiver, can be easily found by solving the
following equations:

(x1 -x)2 + (y1 - y)2 + (z1 - z)2 = R1 2

(x2 -x)2 + (y2 - y)2 + (z2 - z)2 = R2 2
(x3 -x)2 + (y3 - y)2 + (z3 - z)2 = R3 2

While the satellites transmit their own coordinates at a given moment the, range R 1 , R2
and R3 are to be determined by the receiver itself. The information sent out by the
satellites leave exactly at the same time from all satellites. Based on time taken to reach
the signal from the satellite to earth, a receiver on earth computes their exact distances by
multiplying the time it took for the signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver by the
speed of light. Three distances to three satellites of known positions are needed to provide
the receiver's coordinates in three dimensions. Thus two possible intersection positions
are found out of which one belongs to the receiver. How do we decide which one of those
two points is our true location? Well, we could make a simple assumption because one of
these two points will be far way out in the space. The computers in GPS receivers have
various techniques for distinguishing the correct point from the incorrect one. One of
these is to make the fourth measurement with appropriate geometry. That will
mathematically eliminate the second point. However, in practice we can get by with just
three measurements if we reject the unlikely solution. The computers in GPS receivers

25
calculate the range of the satellites, their locations at a given moment, and perform
geometrical calculations to compute the coordinates of the point.

Since the satellites are constantly moving relative to Earth's surface, their positions
(coordinates) have to be constantly updated. This is done by some specific earth stations
located at various parts of the world. The earth stations are the part of GPS programme
therefore they are maintained by the US Department of Defense (DoD). These earth
stations monitor and track the satellites, synchronize their operation, and amend orbital
and corrected time data. The GPS system works by timing how long it takes a radio
signal to reach us. Clearly, the time measurements have to be done with utmost accuracy.
Even if it were wrong by 1/100-th of a second, the distance error would be 3000 KM.
Each GPS satellite is therefore equipped with atomic clocks with an accuracy of 10-9
seconds and all of them are constantly being synchronized from the ground monitoring
stations so that they all send their respective signals at the same time intervals.

Both receiver and satellite have to be synchronized with each other and generate exactly
the same digital codes at the same time so that to measure the arrival times accurately.
Therefore, when a particular code is received from the satellite, the time lapse can be
determined by finding out how long ago the similar code was generated by the receiver.
How do we know that both our receiver and satellite are really generating their codes at
exactly the same time? Well, for the GPS satellites, the US Government can afford a
200,000$ each for on-board atomic clock. But a 70$ handheld receiver just contains a
cheap quartz clock. Therefore, they do not maintain the same time. The trick in
measuring this difference is rather simple.

Suppose with respect to GPS receiver’s internal time clock reference marker, signals
received from four satellites are at times t1, t2 , t3 and t4 . We cannot take these times to
measure the range of the satellites as shown in the equations earlier. These times are not
the actual since we do not know when exactly the signals would have left the respective
satellites. How our receiver would know by how many seconds its clock is slower or
faster than those of the satellites? This is where a fourth satellite measurement is required.
Trigonometry says that if three perfect measurements locate a point in three-dimensional
space, then fourth measurement can measure the timing error, so long as the error is
consistent. Since the clock time of the satellites and the receiver differ from each other
this difference will remain the same for all satellites. Suppose this difference is by ±T
seconds. Then the actual time to arrive the signals from the satellites would be t 1 ±T, t2 ±T,
t3 ±T and t4 ±T.

Suppose this difference is positive, then the equations could be written as:

(x1 -x)2 + (y1 - y)2 + (z1 - z)2 = R1 2 = ( t +T)2

1
(x2 -x)2 + (y2 - y)2 + (z2 - z)2 = R2 2 = ( t +T)2
2
(x3 -x)2 + (y3 - y)2 + (z3 - z)2 = R3 2 = ( t +T)2
3
(x4 -x)2 + (y4 - y)2 + (z4 - z)2 = R4 2 = ( t +T)2
4

26
Here x1 y1 z1, x2 y2 z2, x3 y3 z3 and x4 y4 z4 and also t1, t2 , t3 and t4 could be accurately
measured by the receiver. Therefore the remaining four unknown quantities, xyz and T
could be solved from the four equations. The satellite computer quickly finds out all four
parameters and by determining the exact value of T it would subtract or add to correct its
internal clock. To explain in words, suppose our receiver clock is not as accurate as an
atomic clock and is one second slow. Then three satellite measurements will be affected
by the same amount, and may not intersect at one point. The computer in the GPS
receiver is programmed in such a manner that when it gets a series of measurements that
cannot intersect at a single point, it starts subtracting or adding the same amount of time
for all the measurements until it hits on an answer that all the ranges go through one
point. By this the receiver discovers the amount of time its clock is slower for faster. A
trigonometry trick by adding one more satellite measurement cancels out any consistent
clock error the receiver might have. The fourth measurement will allow calculation of the
four unknown - three coordinates and the time. Therefore, four satellites must be in view
to obtain truly accurate navigation in four dimensions ( X,Y,Z and time). When more
than four satellites are in view, the receiver selects the four best ones with most
appropriate geometry.

The GPS receiver and satellites actually generate a very complicated set of digital codes.
The codes are made deliberately complicated so that they can be compared easily and
unambiguously. The codes are so complicated that they almost look like a string of
random pulses. They are not really random though. They are carefully chooses pseudo-
random sequences that repeats every milliseconds and they are referred to as pseudo-
random codes. In fact, with the present configuration, 21 satellites are adequate to ensure
that there will be more than four visible at all times from anywhere on earth. GPS uses
three additional satellites to serve as the spares. This ensures integrity, accuracy and
availability of the system in the event of malfunctioning of any satellite. The receiver
selects satellites that provide the best geometry for an accurate position/navigation
solution. As the satellites continue their orbits, the receiver drops satellites with marginal
geometry, as satellites with better geometry become available.

Every satellite transmits at two different frequencies called L1 and L2 frequencies. L1

has a frequency of 1575.2MHz (19cm wavelength) and L2 a frequency of 1227.6MHz
(24cm wavelength). These carrier frequencies were chosen for GPS because the
atmosphere is transparent to them. Also, two frequencies are used instead of one because
this allows easy correction for the effect of the ionosphere on the signal propagation. The
ionosphere slows the signals and bends their path. However, ionosphere slows down the
lower frequencies more than the higher ones. Comparing the difference in signals' delay
times allows removing the effect of the ionosphere. The two carriers are modulated by
various signals. Both L1 and L2 frequencies carry and broadcast satellite messages which
is a low frequency data stream containing information about the satellites' position. In
addition to that two more signals are transmitted. They are clear access or coarse
acquisition C/A, and precise or private code P. Code C/A is available to all the users. It
is carried only on the L1 frequency. The P code is available in both L1 and L2
frequencies, and is used by the US army. The C/A code allows the position fixes accurate
to within 100m whereas, P code gives the accuracy to within 15m.

27
The US Department of Defense has deliberately degraded the C/A code by using an
operational mode called selective availability or S/A to deny hostile forces the tactical
advantage of the GPS positioning. S/A involves introducing both an artificial clock error
and an orbit error into the satellite signals. The present accuracy of 100m available to
civilian users is adequate for many applications, but inadequate for certain others.
Therefore, various techniques have been developed to overcome the errors introduced by
S/A, which provide accuracy up to 3m. One of the ways of reducing the GPS errors is
called differential GPS or DGPS. In this technique, a base station receiver at a precisely
known position continuously measures the errors in ranges of the satellites in its line of
sight. Should there be any difference between the measured parameters and the receivers
reference position, a correction signal is sent via geostationary satellite to the receivers on
the same frequencies as GPS. This technique is widely used in marine and air-navigation
and permits accuracies of between 1-5m. DGPS can be either in a small area, which is
referred to as Local Differential GPS or LDGPS or in a wide area or WADGPS.

One of the simplest methods used in surveying evolves measuring the relative positions
of the two receivers. The receivers use the data from the same satellites and the user
measures the differences in their coordinates, thus directly measuring the baseline
vectors. This decreases the positioning errors since both receivers are affected by the
same errors. US Department of Defense's policy of selective availability (S/A) has,
therefore, been neatly circumvented. Of course, the US DoD can further degrade the
codes, in some circumstances. It can also divert any of the satellites to any part of the
world to increase the system accuracy in that area, as it had done during the Gulf war. In
view of, US' total control over GPS and the fact that the use of GPS has become so
widespread, some people have already expressed concern at their dependence on tender
mercies of the US army. The US army has pledged to keep the system available to
civilian users, however, who can anywhere in the world benefit by providing a multi-
billion dollar system, carefully kept in good and reliable working order, and at no user
charges.
The only potential competitor to United States GPS is the Russian Global Orbiting
Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), which is also functioning now.

(A simple handheld GPS receiver)

28
 CHAPTER - 2

VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

29
2 VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RADIO RANGE (VOR)

2.1 VOR as a navigational aid

VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio Range) is the standard short range
air navigation aid used by the member states of the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) all over the world. The VOR system, which is comprised of ground
transmitting station and air-borne receiver, provides visual azimuth information to the
pilot with respect to magnetic north. The angular information provided by the VOR is
called radial which is clockwise from the magnetic north and represents degree for
degree as measured from the location of the VOR station.

ICAO has recommended having the accuracy of the VOR not exceeding  2. The
modern VOR provides accuracy better than 0.5. Thus, an aircraft can fly to and from a
VOR station with high accuracy.

N
0

270 90
W E
VOR station

180 

(Radials of VOR)
Fig. # 2.1

30
2.2 Frequency Band

The VOR operates in the frequency band 111.975 to 117.975 MHz. The highest
assignable frequency is 117.950 MHz. However, in some special conditions, as explained
in ICAO Annex-10, a VOR may be permitted to operate in the band 108 to 111.975 MHz
also so long as use of such frequency is acceptable and the operating VOR does not make
any interference with other navaids equipment.

The channel separation between the VOR's is generally taken either 100 KHz or 200KHz.
from place to place with frequency tolerance of  0.005%. In order to accommodate
more VOR beacons, in some densely installed areas, the channel separation may be used
as close as 50 KHz. But to avoid harmful interference or inter-modulation the frequency
tolerance of all the nearby VOR's should be maintained at  0.002.

2.3 General principal of operation

The VOR operates on the principal that the phase difference between two signals can be
employed as a mean of determining azimuth if one of the signals maintains a fixed phase
throughout 360, and the phase of the other is made to vary continuously as direct linear
function of azimuth. The phase difference between these two signals will then indicate
the azimuth of the aircraft with respect to the VOR station. In practice two 30 Hz signals
are used. These signals are termed as reference phase (REF) and variable phase. The Fig.
3.2 below shows the principals of REF and VAR signals and the phase relationships
between these two at various angles.

N Ref

Ref
Var

Var 0
Ref
W E
VOR station
270 Var

Ref 90
S

31
 Var

180 (Fig.2.2)

The reference 30 Hz phase signal frequency modulates a 9960 Hz sub-carrier, which in

turn is used to amplitude modulate the station RF carrier signal. The entire signal is then
space modulated to create 30 Hz variable phase. This is achieved by formation of
cardioid pattern and then rotating it at 1800 revolutions per minute. Frequency separation
between the reference phase and variable phase 30 Hz signals is then accomplished in the
aircraft receiver to find the azimuth of the location. The station is identified by an
identification signal, which is amplitude modulated with a tone 1020Hz in the form of
coded two to three letters signal in Morse code.

2.4 Basic VOR transmission techniques

The following block-diagram, Fig. 2.2.3, explains the basic transmission techniques of a
VOR and describes in details the formation of reference and variable signals by rotation
of signal in space.

Mod. Gonio- Fig. of eight pattern

eliminato meter
r

Cardioid
9960 Hz 30 Hz 30% AM RF Amp.
Generato FM Modulato
r Modulato r
r
Omnidirectional

( General block diagram of a VOR)

Fig. 2.3)

A 9960 Hz generator produces the sub-carrier frequency, which is the basis for the REF
signal. The 9960 Hz is fed to a 30Hz frequency modulator in order to produce the
frequency deviation of  480 Hz. This again is amplitude modulated with 30% on the
VHF transmitter, normally 50 to 200 Watts output. The REF signal is fed to an

32
Omnidirectional antenna, which normally is a loop antenna, called Alford loop antenna.
The REF signal is also in parallel fed to a modulation eliminator, which removes the
modulation, and the signal output from this block is then a clean continuous wave (CW)
signal with the same carrier frequency. This signal is fed to the horizontally polarized
dipole antenna to obtain the figure of eight pattern.

Since the frequency of these two signals are the same, they will combine together to form
a cardioid. The goniometer rotates the figure of eight at 1800 rpm, which will also cause
the cardioid to rotate at the same rate.

max

Variable phase
30 Hz AM
+
Ref.phase +
30 Hz FM
-

fc- (9960  480) fc-30 fc fc+30 fc+ (9960  480)

min.

( Frequency spectrum of VOR in space) (

Formation of cardioid pattern)
Fig. 2.4
Fig. 2.5

A cardioid has maximum and minimum radiation pattern. While rotating, when the
maximum pattern is towards the receiver it will receive maximum signal and for
minimum pattern the signal received will be minimum. Therefore, if the cardioid is made
to rotate at 1800 times per minute (30 times per second), the receiver will get the signal
as 30 Hz AM. The following Fig. 2.2.6 explains the rotation of the cardioid pattern and
the resulting AM signals received by the airborne VOR receivers at north, east, south and
west directions. Form these figures it is evident that the variable phase of the amplitude
modulation (space modulation) is dependent of azimuth degree by degree.

W E

33
 S

+
NORTH

+
EAST

+
SOUTH

+
WEST

(Rotation of cardioid and reception of signal in N.S.E.and W)

Fig. 2.6

From the above illustration it is seen that the signal received at various points are
different although received from the same source. At the rotation speed of 1800 rpm (30
times per second) cardioid makes 30 revolution per second. Accordingly 30 wavelengths
are produced (30Hz). This is the variable phase. Reference phase is contained in 9960
KHz which, is frequency modulated at 30 Hz and is received with the same phase
regardless of position.

2.5 Rotation of cardioid

As explained earlier, position of cardioid is dependent of position of figure of eight

pattern. Therefore, if the figure of eight pattern is rotated the cardioid will also rotate at
the same speed. In the old VOR a motor at the speed of 1800 rpm rotated the dipole. The
device, which rotates the pattern, is called goniometer. Since, the accuracy of a VOR is
highly dependent on rotation of cardioid, any change in motor speed caused serious

34
problems. Nowadays fixed antennas are used and the goniometer produces such signal to
the VOR antenna that the figure of eight pattern is electronically rotated.

Figure 2.2-7 indicates a Goniometer and its two outputs, i.e. one sinusoidal pattern and
other cosinusoidal pattern. Both patterns have the same RF carrier phase which, is
indicated by Ecos t.

Esinpt.cost (Sine pattern)

Electroni
Fihure of eight pattern c
Gonio To dipole NE-SW
meter

Crossed dipoles
Ecost

NW NE

SW SE
From Modulation
eliminator
To dipoles SE-NW

Ecospt.cost (Cosine pattern)

Ecospt

(Fig..2-7)

There are two inputs to the Goniometer, one CW signal (Ecost) from the modulation
eliminator and the other a LF signal (Ecospt) which modulates the RF carrier. The
antenna system consists of two crossed dipoles or slot antennas facing NE/SW and
SE/NW. The cosine output from the goniometer, which is called green sideband, is
always connected to the NW/SE antenna. The sine output from the Goniometer is called
red sideband and is connected to NE/SW antenna.

As seen from the goniometer diagram, the red and green outputs are 90 out of phase.
Therefore at any time when the cosine signal is maximum the sine signal is zero and vice
versa. This means, when NW/SE antenna will radiate the figure of eight pattern with

35
maximum energy the NE/SW antenna will not radiate any. Similarly, after some time
when NE/SW antenna will get maximum energy NW/SW will not radiate any.
Because sinusoidal variation is smooth, the rotation will also be smooth. Also, the
envelope of the curves, i.e. sine and cosine patterns, are provided with frequency of 30
Hz, the resulting figure of eight pattern will also rotate with 30 Hz (1800 rpm).

Each pair of the antennas are fed with a steady increase or decrease in power, therefore,
the individual figure of eight pattern will be radiating only in two fixed directions 90
apart. Since the carrier frequency of both patterns are the same, the vector sum of these
two will produce a resulting figure of eight pattern that will rotate with correct frequency
of 30 Hz.

By inspecting the following diagram (Fig. 2.2-8) one can easily visualize how the rotation
takes place. Since the cardioid pattern is formed by vector addition of figure of eight and
non-directional circular patterns, it will also rotate with the same speed as figure of eight
pattern, i.e. at 30 Hz.

Time Antenna NW/SE Antenna NE/SW

Resultant diagram

+ +
- -
T = 0
+
-

T = 45 + +
- -

T = 90
- -
+

- - +
T = 135 +

- -
+ +
T = 180 +
+ -
36
T = 225

T = 270

+
T = 315

( Electronically rotation of figure of eight pattern)

Fig.2-8

2.6 VOR Errors

Since VOR works in VHF band, all the propagation limitations applicable to VHF
transmission are also true for VOR. Although in comparison to an NDB a VOR is more
reliable and accurate, but it suffers complications in mountainous terrain.

1) Multi-path errors: The major bearing errors in the VOR system are caused by multi-
path reception. Signals reaching the aircraft receiver may include those that arrive after
reflections from natural or man-made objects as well as those arriving by a direct path.
The multi-path signals will add and subtract as the phases of direct and reflected signals
vary while the aircraft flies along the course. Thus instead of a straight course the aircraft
may receive the signals in the following forms:

# Course roughness - It is a series of rapid irregular deviations of a radial.

+3

-3
-3
(Fig. 2-9)

# Course scalloping - It is a series of faster rhythmic deviations of a radial.

+3

37
 (Fig. 2-10)
- 3

# Course Bends - It is very slow rhythmic deviation of a radial

+3

(Fig. 2-11)
-3

# Combination - In practice, combination of all three types may be noticed.

+3

(Fig. 2-12)
- 3
The level of multi-path is a function of altitude. Multi-path effect is higher at lower
altitudes than the higher altitudes. Thus where the VOR ground beacon is installed in the
vicinity of the obstructions or when the aircraft flies over the mountainous terrain, more
scalloping or roughness is felt.

VOR also gets errors from other sources, such as:

2) Ground station errors : results from misphasing of the 30 Hz reference and variable
phases, misalignment of the north and other calibration errors at the VOR station. The
major ground station error is due to spurious vertical polarization generated by the
antennas resulting in undesirable vertically polarized 30 Hz azimuth dependent
component. This spurious 30Hz component will not be in phase with the actual 30 Hz
horizontally polarized variable phase. The aircraft antenna, although horizontally
polarized, will pick up some of this vertically polarized signal when the aircraft will tilt.
These factors may cause an additional error to the tune of 1.
3) Aircraft receiver error: It is a function of the cost and age of the aircraft receiver. The
older generation aviation receivers tend to have errors, which in new equipment have
been essentially eliminated. The modern aircraft receivers have performance better than
2.

3) Pilotage or flight technical error: It is a function of many parameters, which are all
difficult to measure. Studies of flight technical errors show the error to be higher when
the aircraft makes a turn than on a straight- line route.

38
Since all errors are independent with respect to each other, the total error can be
calculated as follows:

Total error =  (Em2 + Eg2 + Ea2 +Ep 2 )

Where: Em - Multi-path error

Eg - Ground station error

Ea - Aircraft receiver error

Ep - Pilotage error

2.7 Siting requirements

As the VOR is working on VHF band, it is subject to multi-path reflections from the
surrounding objects. It is therefore important to analyze the near and distant terrain where
the VOR shall be situated in order to obtain the best possible signal quality. See Fig. 2.2-
13.

The following are the general guidance in respect of siting of a VOR.

a) The site should be on the highest ground in the vicinity to obtain maximum line of
sight coverage. Preferably 1000 ft - 2000 ft. the land around the station should be circular
and as flat as possible. A downward slope up to a gradient of 4% is acceptable.

b) The height of the high-tension lines or wire fences should not subtend a vertical angle
of more than 1.5

c) Single trees of moderate size of up to 30 ft. may be allowed beyond 500 ft. No group
of trees is allowed within 1000 ft. if they subtend vertical angle greater than 2 from the
VOR antenna.

d) No metallic structure should subtend a vertical angle greater than 1.2 or should be
within 500 ft. from the station. Wooden structures with negligible metallic contents may
be allowed if they subtend vertical angle no more than 2.5.

e) In the mountainous terrain, a mountain top site will often be preferable. The site should
be on the highest accessible hilltop or mountain, the top of which should be graded flat to

39
a radius of at least 150-ft. On such sites, the antenna system should be installed
approximately a half wavelength above the ground level in the center of the graded area
and the transmitter building should be beyond the graded area down the slope below the
optical line from the antenna array. No ground trees, power lines, buildings etc. between
150 ft. and 1200 ft. should be within optical line of site of the antenna array.

2.5 Wooden structures

No obstructions
2 Group of trees

1.5 High tension lines

1.2 Metallic structures

VOR
0

1000'  5% slope

( VOR SITING REQUIREMENTS)

Fig. 2-. 13

2.8 Doppler VOR (DVOR)

2.8.1 General

As seen from the above siting criteria, to install a VOR several factors have to be taken in
to consideration regarding obstructions, fence lines, power lines, trees etc. This may lead
to very expensive groundwork, removal of existing high-tension lines, structures, and
prohibition of development activities close to the VOR building in future. This is not only
impractical but also unacceptable by the population living around the airport.

The development of Doppler VOR, or in short DVOR, was stimulated by the need to
provide VOR facility in the locations where siting problems rendered the conventional
VOR incapable of meeting minimum siting requirements.

Before the development of DVOR thousands of aircraft all over the world were already
using the conventional VOR and associated receivers. Therefore, it was not practical to
shut down the entire system and transfer in to new system. Therefore, ICAO, while
approving the specifications for DVOR, set out the conditions that the new system should
be designed in such a way that the aircraft should not feel any difference whether
receiving a conventional VOR or DVOR signal. In other words, from the user's point of
view, the DVOR is completely compatible with the conventional VOR although the
method of generating and radiating the navigational signals is changed considerably.

40
If the Doppler VOR system was not constrained by the parameters of the conventional
VOR system and the designers were free to vary the carrier frequency, sub-carrier FM
deviations etc., the design problems would have been significantly solved. However, that
was not the case, and several experiments were done all over the world prior to approving
the new system.

The Doppler VOR has successfully demonstrated that it is relatively insensitive to siting
effects and provides overall better performance than the conventional VOR. Therefore,
most of the countries are installing the DVOR than the conventional VOR. The following
table makes a comparison of siting criteria between the two VOR's.

Obstructions CVOR DVOR

1. Flat area without any obstructions 1000-2000' 450'-900'
2. Wooden structures 2.5 5.6
3. Group of trees 2 4.4
4. Overhead lines 1.5 3.3
5. Metallic structures 1.2 2.6
6. Fences 0.5 1.1

(Siting criteria between two VOR's)

2.8.2 Advantages of DVOR

DVOR always provides a significant improvement on any site and can be installed even
in very difficult locations. It is seen that for a reflecting signal equal to 10% of the direct
signal the maximum scalloping of CVOR is 5.75 in comparison to 0.4 for a DVOR.
In flat areas and where the reflecting object is between the station and aircraft, both will
perform equally.

In general, the accuracy and overall performance of a DVOR is at least 5 to 10 times

better than the conventional VOR. This improved accuracy and stability means less
maintenance and less flight check expenses by the Civil Aviation authorities.
Course scalloping

Reflector

6 CVOR 
Aircraft
3

1 DVOR
(Fig. 2-14)

41
 0 90 180


The DVOR has the following distinct advantages over the conventional VOR:

# Where the site position is fixed and no alternate site exists DVOR gives a higher
guarantee of performance and also requires less expertise on site to achieve that
performance.

# Where heavy constraints on site selection do not apply but higher performance is
required, DVOR being less site critical, reduces the problems of land acquisition, access,
services and rental by virtue of greater number of sites which qualify for consideration.

# Very good VOR service is always required in high-growth areas. DVOR will ensure
that its performance will not deteriorate with the future expansions in the locality.

# DVOR suffers less from the effects of industrial interference than CVOR.

These advantages are not, of course, available at no cost. At present situation a DVOR
may cost at least four times more than a conventional VOR. Nonetheless, when reduction
in normal maintenance costs, frequent flight testing expenses, and reliability are taken in
to consideration, initial high cost becomes less significant. The cost of ownership of a
DVOR over its normal life can be considerably less than for conventional VOR, and it
will give an operationally more useful and reliable service during its lifetime.

2.8.3 Principal of operation of DVOR

Doppler VOR employs two fundamental principals:

a) Utilization of Doppler effect for generating the frequency modulated bearing

information.
b) Use of wide-aperture antenna array for minimizing the effects of multi-path wave
propagation, which is the main cause of bearing deviations in VOR.

Unlike in the conventional VOR, in DVOR the reference signal is Amplitude Modulate
(AM) and the variable signal is frequency modulated (FM). Since to find the azimuth of a
place only the phase difference of two signals is required, it is therefore not important
which one is which. Hence the aircraft receiver is compatible for both systems. In DVOR,
frequency modulation of 9960 Hz sub-carrier is accomplished by the Doppler effect. The
manner in which this effect is utilized in DVOR may be explained by imagining a single
radiating antenna fastened one end by a long horizontal arm, which is being rotated,
about a central point at 1800rpm.

fc

Central 42
antenna
 Anti-clockwise fc +9960 Hz (upper
sideband0
rotation

(Generation of FM by Doppler effect)

Fig. 2-15

As the antenna will move towards and away from the receiver, the received frequency at
any point in space will vary due to Doppler effect. If the rotation frequency is fixed then
the amount of frequency deviation will solely depend on the diameter of the circle about
which the antenna rotates. As ICAO specifies this deviation to be as  480 Hz for 30 Hz
modulation, the required diameter will be approximately 5/, or 13.5 m for a VOR
frequency working on 115 MHz (mid frequency) and rotating at a constant speed of 30
revolutions per second. Due to technical difficulties, in DVOR rotation takes place anti-
clockwise direction, whereas, in conventional VOR it is in clockwise direction.

If the rotation is exactly 30 times per second, due to Doppler effect, the frequency of the
rotating signal will be received at any azimuth as follows:

Closer end Opposite end

Apparent FM

Detected 30 Hz signal
One cycle in one revolution

(Fig. 2-16)

43
In order to appear this deviation as  480 Hz of 9960 KHz sub-carrier, a second antenna,
located in the center of the 13.5-m diameter circle, must is used to radiate a signal, which
differs, by 9960 KHz from that of the rotating antenna.

The beating of these two frequencies in the receiver will produce a 9960 KHz frequency
modulated at 30 Hz with a deviation  480 Hz. The phase of this FM signal will vary
from place to place, and for the rotation speed of 30 Hz it will vary exactly degree to
degree throughout 360 radials. Therefore this space modulated FM signal will be
received as the variable phase signal by the aircraft.

It is obviously impractical to rotate an antenna at 30 Hz rate at the end of an arm 7-meter

long. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, an electronic distributor feeds 48 antennas,
equally spaced on the periphery of a circle of 7-m radius, in turn. The RF energy fed to
the central carrier antenna is 30 Hz amplitude modulated. It acts as the reference signal
since the phase of this signal will not change with the azimuth. The central antenna also
amplitude modulates a two to three letters Morse coded 1020 Hz sinusoidal tone to
identify the station.

There are three different types of DVOR systems:

# Single sideband
# Double sideband
#Alternating sideband
Out of the above three types, the double sideband became more popular due to better
technical performance. In double sideband, two different frequencies, called side-bands,
are rotated around the circle. One is fc+9960 Hz and the other is fc-9960 Hz. To maintain
compatibility with the existing VOR receivers DVOR radiates signals within the same
frequency spectrum that is assigned to the VOR. However, opposed to the conventional
VOR the azimuth-dependent information is contained in the phase of the frequency-
modulated signal as illustrated below:

AM 30 Hz reference signal
Carrier

Lower sideband Upper

sideband
 480 Hz  480
Hz

fc - 9960 Hz fc-30 fc fc+30

fc+9960 Hz

44
 ( Frequency spectrum of a double sideband DVOR)
Fig.2-17

2.9 Airborne VOR receiver

The aircraft receiver consists of a special aerial, a VHF receiver, frequency selector, and a
display unit. Normally the display unit is combined with other VHF systems, such as
Instrument Landing System (ILS) or VHF air-ground radio communication, etc. There
are various types of display units available these days. For simplicity, a conventional
display unit has been illustrated in Fig. 2.2-18

Indicator needle TO/FROM

Indicator

TO

VOR
Radial

04
5

OBS
O
B
S
( A typical VOR indicator in the aircraft)
Fig. 2-18

OBS is the Omni Bearing Selector. It selects the required radial of the VOR, which a
pilot would like to fly. TO/FRM indicates whether the aircraft is flying to or from the
VOR. Here, for example, 045 is selected which means the aircraft is flying to a VOR at
45 bearing from a VOR station. When the needle is exactly vertical, then it is on exact
course. Full-scale deflection of the needle to the left or right normally corresponds to 10.
Each dot therefore is approximately 2. Left means, it is more than the selected radial,
whereas right means less.
The airborne equipment is capable of presenting bearing within 2 but, due to terrain
effects and site limitations, it is usual to regard the accuracy as  5 for practical
purposes. This means that when the deviation needle is centered the receiver is within 5
of the selected track.

The following illustration clarifies the operation of display unit of the airborne VOR
receiver.

45
 TO

22
5
TO 45 radial

22
5

North
75 radial

VOR

TO

Aircraft route
22
5

From

225 radial 225

(A typical VOR indication when an aircraft flies in and outbound)

Fig. 2-19

As the aircraft turns to 45 radial (225 in-bound) the needle centers the vertical line.
When the aircraft passes over the VOR on to 225  outbound radial the TO indicator
changes to FROM.
2.10 Antenna system

Many surveys conducted on the performance of VOR installations have shown that
obstacle in the near field and below the horizontal lines mostly cause course errors.
Significant improvement in performance can be achieved by use of a narrower vertical
pattern. Accordingly, manufacturers design the VOR antenna so as to achieve the
radiation pattern as stated above. ICAO Annex-10 has specified: " The VOR shall provide

46
signals such as to permit satisfactory operation of a typical aircraft installation at the
levels and distances required for operational reasons, and up to an elevation angle of
40 ". The VOR emission is essentially horizontally polarized. The vertical polarized
component should be as small as technically possible. The vertical radiation pattern of a
VOR should be as follows:

No radiation
( Cone of confusion )

40 40

VOR

( VOR vertical radiation pattern)

Fig. 2-20

Above 40 there is virtually no radiation or very little field strength. Therefore, the
aircraft receiver gets confused in this area, so it is called the cone of confusion. The cone
of confusion is above the VOR beacon and the aircraft crosses this area quickly. After
crossing the cone of confusion area, the indicator in the aircraft receiver changes from TO
to FROM. The field strength or power density of VOR signals required to permit
satisfactory operation of an aircraft receiver within the specified coverage area should be
90V per miter or -107 dbW/M2 . Therefore, the transmitter power and antenna
configurations are chosen to satisfy above requirements. The typical VOR antennas used
by most of the manufacturers are as follows:

2.10.1 Conventional VOR antenna

The conventional VOR antenna is a four slot cylindrical antenna, similar to crossed
dipoles. Slot antenna is an infinitive metallic plane and acts like a dipole.

Diameter
D

rf in

47
 ( A slot antenna)
Fig. 2.21
The slot antenna poses very interesting properties. Depending upon the ratio of the
diameter of the cylinder to wavelength of rf signal different radiation pattern can be
generated from the slot antenna.

Slot slot slot

D/ = 0.125 D/ = 0.25

D/ = 8

Therefore, by using two slots, a figure of eight pattern can be generated. In VOR four
slots are used , and they are designated NE (northeast), SE (southeast), SW (southwest),
and NW (northwest)

NW NE

SW SE

To obtain the circular pattern, power output from the rf unit is fed to all four slots. The
goniometer feeds sinusoidal signal to NE/SW slots and cosinusoidal signal to NW/SE
slots. This provides the rotating figure of eight. Consequently, a cardioid is formed which
rotates.

2.10.2 Doppler VOR antenna

Doppler VOR antenna system is relatively much bigger than the conventional VOR
antenna. Most the DVORs these days are double sideband. In double sideband VOR the
amplitude modulated carrier is transmitted from the central antenna, and two side-bands
(fc +9960 and fc -9960) are rotated electronically at the speed of 1800 rpm in anti-
clockwise direction by switching in turn a circle of sideband antennas. Studies have
shown that to limit the undesired amplitude modulation of sideband signals, and to avoid
parasitic couplings between two neighboring antennas, 40 to 50 antennas are required. In
Nepal 48 antennas are used for sidebands and the central antenna radiates the AM signal.

48
 A ring of 48 antennas

Monitor antenna
(80 m away)

13.5 m one central antenna

Metallic counterpoise

30 m

(DVOR antenna configuration)

Fig. 2.22

The counterpoise is a metallic structure top of which is covered by chicken wire. The
height if the counterpoise varies from place to place depending upon the site and
coverage required. Since the signals from the antennas bounce at the edges of the
counterpoise, wider the counterpoise better the immunity from the nearby reflections.
This causes less multi-path reflections and gives space and frequency diversity effect.
Therefore, as a whole, the accuracy of a DVOR gets better. The monitor antenna is
placed at several wavelengths away from the radiating elements, and is normally located
beyond 80 meters from the central antenna. The height of the counterpoise in Nepal is
kept at approximately 3 meters from the ground level. All antenna elements are Alford
Loop type. The antennas are kept at a height of approximately /2 from the counterpoise
top. Due to physical dimensions of the Alford loop, 48 antennas can be accommodated in
a ring of 13.5 m without any problem. Also, this antenna is ideal with the radiation point
of view and widely used in Doppler VOR system worldwide.

Feed

49
 point

( An Alford loop antenna) (

Horizontal pattern) (Vertical pattern)
(Fig. 2.23)

2.11 Transmitting techniques

2.11.1 Conventional VOR

A simplified Block diagram of a conventional VOR is shown in figure 2.2-24.

The Goniometer provides a 30 Hz frequency modulated 9960 Hz sub-carrier signal to the

Control Unit, which also gets a 1020 Hz Morse coded station identification signal from
the Keyer Unit. The Control Unit sends both signals to the AM Modulator.

AM Modulator amplitude modulates the sub-carrier at 30% and the Identification signal
at 10% to the station frequency. This composite signal is amplified in the RF Amplifier
from 50 to 200W depending upon the power of the VOR station.

The Amplitude modulated full power rf energy goes via Modulation Eliminator and RF
Phasing Unit to the non-directional antenna and gives a circular pattern. The Modulator
Eliminator does not make any changes to the main power output signal.

To create a figure of eight pattern, the Modulation Eliminator samples a small rf signal
from the main stream, removes the modulation and amplifies this signal to provides
approximately 1/10-th of clean rf carrier power to the Goniometer at the station
frequency.

The Goniometer creates two different sine and cosine signals at the same power and same
station frequency, and sends to RF Phasing Unit. These signals are called Upper
Sideband (USB) and Lower Sideband (LSB). Creation of 9960Hz 30 Hz FM signal is
independent to this operation.

In RF Phasing Unit, the phases of the main carrier and sidebands are adjusted correctly to
get an amplitude-modulated signal. To achieve correct modulation depths, powers of
main signal and sidebands are adjusted in the Modulation Eliminator.

50
Two monitors work independently and monitor the radiated signals throughout the
operation of VOR. The Control Unit, as the name denotes, controls the entire VOR
system. The main power to the transmitter is switched through this unit. In an event of a
malfunctioning, or misalignment of radiated signal, the monitors provide command
signals to it, and the control unit disconnects the power or transfers to standby equipment.

The antenna is installed on top of a counterpoise, approximately 4-5 m diameter.

The monitor antenna is installed at the edge of the counterpoise.

51
 Power supply to Tx To
antenna

LSB
Voice Control AM RF Amp. RF
Unit Modulato Unit Phasing
USB
r Unit
Keyer
Unit

Monitor
No.1 Power supply 100W 100W 10W 10W

Goniomet
Modulatio er
Monitor n Unit
No.2 Eliminato
r Unit 10W

Sub-carrier signal 9960 Hz  480 Hz (30Hz FM)

52
( A simplified Block-diagram of a VOR)
Fig.2.24

53
2.11.2 Doppler VOR

Based on antenna rotation techniques, three different types of DVOR have been
developed. These are,single sideband, double sideband, and alternate sideband.

Single sideband: - In SSB-DVOR one sideband, fc + 9960 KHz is fed to the commutator
and switched around the ring of radiating elements. The system is capable of radiating the
correct frequency spectrum. However, in space a receiver finds some variation in field
strength. The nearer antenna gives higher field strength than the opposite far end antenna,
as they are placed apart. This gives rise to an additional unwanted 30 Hz AM in variable
FM signal.

3
d1

d2

Double sideband:- Double sideband operation reduces the above counterpoise effect to
almost zero. In this system, upper and lower sideband signals are radiated simultaneously
from antennas diametrically opposite to each other. Both sidebands are commuted at 30
Hz in the same direction.

24 Lower sideband

(Fig. 2.26 )
1
Upper sideband

Alternate-sideband:- The alternate-sideband is the simplification of the double-sideband.

The two sidebands are radiated alternately from opposite sides. Although technically
perfect, it requires some additional modifications in aircraft receiver, ald also requires
larger counterpoise than the above two.

54
 Lower sideband

Upper sideband (Fig.2-27)

Out of above three systems, the double sideband VOR became more popular. In Nepal all
DVORs are working with double sidebands.
2.11.3 Antenna switching:- There are 48 antennas closely placed in a ring of
approximately 13.5 m. This causes problems associated with mutual antenna coupling.
This gives rise to additional unwanted modulation in sub-carrier. Perfect simulation of a
continuously rotating antenna by an integral number of fixed antennas requires that the
feed to each have a modulation envelope represented by the function:

f(x) = Sinx/x.

(Ideal switching pulse)

The function is physically impossible to implement. Several other types of impulses were
suggested to feed to the antenna system, such as, tri-angular, Cos0.83 X, CosX, etc. In the
VORs in Nepal CosX function is used. It is easy to generate and rotation effect is
acceptable.

2.11.4 Simplified DVOR Block-diagram

A simplified block-diagram of a Doppler VOR is indicated in the following figures.

Reference signal generation :- Station carrier frequency fc is generated in a crystal VHF

oscillator and sent to the Driver Unit through manual and automatic phase shifter units.
In the driver unit Amplitude Modulation of 30 Hz reference signal and 1020 Hz keyed
station identification signals takes place. The AM modulated signal from the driver unit is
amplified by three power amplifiers and combined to produce a VHF signal of
approximately 50 Watts output. This output is sent to the central Alford loop antenna for
omni-directional radiation.

Since the phase of the reference signal should not change, an automatic phase correction
system is available. A phase detector checks for any change in outgoing and generated
phase of 30 Hz reference signal. If so, then a control voltage, equivalent to the phase

55
difference, will be sent to the VHF Oscillator for automatic phase correction. A Manual
Phaser allows to set the phase of 30 Hz reference signal to align it with magnetic north.

Forward and reflected signals are also sniffed from another directional coupler (DC2)
and sent to a Control Unit. In an event of a mismatch of antenna, the reflected signal will
become too high. This will activate the corresponding circuit in the control unit to shut
down the power supply to the RF power amplifiers.

Sideband generation:- ICAO Annex-10 states that the sub-carrier signal 9960 KHz
should be within  1%. Since, 10 KHz is within that tolerance and relatively easier to
generate (being the decimal unit), the DVOR uses 10 KHz as sub-carrier in stead of 9960
KHz.

Two crystal controlled USB and LSB oscillators generate two sideband frequencies, fc +
10 KHz and fc- 10 KHz independently. These sideband signals are mixed in two
independent mixers with the reference signal fc from the station VHF oscillator. The
phases of the two 10 KHz signals received from the Mixer units and Master Oscillator are
compared in the phase detectors. The phase detectors generate a correction dc signal in
the event of mis-phasing.

As explained earlier, for smooth rotation of the signal, these two sidebands have to be
modified in to cosine impulses prior to feeding to the antenna ring. Shaping of the
required impulses take place in two varactor bridges. A varactor or a varicap is a voltage
dependent capacitor, capacity of which changes in accordance with the bias applied to it.
When a set of two varying voltages are applied to this bridge, the sideband carrier wave
changes into series of two different Cosine impulses, 90 apart, as illustrated below:

Fc  10 KHz O/P Cosine impulses

Varactor
bridge Even o/p

Odd o/p

fc 10 KHz carrier

Voltage input No.1

Voltage input No.2

56
 (Generation of
sideband impulses)

Such impulses are produced because of two pre-defined input voltages are applied to its
inputs. The unit, which generates such input waveforms, is called Blending Function
Generator. Two varactor bridges produce four sets of impulses. Each set produces
signals for even and odd antennas. The impulses are then fed to the antenna changeover
unit that switches the rf energy to various antennas in a prescribed order. Rotation of
sidebands produces FM 30 Hz modulation in space due to Doppler effect. This is azimuth
dependent signal and is called Variable signal.

57
 PA No.1

Automatic
Phaser unit Driver Unit Splitter Unit Combiner
PA No.2 Unit

PA No.3
Voice
Pow er
supply
Ident

Modulator Pow er Control unit

30 Hz
supply

Manual
phaser

VHF
oscillator Phase
detector

Control voltage

To USB/LSB mixers

58
 ( DVOR CARRIER GENERATION)
fc from VHF Oscillator

fc +10
Mixer Unit Phaser USB Osc.. Varactor
Unit Bridge No.
1 Even
Ant.
C/O
Unit

fc+10 Even ant.

Blending Odd
Master Function Ant.
osc. gen. C/O
Unit
Fc -10
Odd ant.

Fc -10
Mixer Unit Phaser LSB Osc. Varactor
Unit Bridge
No.2

( DVOR sideband generation)

59
60
2.12. Monitoring

The VOR equipment usually has two independent monitors, which monitor the
performance of the radiated signals throughout VOR operation. Monitors are independent
equipment and they do not share any circuitry with each other or with the VOR
transmitter system. Should any of the parameters deviate beyond the specified limits, the
monitors will indicate an alarm, and will shut down the transmitter. The standby
transmitter will then turn ON.

The following are the specified limits of a VOR or DVOR:

# A change in access of 1 at the monitor site of the bearing information transmitted by
the VOR

# A reduction of more than 15% of modulation depth of the reference and variable
signals.

# Failure of monitors.

2.13 Calibration

VOR is a very dependable radio navigational aid. Therefore its accuracy has to be
monitored continuously by regular ground and flight checks.

Ground checks: Ground checks are performed by the operations technicians in a regular
basis by using portable equipment. Signals are monitored at already surveyed and known
points to see if there is in change in radial. If so then the corrective measures are taken.

Flight checks: The flight checks are performed in rather longer intervals. Special
equipped aircraft fly various orbits and radials to find if there are any deviations in
bearing information. The readings or observations are analyzed to take corrective
measures.

41
42
 DME antenna

DC3 DC4 S1

DC2 DC1
Test Test

Jumpers
MONITOR N0.1

Signal
Monitor DC5

Ref. Inc. Ref

Signal
Generator
Dumm. Jumpers
Load

Signal
Monitor

Signal
Generator
DET. DET
MONITOR NO..2

DME control
transfer unit

Output measurement

(Wilcox 596B DME simplified block

diagram)
Fig. 3.18

43