Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 242–245 (2002) 33–40

Giant magnetoimpedance: concepts and recent progress

M. Knobel*, K.R. Pirota
Instituto de F!ısica ‘‘Gleb Wataghin’’ (IFGW), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), C.P. 6165,
13.083-970 Campinas S.P., Brazil

Abstract

The giant magnetoimpedance effect (GMI) consists in drastic changes of the complex impedance of soft magnetic
materials upon the application of an external magnetic field. The GMI effect is strongly dependent on the frequency of
the applied current and the magnetic anisotropies present in the material, among other factors, which spawn a number
of interesting new magnetic phenomena. In this context, one can roughly separate the research on GMI into
approximately three aspects: (i) theory; (ii) applications and (iii) as a tool to investigate other magnetic parameters. In
this work, an updated review of all these aspects is given. r 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Magnetic measurements; Soft magnetic materials; Magnetic properties; Skin effect

1. Introduction tions in the effective magnetic permeability, a factor that

Although the magnetic-field dependence of the
electrical impedance Z of a ferromagnetic wire was first
observed about six decades ago [1], the intense
investigation of what is now called giant magnetoimpe-
dance (GMI) dates only from 1994 [2–5], i.e., just
around 7 years. In spite of this fact, it is amazing to
notice the advances in the understanding of the under-
lying physical mechanisms of GMI and the development
of practical devices and applications using this effect.
The adjective ‘‘giant’’ was employed following the well-
known giant magnetoresistance, which is a large
variation of the materials resistance upon the applica-
tion of an external magnetic field [6]. Analogously, in the
case of GMI, it is the material complex impedance that
suffers drastic changes as a function of an external
applied magnetic field. Although the practical results are
very similar, i.e., in both cases one observes a large
variation of the voltage drop across the samples upon
the application of the external field, the physical origin
of both phenomena is completely different. Roughly
speaking, in the case of GMI the overall effect of the
magnetic field application is to induce strong modifica-
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +55-19-3788-5480; fax: +55-
19-3289-3137.
E-mail address: knobel@ifi.unicamp.br (M. Knobel).
is relevant to determine the field and current distribution
within the samples. When a soft magnetic material is
used, the magnetic permeability can change orders of
magnitude when a rather small field is applied, causing
strong variations in the internal fields and electrical
current density, and consequently, on the sample’s
impedance. The effect is strongly dependent on the
frequency of the applied current and the magnetic
anisotropies present in the material, which generates a
number of interesting new magnetic phenomena. In this
context, one can split the research on GMI into
approximately three aspects:
(i) Theory: From the theoretical viewpoint, the
research on GMI began with phenomenological
models developed to understand some basic aspects
found in experimental data, such as the frequency
and field dependence of the effect, and the
appearance of a double peak structure in materials
with specifically induced anisotropies, for example.
Afterwards, the research on GMI evolved to more
accurate descriptions based on the formal equiva-
lence of GMI with ferromagnetic resonance. After
proper adaptations of the geometrical configura-
tion and boundary conditions, it is now possible to
have a more precise description of the phenomen-
on. This fact opened a completely new perspective

0304-8853/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 0 4 - 8 8 5 3 ( 0 1 ) 0 1 1 8 0 - 5
34 M. Knobel, K.R. Pirota / Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 242–245 (2002) 33–40
in the study of GMI, but brought together more
intricate mathematics to deal with.
(ii) Applications: After the observation of GMI in soft
magnetic amorphous ribbons and wires, the effect
has been studied in several systems, including
commercial materials, thin films, sandwich struc-
tures, single crystals, amorphous microwires, na-
nocrystalline materials, among others. Each
different system displays peculiar properties, being
interesting for several practical applications, many
of them already proposed and tested in laboratory
prototypes.
(iii) As a tool: A deeper understanding of the mechan-
ism behind GMI allows one to predict some
expected behaviours, under particular assump-
tions, and to use the GMI as an additional tool
to investigate some intrinsic and extrinsic magnetic
properties of novel artificially grown soft magnetic
materials.
Some reviews on the subject were published [7–10]. In
this work, an updated overview covering all the above-
mentioned aspects will be given.
2. GMI: basic aspects and theories
Depending on the frequency f of the driving AC
current I that flows through the samples, the giant
magnetoimpedance can be roughly separated into three
different regimes: (i) in the low-frequency range of 1–
10 kHz the changes on the voltage at the sample’s ends
are mainly due to the so-called magneto-inductive effect
that was extensively studied by Mohri and co-workers
[11]. (ii) At higher frequencies, up to few MHz, one has
the earliest and intensively studied giant magnetoimpe-
dance, being the effect basically caused by variations of
the magnetic penetration depth due to strong changes of
the effective magnetic permeability caused by an
external magnetic field [3]. (iii) At very high frequencies,
of the order of GHz, a huge variation of the penetration
depth is observed, and strong changes of the sample’s
impedance occur owing to the ferromagnetic resonance
(FMR) [12]. Let us describe each regime in more detail.
2.1. Low-frequency regime
In the low-frequency range the main effect of the
current is simply to generate a circumferential time-
varying magnetic field. This field causes a circular
magnetic flux change and generates a longitudinal
electric field Ez ; whose value at the surface determines
the inductive voltage across the wire: VL ¼ Ez ðaÞl ¼
ðio=c2 ÞLi I; where l is the wire length and Li is the
internal inductance of the wire [13]. If the wire is
homogeneous, the expression for Li is simply Li ¼ mf l=2
[14]. In general, the inductive voltage is determined by
the internal inductance which, in turn, depends on the
spatial distribution of the circular permeability within
the wire. When a time-varying current with low
frequency is flowing through a ferromagnetic sample,
an AC voltage VT (total voltage) appears between the
ends of the wire. This total voltage is a sum of a resistive
voltage, VR ; and an inductive voltage, VL ; so that VT ¼
VR þ VL ¼ RI  ðio=c2 ÞLi I; R being the DC resistance
of the sample. When an external DC magnetic field Hex
is applied, the circular component of magnetization and
the circular permeability change, giving rise to a large
change in the total voltage. If one defines the electrical
complex impedance as Z ¼ VT =I ¼ Z1 þ iZ2 ; one con-
cludes that, at relatively low frequencies, the field
dependence of impedance is attributed to its inductive
term, which is simply proportional to the circumferential
permeability [14]. This basic and simple idea also applies
to the other regimes, i.e., the external field acts only as
an agent to bring about changes in the effective
permeability.
2.2. Moderate-frequency regime
In the moderate-frequency scale of few MHz, the
field-driven changes in the impedance of the samples
were the first to be identified as the GMI effect [2,5]. The
drastic changes of impedance were soon interpreted in
terms of the classical skin effect in a magnetic conductor
with scalar magnetic permeability, as a consequence of
the change in the penetration depth of the AC current
provoked by an external magnetic field. The complex
impedance Z of a cylindrical magnetic conductor and
infinite planar film are, respectively [15,16],
Z ¼ RDC kaJ0 ðkaÞ=2J1 ðkaÞ
and
kt
Z ¼ RDC cotðkt=2Þ; ð1Þ
2
where k ¼ ð1 þ iÞ=d; J0 and J1 are the Bessel functions of
first kind, a is the radius of the wire, t is the thickness of
the film and d is the magnetic penetration depth, given
by
d ¼ cð4p2 smf f Þ1=2 ; ð2Þ
where s is the electrical conductivity, f is the frequency
of the current along the sample and mf is the circular
magnetic permeability. Owing to the high magnetic
permeability of soft magnetic materials, the skin effect
appears at frequencies orders of magnitude lower than
those expected for a nonmagnetic conductor with similar
conductivity. Hex again triggers changes in the circular
permeability and, therefore, the penetration depth also
changes, finally resulting in changes of Z: Thus, for a
ferromagnetic material the magnetic field dependence of
 M. Knobel, K.R. Pirota / Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 242–245 (2002) 33–40 35

the permeability is the main factor that controls the 13

GMI behaviour.
Therefore, the problem of explaining the GMI 12 (Fe Co ) Si B
900 kHz
response of a particular sample is equivalent to the 5 mA
problem of understanding the trend of its permeability.
11 after annealing
In ferromagnetic materials, owing to the involved
relationship between the magnetic field Hex and the H [O e]

Z [Ω ]
ex

induction B; the AC permeability is generally a complex 10

tensor, which depends not only on the frequency f and
the external magnetic field Hex ; but also on some other 9
parameters, such as the amplitude of the AC magnetic
field generated by the AC current, mechanical strains, 8
temperature, etc. To understand the experimental results
and to enable improvement of the novel GMI materials -100 -50 0 50 100
several theoretical models of GMI have been developed. (a) H ex [Oe]
The main task of a good theory is to find an
approximate expression for the effective circumferential
permeability meff
f ; which best describes the response of 16 16
(Fe Co ) Si B
the particular domain structure to the axial driving AC 14

[Ω ]
900 kHz 12
current and applied external field. Usually, both the 14 5 mA 10

Z
domain wall movement and magnetization rotation 8
before anealing
contribute to the permeability [14,17]: meff f ¼
6
0 300 600 900
12
Z [Ω ]

mrot mov rot

f þ mf ; where mf and mf
mov
are the corresponding
contributions to the effective circumferential magnetic
permeability. At relatively low frequencies, f o500 kHz,
both contributions are responsible for the circumfer-
ential magnetization process. At higher frequencies,
when the skin effect is stronger, the domain wall
movements are strongly damped by eddy currents and
the magnetization rotations dominate the process [18].
The high-frequency expansion of the impedance expres-
sion given by Eq. (1) reveals that Z is proportional to
square root of the product of permeability and
frequency [15]. In this simple scenario, considering the
circular permeability as a scalar quantity, let us consider
a sample with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy
(circular magnetic domains for wires or transversal ones
for films). When Hex is increased along the longitudinal
direction, hard magnetic axis, the magnetization in each
domain rotates towards the axis, increasing the circular
permeability and thus increasing the impedance Z: The
maximum permeability is reached for a static applied
field that balances the transversal anisotropy field Hk ;
the point where the impedance has its maximum value
[19,20]. Further increase of Hex leads to the situation
where the circular magnetization process becomes
dominated by magnetization rotation and therefore mf
decreases, reaching a constant and very low value. The
impedance Z follows the same behaviour. Thus, if the
applied external magnetic field takes values from Hex
to þHex in the longitudinal direction, the curve of the
impedance versus applied field displays two peaks (two-
peak GMI behaviour) as can be seen in Fig. 1(a) for an
(Fe0.053Co0.947)70Si12B18 amorphous ribbon submitted to
a pre-annealing of one hour at 3601C followed by one
hour stress-annealing at 3401C (applied tensile stress of
f (k Hz)
10
8
6
-100 -50 0 50 100
(b) Hex [Oe]
Fig. 1. (a) Field dependence of impedance Z (double-peak
behaviour) for a ribbon of composition (Fe0.053Co0.947)70Si12B18
submitted to a pre-annealing of 1 h at 3601C followed by 1 h
stress-annealing at 3401C (applied tensile stress of 400 MPa).
(b) The same for the ribbon before the mentioned annealing
(single-peak behaviour) and the frequency dependence of the
impedance at zero applied field (inset).
400 MPa) [21,22]. The thermal treatment induced a well-
defined magnetic anisotropy perpendicular to the ribbon
axis [21,22]. On the other hand, if the sample has easy
longitudinal axis magnetization (longitudinal magnetic
anisotropy), the transversal magnetization is always
dominated by rotational processes and the impedance
displays a monotonous decrease from Hex ¼ 0 (single-
peak behaviour). Fig. 1(b) shows the single-peak beha-
viour for the same sample as in Fig. 1(a) but measured
before the above-mentioned annealing.
2.3. High-frequency regime
In order to fully understand the experimental data,
several authors [19,20] initially presented quasistatic
36 M. Knobel, K.R. Pirota / Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 242–245 (2002) 33–40
models based on the minimization of the free energy
equation for some particular domain structure.
Although this kind of model does not consider the
dynamic effects related to the rapid motion of the
magnetization, they are useful to explain the experi-
mental results at low frequencies, and to obtain
important magnetic parameters (see Section 4 below).
Panina and Mohri theoretically investigated the influ-
ence of eddy current damping of domain wall motion on
GMI effect [13]. Their model is valid at the intermediate
frequency regime, where the circular magnetization by
domain wall motion is still significant. At higher
frequencies, when the magnetization rotation completely
dominates the magnetization process, the dynamic
characteristics play an important role, and a more
rigorous model must be based on a simultaneous
solution of Maxwell equations and the Landau–Lifshitz
equation of magnetization motion. This procedure is
well known from theories of ferromagnetic resonance
[23]. To achieve this task, Panina et al. [14] derived the
effective dynamic permeability meff of a wire with
circumferential or helical anisotropy and of a thin film
with in-plane uniaxial anisotropy. This model, and
others [24,25], neglect the exchange interaction in the
skin layer, and therefore are just approximations for
ferromagnetic metals. Yelon et al. [12] showed that the
theory of ferromagnetic resonance in metals, developed
more than 40 years ago, and which explicitly takes into
account the exchange effect, completely agrees with the
observed GMI effect at rather high frequencies. After
such elucidation, a number of papers using this
approach appeared to explain the effect in many
different situations. M!enard et al. [26] solved the
problem for an isotropic axially saturated wire and,
later on, for a nonsaturated anisotropic wire [27]. Kraus
applied the approach to a planar geometry, considering
a film with uniaxial anisotropy [16] showing that the
exchange effect does play an important role in the GMI
response. Britel et al. [28] recently reported the observa-
tion of both ferromagnetic resonance and antiresonance
in a magnetic metal using a GMI technique.
3. Recent experimental results and applications
It is remarkably difficult to make a complete review of
all published experimental data on GMI, because a large
amount of works have been published in the last few
years. Generally speaking, conventional measurements
are explored to test the validity of some theoretical
models, while different geometries and techniques are
employed to gather new insights about some unclear
points. Furthermore, a great number of investigations
deal with different kinds of materials subjected to a
broad variety of annealings, which are performed in
order to induce specific magnetic anisotropies, modify-
ing the GMI response.
3.1. Recent experimental results
Since its discovery, GMI has been studied in a wide
range of systems. Firstly, GMI was observed in single-
phase bulk structures, like soft magnetic amorphous
wires [2,5,17] and ribbons [4,29,30]. It was soon realized
that the most important characteristic of a good GMI
element is magnetic softness, and therefore it was
studied in soft nanocrystalline ferromagnets [31–33],
commercial crystalline Mumetal strips [34,35], sputtered
thin films [30,36], sandwich structures [37,38]. Also, it is
well known that the magnetic anisotropy of the system
(its intensity, direction and distribution) can strongly
affect the GMI behaviour [16,39,40]. Therefore, several
studies have performed all kinds of annealings, in order
to induce specific anisotropies: field annealing [41], stress
annealing [42,43], torsion annealing [44,45] and Joule
heating [35,46] and their combinations [47,48] in a
variety of systems were already tested, with very
interesting results. Furthermore, magnetoelastic aniso-
tropies can play an important role even at room
temperature, and studies of GMI as a function of
applied tensile stress [17,49,50] or torsion angle [51,52]
have revealed that the impedance can be a good
parameter to build sensitive stress or torsion sensors.
Also, GMI has been extensively investigated in glass-
covered amorphous microwires [46,53–55].
More recently, much attention has been given to
asymmetric GMI behaviour because it can be very
interesting in sensor devices. In principle, asymmetrical
GMI effect can be reached using a DC bias field
produced by coils or bias permanent magnets put
around the sample. Sometimes this procedure can be
troublesome and another mechanism is needed. Asym-
metrical GMI was found in twisted wires with helical
anisotropy biased with a DC current [56]. Panina et al.
[57], based on the surface impedance tensor, analysed
the mechanism of the asymmetric GMI in those twisted
wires and in a wire without torsion (circular anisotropy)
driven by a pulse current flowing through the sample
and the coil mounted on it [58]. Several studies have
reported asymmetric GMI in ribbons and wires biased
by DC current [59–61]. Asymmetric GMI was also
found in Co-based amorphous ribbons annealed in air
with a weak field (maximum 3 Oe) in the direction of the
sample axis [62], in Co-based wires annealed under a
circumferential field produced by a DC bias current [63]
and torsion-annealed wires [64]. In some cases the origin
of the observed asymmetry is still under discussion
[65–67].
Although GMI seems promising for applications,
there are some drawbacks that must be overcome in
order to design a material for a certain device. For
 M. Knobel, K.R. Pirota / Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 242–245 (2002) 33–40
example, GMI presents relaxation due to the aftereffect
of the permeability [68,69]. This GMI aftereffect is not
desired for technological applications, but can be
strongly reduced through appropriate annealing [22].
An other nondesirable effect for some applications of
GMI is the hysteretic behaviour that is correlated with
the magnetization process [70]. Like the GMI aftereffect,
hysteresis can be strongly reduced through adequate
thermal treatments [71].
3.2. Applications
Many applications of GMI have been proposed so
far. By choosing an appropriate material, and perform-
ing specific thermal treatments it is possible to tailor
special impedance responses, depending on the desired
application. The high sensitivity of GMI to external DC
field, drive current frequency and tensile stress makes
soft magnetic materials especially convenient for sensor
applications. Therefore, from the application point of
view, many uses of GMI materials have been idealized
and developed, with very interesting perspectives.
The first report concerning a technological application
of GMI appeared in 1991, before its interpretation, in
the development of magnetic sensors [64]. Mohri
proposed a data table based on the magnetoinductive
effect for imputing hand-written characters into a
personal computer removing the conventional key-
board, the ‘‘pen-imputting personal computer’’ [47]. A
position sensor based on GMI was developed with a low
negative magnetostriction CoFeSiB wire [10]. The stress
dependence of GMI on an annealed CoFeB ribbon was
found to be promising to develop a highly sensitive
stress-sensor [38]. A direction-sensitive sensor was
recently developed using the GMI effect in an FeCo-
SiBNd wire [39]. A wide variety of novel sensing
elements are under assessment [72], such as computer-
disk heads, rotary encoders, pin-hole detector, direction
sensors for navigation (electronic compasses), current
sensors, biomedical sensors, car traffic monitoring [73]
and environmental sensors [74]. Good reviews concern-
ing GMI element sensors can be found in Refs. [7,35,72].
A comparison among a number of magnetic sensors can
be found in Ref. [50].
4. GMI as a tool
Since the GMI phenomenon is now better under-
stood, it is possible to predict some expected trends, and
also use the GMI as an additional tool to investigate
some intrinsic and extrinsic magnetic properties of novel
artificially grown soft magnetic materials. This section
gives an overview of some works that make use of GMI
to extract relevant parameters of the samples.
37
The potential application of GMI effect as a research
tool was already realized in one of the initial works,
where a fit of the impedance versus frequency curve gave
as a result the scalar circular permeability for an
FeCoSiB wire [2,74], a parameter which is difficult to
obtain using conventional magnetic techniques. By
means of simple approximations, it was possible to
develop a useful model to visualize the GMI effect in
amorphous and nanocrystalline wires, which leads to
rough estimations of the magnetic penetration depth d
and also the circular permeability mf ; using one single
measurement instead of the whole frequency dependence
[31,74]. An alternative approach was developed by
Valenzuela et al. [75] that investigated the GMI using
equivalent circuits. In this impedance spectroscopy
formalism it was possible to show that a CoFeBSi wire
can be approximated by a series Rs Ls arrangement,
connected to a parallel Lp Rp arm. Ls and Lp are
inductors associated with the rotational and domain
wall contributions of mf ; respectively. Rp is a resistive
element related to wall damping and Rs accounts for all
resistances in the circuit like the wire itself, contacts and
so on. This methodology allows one not only to evaluate
the circumferential permeability as a function of the
applied field but also to estimate the respective
rotational and domain wall contributions to perme-
ability [76].
More recently, a novel approach was introduced to
study the GMI effect [61]. In this method, the mean
value of the circumferential permeability and the
circular hysteresis loops can be estimated by means of
a Fourier analysis of the time derivative magnetization
calculated from a simple rotational model, minimizing
the free energy equation. The simple model explains
quite well the experimental results for an FeCoSiB joule
heated wire biased by a DC current (asymmetric
response), and it is now being tested in several soft
magnetic systems [77].
Magnetoelastic parameters can also be studied
through impedance measurements. The influence of
applied tensile stress on GMI effect has been investi-
gated in amorphous wires [17,19,49] and ribbons [78].
The stress dependence of GMI can be easily applied to
estimate the saturation magnetostriciton constant (ls ) of
negative magnetostriction samples [79].
Pirota et al. [39] studied the GMI in stress-annealed
amorphous ribbons as a function of the angle of
application of external magnetic field to verify the role
of induced anisotropies (and their distribution) and
demagnetizing factors in the GMI phenomenon. The
authors proposed an experimental procedure for deter-
mining the easy-axis distribution function. Carara et al.
[80] showed that relevant information about the
magnetization dynamics of soft magnetic materials
could be obtained from the GMI measurements. More
recently, the GMI technique was applied to evaluate the
38 M. Knobel, K.R. Pirota / Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 242–245 (2002) 33–40
evolution of anisotropy field of FeNbB amorphous
ribbons as a function of iron content [81], while GMI
was combined with magnetic force microscopy to
characterize the domain structure of electrodeposited
CoP microtubes [82].
However, the great potential of GMI as a character-
ization tool for soft ferromagnetic metals was only
recently manifested, following the enormous advances in
theoretical models. M!enard et al. [26] established a clear
correspondence between GMI and magnetization
curves, and used it to investigate and model the domain
structure in glass-covered amorphous wires. Ciureanu
et al. [83] measured the GMI of amorphous and
polycrystalline wires (current frequencies in the range
10–6 GHz). From the peak of the GMI curves, they were
able to estimate the saturation magnetization Ms ; with a
good agreement with the values directly measured using
a vibrating sample magnetometer. They used a dynamic
magnetization model for GMI based on ferromagnetic
resonance, which predicts a straight line (whose slope
depends only on Ms ) on an f02 vs. H0 plot, f0 being the
resonance frequency and H0 the resonance field. Later
on, M!enard et al. [84] developed a model for the high-
frequency impedance in the case of soft magnetic wires,
deriving an expression which relates the Landau–
Lifschitz damping parameter l to the peak value of
the wire impedance at the ferromagnetic resonance. This
model was further developed and applied to deduce the
complex permeability of amorphous wires from GMI
measurements [85]. The studies developed in Yelon’s
group culminated in the observation of both ferromag-
netic resonance and antiresonance in a magnetic metal
using GMI technique from where it is possible to
deduce, fitting the field dependence of the resonance and
antiresonance frequencies, the gyromagnetic ratio,
anisotropy field and the saturation magnetization of
the sample with good agreement with parameters
obtained through conventional measurements [86].
Such diversity of experiments clearly demonstrates
that the giant magnetoimpedance indeed provides a
powerful tool for characterizing the intrinsic properties
of magnetic metals. Owing to its extreme sensitivity and
ease of use, GMI can be compared, including several
advantages, with traditional techniques such as trans-
verse susceptibility and ferromagnetic resonance.
5. Conclusions
An updated review on giant magnetoimpedance was
presented. Owing to the rapid development of theories
and applications, both supported by systematic experi-
mental investigations, it is now possible to predict a
fruitful future for this phonomenon. Once the theories
become more and more accurate, it will be possible to
use the GMI effect as an additional tool to study soft
magnetic materials, including the distribution of
quenched-in and induced anisotropies, magnetoelastic
behaviour, ferromagnetic resonance and anti-resonance,
and other intrinsic and extrinsic magnetic properties.
Also, the progress on models and experimental data will
certainly lead to improved materials from the applica-
tions viewpoint, mainly highly sensitive magnetic
sensors. However, there are still many unsolved pro-
blems and questions that remain to be clarified during
this challenging route to understand and develop better
application-oriented soft magnetic materials.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the stimulating collabora-
tions and discussions with L. Kraus (Prague), C.
!
Gomez-Polo (Pamplona) and M. Va! zquez (Madrid).
Financial support from FAPESP and CNPq (Brazil) is
greatly acknowledged.
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