Radiation Safety Manual 2016

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Chapter 14
Radiation Surveys

Radiation surveys consist of radiation measurements and observations of radiation protection

controls. Measurements may consist of direct radiation readings and/or analysis of samples
taken from the radiation environment. Observations of radiation protection controls may include
monitoring work practices such as use of gloves and lab coats, and verifying that control
devices such as signs, labels and interlocks are in place. When results of radiation surveys are
compared against appropriate standards, they can be used to determine the effectiveness of the
radiation safety program, and/or to determine whether regulatory requirements have been
satisfied.

From the workers point of view, surveys are needed to determine how the work they are
performing could affect themselves and other individuals who could be exposed. Surveys are
also needed to determine whether their work falls within the radiation safety guidelines
established for the project. For these reasons each radiation worker is responsible for
performing radiation surveys at meaningful times.

This chapter describes instrumentation and measurement techniques for determining what
levels of external radiation are present from radiation sources, how to interpret the results of a
survey, and, when necessary, what corrective actions should be taken.

14.1 Compliance Assessment by Project Directors

All project directors should assess their state of compliance with regulatory requirements at
least once each year. This assessment should be a comprehensive review of radiation safety
practices in the lab in comparison with the requirements established in project authorization
documents. A self-inspection checklist has been developed to help project personnel determine
the compliance status of the project. This checklist is available from the Radiation Safety
Section (RSS).

14.2 Proper Use of Survey Instruments

Personnel who conduct radiation surveys must understand the capabilities and limitations of the
survey instruments being used. The following sections briefly describe the instruments fre-
quently used in radiation protection and discuss their proper use. Explanations of operating
principles may be found in a wide variety of textbooks. Two excellent references on this matter
are the latest editions of Jacob Shapiro's book entitled Radiation Protection - A Guide for
Scientists and Physicians published by Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts,
and Glenn F. Knoll's Radiation Detection and Measurement published by John Wiley & Sons,
New York.

14.2.1 Ionization Chambers

Ionization chambers are the simplest of the gas filled detectors. Portable ion chambers utilizing
current measurement circuitry are commonly used as survey instruments for radiation
monitoring purposes. Dose measurement instruments such as pocket dosimeters and
condenser r-meters are also available which operate on the principal of reduction of a charge
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within the chamber. Some ion chambers that are designed to measure the quantity of
radioactive material in a sample allow the sample to be placed within the chamber.

Ion chambers are generally used for x- and gamma-ray measurements but can also be used for
beta particle or electron measurements if equipped with a suitably thin wall or window. Most ion
chamber survey meters have a reasonably linear response over a wide range of x- and gamma-
ray energies. Many are equipped with a cap or sliding door that should be removed or opened
when measuring energies below about 50 keV.

If the walls and gas filling of an ion chamber consist of materials with atomic numbers not too
different from the atomic numbers of the components of air, then the response of the ion
chamber is not very energy dependent. This means that the response of the ion chamber will
be reasonably correct over a wide range of x-ray or gamma-ray energies. Ionization chamber
type survey meters are frequently used when measuring external radiation fields from x-ray
units and larger quantities of radioactive material. Because most of them have a higher
detection threshold than Geiger counters and are more expensive, ion chamber survey
instruments are infrequently used when working with tracer quantities of radioactive materials.

14.2.2 Geiger-Mueller Counters

The Geiger-Mueller tube is one of the oldest and most useful radiation detectors in existence.
Tubes are filled with a counting gas and may be constructed in a variety of shapes and sizes,
usually cylindrical. Geiger detectors or probes usually consist of a Geiger tube encased in a
protective housing. Depending upon the design, Geiger detectors can have good sensitivity to
alpha, beta, x, and gamma radiations. Some probes have a side window that can be opened to
permit detection of higher energy beta particles and low energy x or gamma radiation. When
open, side window tubes are approximately 30-45 mg/cm2 in thickness. When closed they are
1000 mg/cm2 thick or more. Some Geiger tubes are constructed with a thin end window made
of mica that is typically no more than 2 mg/cm2 in thickness. End window probes are useful
when working with sources of lower energy beta particles, gamma, or x rays.

Geiger detectors are usually connected to rate meters or scalers. Those utilizing a rate meter
are typically calibrated in units of counts per minute, counts per second, milliroentgen per hour,
or roentgens per hour. Most portable Geiger counters used for radiation monitoring purposes
are of this variety. Some portable units and many laboratory instruments utilize scalers which
record each individual Geiger tube pulse during a selectable time interval. These instruments
are primarily used to determine the quantity of radioactive material in a sample rather than to
determine exposure rates.

Most Geiger tubes have a reasonably flat response to photon energies between 200 keV and
1.25 MeV. Significant under-response or over-response is possible, particularly at photon
energies below about 200 keV. When measuring gamma or x rays below about 200 keV, the
open side window or the thin end window should be facing the source. Detectors without
windows should not be used for measurements of photons below about 200 keV.

Low energy gamma and x rays on the order of 30 keV and below may be greatly attenuated by
the walls of the tube, drastically reducing the tube's sensitivity at these energies. Caution
should be used when monitoring low energy sources because the Geiger tube may not respond
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even though a hazard exists. Radiation from an analytical x-ray unit or an I-125 source will
probably not be detected with a side window tube or through the side of an end window tube. It
is imperative that a thin end window tube be used at these energies with the thin window facing
the source.

The minimum energy necessary for an alpha or beta particle to be detected by a Geiger tube is
dependent upon the density thickness of the tube's walls and holder in which it is mounted.
Side window detectors cannot detect alpha particles; have a cut-off energy of about 200 keV for
betas when the window is open, and a cutoff of over 2 MeV for betas when the window is
closed. These properties make them poorly suited for use in the typical biomedical research
laboratory.

Through the end window of an end window tube, a survey meter can detect beta particles
greater than about 35 keV and alpha particles greater than about 4 MeV. This includes virtually
every radionuclide in use at UIC except H-3 and Fe-55. Thin end window Geiger tubes cannot
detect H-3 because the beta particles (Emax = 18.6 keV) do not possess enough energy to pass
through the thin end window. They cannot detect Fe-55 with the necessary sensitivity because
the low energy x-rays (0.64, 5.887, 5.899, and 6.49 keV) are almost completely attenuated by
the window.
A thin end window Geiger counter can also be used to estimate the skin dose from a beta
emitter point source deposited on the skin. While most end window Geiger counter survey
instruments are calibrated in mR/h, a unit that is only defined for gamma and x rays, readings
can be converted into a good estimate of the dose rate in rads per hour. A one microcurie beta
particle point source placed very close to the window of a typical end window Geiger counter will
cause a response of about 150 mR/h. Assuming the dead layer of skin has a density thickness
of 7 mg/cm2, a one microcurie point source of a typical beta emitter will deliver a dose of about
9000 rad/h to the tiny volume of living tissue immediately adjacent.

(9,000 rad/h/ mrad/rad) == 60,000 mrad/h to the tissue

150 mR/h/mCi mR/h on the GM survey meter

In other words, the Geiger counter reading in mR/h should be multiplied by 60,000 to obtain the
maximum dose rate to the skin in mrad/h.

Geiger detectors should always be switched on before approaching an intense source of

radiation because of an effect known as jamming, tube paralyzation, or tube saturation.
Jamming occurs when the detector is placed in a very strong radiation field in which the tube is
unable to recover from one detected radiation before responding to the next. This causes
continuous discharge in the tube and the meter reads zero.

Geiger counters should not be used to measure radiation from sources that produce strong
electromagnetic fields, such as a generator, or that emit pulsed radiation fields, such as a linear
accelerator because this may result in extremely erroneous readings.

14.2.3 Solid Scintillation Detectors

Scintillators are materials that absorb and convert radiation energy to photons of light.
Detectors are made by optically coupling the scintillant to a photomultiplier tube and enclosing
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the assembly in a light tight container. The photomultiplier tube converts the flashes of light into
electrical pulses that can be counted and analyzed. Portable and laboratory equipment may
utilize rate meters or scalers to measure the output pulses of solid scintillation detectors.

A wide variety of solid scintillation detectors are available that can detect alpha, beta, x, gamma,
and neutron radiations. Most scintillation phosphors are inorganic crystals with a small but
precisely controlled impurity. The most commonly used solid scintillator is sodium iodide doped
with a thallium impurity, NaI(Tl). Scintillation phosphors are optically coupled to photomultiplier
tubes and inserted into sleeves or cases to seal out ambient light. Table 14.1 lists several solid
scintillators that are commercially available.

Analytical laboratory instruments designed for detection of photons from a variety of gamma
emitting radionuclides such as auto-gamma counters, single channel analyzers, and multi-
channel gamma spectrometers usually use fairly large (2" x 2" or 3" x 3") NaI(Tl) detectors.
Because large crystals detect radiation with high efficiency, several inches of lead shielding is
usually employed to reduce the background radiation. These instruments can detect very small
quantities of radioactive material. They are commonly used in radiation protection to count
smear or wipe test samples, leak test samples, and bioassay samples.

TABLE 14.1 - SOME COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SOLID SCINTILLATION PHOSPHORS

RADIATION DETECTED TYPE OF SCINTILLATOR

Alpha Particles Zn(Ag)

Beta Particles Plastic, CaF2(Eu), Anthracene
X and Gamma Rays NaI(Tl), CsI(Na)
6
Thermal Neutrons Li dispersed in ZnS (Ag)
Fast Neutrons ZnS(Ag)
6
Neutrons LiI(Eu)

Portable survey meters that use NaI(Tl) crystals for detection of x and gamma rays are
commonly available but cost significantly more than Geiger counters. Some portable detectors
do not provide adequate shock absorption for their fragile and expensive photomultiplier tubes
and crystals, rendering them vulnerable to breakage when improperly handled. Thicker crystals
suffer from high background counts because sufficient shielding cannot usually be employed.
Detectors with thin NaI(Tl) crystals are the most useful in portable equipment because they
detect fewer background counts while efficiently detecting lower energy x and gamma rays such
as those emitted by I-125. Some detector designs employ the use of a thin aluminized Mylar
window which also permits the detection of energetic beta particles such as those of P-32.

14.2.4 Liquid Scintillation Counters

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Liquid scintillation counters are large analytical instruments capable of detecting very small
quantities of alpha, beta, and gamma emitting radionuclides. Samples are prepared by mixing
them with a fluid detector called liquid scintillation fluid, which consists of a solvent to dissolve
both the radioactive sample and a scintillator. Radiation energy emitted by the sample is
absorbed by the solvent molecules, transferred to the scintillator, and released in the form of
light photons. The sample and fluid are usually placed into small vials that are counted in the a
dark chamber within the liquid scintillation counter. Background radiation is reduced by using
several inches of lead shielding. Dual photomultiplier tubes and coincidence counting circuitry
is employed in most units to reduce photomultiplier tube noise and further reduce background.
Scintillation counters can be equipped with several counting channels or with a spectrometer.

Because the fluid detector is in direct contact with the sample, low energy beta emitters such as
tritium, and low energy x-ray emitters such as Fe-55 can be readily detected. Extremely high
counting efficiencies can be obtained if samples are properly prepared and the correct type of
cocktail is used. In order to obtain the highest possible counting efficiency, some samples must
be digested with a solubilizer to create a homogeneous counting mixture. Quenching and
chemiluminescence can cause interference with detection of radioactivity in samples.

Scintillation counters are commonly used in radiation protection to count smear or wipe test
samples, leak test samples, and bioassay samples. Sample preparation is not necessary when
analyzing smears.

14.2.5 Acquisition and Calibration of Portable Survey Instruments

Projects that use radioactive materials other than tritium (H-3) or Fe-55 are usually required to
possess and use a properly operating survey meter. The need for obtaining a survey meter for
users of radiation producing machines is evaluated on a case by case basis.

The most common radiation survey meter in use at UIC for detection of radioactive materials is
a portable battery operated Geiger counter equipped with a thin end window detector and rate
meter calibrated in milliroentgen per hour, mR/h. Sturdy reliable units of this variety are readily
available at a reasonable cost. Care should be taken when selecting a survey meter because
some are very poorly constructed and cannot withstand normal daily use. Others have rate
meters that do not respond in a linear fashion and cannot be calibrated to the standards
required by the license issued to UIC. Before purchasing a portable survey meter consult with
the RSS for advice.

All survey instruments are calibrated at least annually and checked at least quarterly for proper
operation by the Radiation Safety Office.

14.3 Radioactive Material Surveys by Project Personnel

Radiation protection surveys are performed to measure contamination and external radiation
levels. Survey results are used to maintain control over the radiological environment. If surveys
are conducted at meaningful times, they will be effective in preventing the spread of
contamination and in minimizing personnel exposures. Since project personnel know when,
where, and how radioactive material work has been performed in their laboratories, they should
know the best times to conduct surveys.

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14.3.1 Contamination Monitoring

Whenever radioactive material in unsealed form is used, it is possible to create contamination in

the work area. Use of unsealed radioactive material can also cause personnel contamination.
Project personnel should frequently survey the work area for contamination, promptly clean any
contamination that is detected, and conduct additional surveys to determine the effectiveness of
the decontamination effort. Because there is no practical way to prevent contamination from
spreading onto objects or into areas where contamination is not permitted, decontamination
should continue until no contamination remains.

The following guidelines should be used to determine when contamination surveys should be
conducted. Hands, clothing, shoes, counter tops, floors, and other objects should be surveyed
for contamination at the following meaningful times:

· During and after each handling or use of radioactive material;

· Immediately after dispensing radioactive material from a stock solution;

· Immediately after performing any procedure that has a significant probability of causing
contamination;

· Immediately after performing new or altered procedures;

· Whenever there is reason to suspect contamination; and

· Before leaving the laboratory for breaks and meals, and at the end of each work day.

14.3.2 Contamination Survey Methods

Radionuclides Other Than H-3 and Fe-55

Contamination from radionuclides other than H-3 and Fe-55 may be detected by carefully
monitoring the work areas and the floor in the work areas using a thin end window Geiger
counter or pancake probe. Care should be taken to distinguish contamination from external
radiation levels arising from nearby sources. The end window of the detector should be moved
slowly past the surface being monitored. The detection sensitivity decreases rapidly as the
distance from the surface being surveyed increases. Therefore, it is important to place the thin
end window of the Geiger detector close (about 1 cm) to the surface being monitored. Care
should be taken to avoid contaminating the detector. Surface wipes must be taken to detect
contamination in high background areas, when a Geiger counter is not available, or when
additional sensitivity is required. Using moderate pressure, wipe about 100 square centimeters
of the surface being monitored with a cotton tipped applicator or piece of filter paper. While a
Geiger counter can be used to check wipes for contamination, samples should be counted using
a properly adjusted liquid scintillation counter or auto-gamma counter because they have
superior sensitivity.

H-3 and Fe-55

The extremely low energy of the beta particle emitted by tritium (H-3) prevents its detection with
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a Geiger counter survey instrument. Similarly, the low energies of radiations emitted by Fe-55
prevent efficient detection. Tritium and Fe-55 contamination should be monitored by taking
surface wipes. Using moderate pressure, wipe about 100 square centimeters of the surface
being monitored with a cotton tipped applicator or piece of filter paper. Samples should be
counted using a properly adjusted liquid scintillation counter.

14.3.3 Area Radiation Measurements

External radiation levels can be caused by gamma emitters and high energy beta emitters.
Radiation levels for such radionuclides can be monitored in and around the laboratory using a
Geiger counter or ionization chamber calibrated in units of milliroentgen per hour (mR/h).

The following guidelines should be used to determine when radiation level surveys should be
conducted:

· While radioactive material is in use, radiation levels within the radionuclide laboratory should
be kept as low as reasonably achievable and must not cause overexposure of laboratory
personnel. Project personnel should be in the habit of frequently monitoring the work areas
for excessive radiation levels.

· Radioactive material should be stored using adequate shielding so that the radiation levels
in the immediate surrounding laboratory areas do not cause unnecessary exposure of
laboratory personnel. When placing radioactive material into storage that could cause
unnecessary exposure, a survey should be conducted.

· When use of radioactive material could create radiation levels above background in adjacent
areas that could be occupied, a survey should be conducted. If any radiation level above
background is detected during the survey, determine whether it is within the limits
established in Chapter 11. If the limit for unrestricted areas is exceeded, take immediate
corrective action. Assistance can be obtained from the RSS if needed.

14.4 Radioactive Material Surveys by the Radiation Safety Section (RSS)

Routine radiation surveys of radioisotope laboratories are performed by the RSS to ensure that
contamination and radiation levels have not gone unchecked. Quarterly and biweekly
frequencies have been established. A laboratory assigned to a quarterly survey frequency will
be surveyed at some time during each calendar quarter. The database program used to
schedule surveys examines prior survey results and the type, frequency, and quantity of
radioactive material that has been received. This has resulted in Radiation Safety Office
surveys that are performed at more meaningful times.

14.4.1 Survey Methods

The survey methods used by the RSS are similar to those described previously in this chapter.
Contamination monitoring and external radiation measurements are made with a thin end
window Geiger counter. Removable surface contamination is monitored by taking surface
smears and counting them using a liquid scintillation counter. In addition to radiation
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monitoring, surveys include inspection of the laboratory for the proper postings, and checking
that personnel are adhering to the conditions of authorization, Rules for Radioisotope Labs, etc.

14.4.2 Survey Reports and Corrective Actions

Survey reports are completed on the day of the survey. Smear test results and Geiger counter
readings are listed directly on the lab sketch in the approximate location taken. Smear results
are placed within circles and are reported in disintegrations per minute. Geiger counter
readings are reported in mR/h. Deficiencies regarding postings and adherence to the Rules for
Radioisotope Laboratories are indicated on the back of the form. The front of the survey will be
stamped "ALL OK" in green ink or "CORRECTIVE ACTION NEEDED" in red ink as appropriate.
Copies of the reports are sent via campus mail to each project that is authorized to use the
room. Survey reports should be promptly reviewed and placed in the three ring binder so that
all project personnel have an opportunity to review the results on a timely basis.

If contamination, an excessive radiation level, or an item of noncompliance is identified during a

survey, the technician performing the survey will inform project personnel at the conclusion of
the survey or will call by telephone the same day the survey was conducted. In this way the
project personnel are promptly informed about radiation safety problems so that prompt
corrective actions can be taken. When a problem is found in a shared lab, project personnel
must determine who will take the required corrective action.

14.4.3 Patient Related Brachytherapy and Radiopharmaceutical Surveys

The University of Illinois Hospital (UIH) provides patients with various forms of radiation therapy.
These treatments are given by experienced physicians and technologists in the Radiation
Therapy Section and Nuclear Medicine Section. Two basic types of treatments are provided:
brachytherapy, and radiopharmaceutical therapy. When radiation therapies involve the use of
radioactive material in patient rooms, regulations require performance of important radiation
protection surveys including surveys of the surrounding areas during the therapy and prior to
releasing the patient's room for further use after the therapy has ended.
Brachytherapy

Brachytherapy involves placing sealed radioactive material within, on the surface of, or in the
extremely close proximity of the patient. Sealed sources are made by placing the radioactive
material within a strong metal capsule that is sealed to prevent the radioactive material from
escaping. The walls of the capsule are thin enough to allow most of the penetrating radiations
to escape. Depending upon the types and energies of the radiations emitted from the source, a
significant amount of radiation may pass through the patient, creating an external field of
radiation. Treatments may last for minutes, hours, or days. Some sources are permanently
implanted. After removal of temporary implants, the patient does not contain radioactive material
or emit radiation. Permanent implants are normally performed using I-125 seeds, which do not
normally create a hazardous radiation field around the patient.

Cs-137

Cs-137 brachytherapy is most commonly used for gynecological therapy. Because a significant
fraction of the radiation emitted by the sources escapes from the patient and Cs-137 has a long
half-life, Cs-137 sources are used only for temporary implants. This penetrating radiation is
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actually emitted by Cs-137's daughter, Ba-137m which has a half life of 2.552 min. An
applicator with no sources is positioned within the patient in a procedure room or surgical suite
and the sources are afterloaded into the applicator in the patient's room. Patients are housed in
shielded hospital rooms and are cared for by specially trained nursing staff. A patient room
survey is conducted after the sources are loaded, and a patient release survey and room
clearance survey after the sources are removed. Patients may not be released from
hospitalization until the patient release survey has been completed.

Ir-192

Ir-192 brachytherapy sources are referred to as seeds because of their small physical size.
They are used for a wide variety of treatments and are usually implanted using afterloading
techniques. A significant fraction of the radiation from Ir-192 is not absorbed in the patient,
therefore Ir-192 seeds are usually used only for temporary implants. Patients are housed in
shielded hospital rooms and are cared for by specially trained nursing staff. A patient room
survey is performed at the start of the treatment and after the sources have been removed. In
addition, a patient release survey is conducted after the sources are removed. Patients may not
be released from hospitalization until the patient release survey has been completed.

I-125

I-125 brachytherapy sources are also referred to as seeds because of their small physical size.
Since most of the radiation emitted from I-125 is easily absorbed by the patient and no
significant radiation field is created outside the patient, I-125 seeds are frequently used for a
wide variety of permanent implants. I-125 seeds may also be placed in a holder and temporarily
attached to the surface of the body. Sources are implanted or attached to the patient in a
surgical suite or procedure room. Surveys are performed in the surgical suite whenever
sources are being applied or removed and in the patient's room during the treatment and after
the treatment is concluded. In addition, a patient release survey must be conducted after the
removal of temporary implants to verify all sources were removed. Patients may not be
released from hospitalization until this survey has been performed.

Radiopharmaceutical Therapy

Therapy with radiopharmaceuticals involves the introduction of radioactive material into the
body in unsealed form. The distribution of radioactive material in the body and rate of
elimination from the patient's body is dependent upon the chemical form of the material, the
condition of the patient, and the method and site of administration.

I-131

I-131 is usually administered orally in the form of a sodium iodide solution for treatment of the
thyroid gland. I-131 therapies may be performed in conjunction with surgical removal of part or
the entire thyroid. Administration is usually performed in the Nuclear Medicine Section but may
also be performed in the patient's room. Patients receiving more than 30 millicuries must
remain hospitalized until the activity is below 30 millicuries. Up to a few hundred millicuries may
be administered to hospitalized patients.
I-131 is taken up rapidly in functional thyroid tissue. I-131 that remains in circulation is rapidly
excreted from the body. Blood, urine, saliva, and perspiration all contain significant quantities of
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I-131 in the first few days following the treatment. Consequently, the room in which the patient
is housed can become contaminated with radioactive material. Precautions are taken prior to
administration to prevent contamination of the floor and other objects in the patient's room. The
patient is given instructions regarding how contamination can be minimized. A survey of the
patient room is conducted soon after the material is administered, a daily survey is conducted to
determine the approximate quantity of I-131 remaining in the patient, and a room clearance
survey is conducted after the patient is released from hospitalization.

14.5 Surveys of Radiation Producing Machines

Radiation producing machines must be surveyed annually in accordance with guidelines

established by the Illinois Emergency Management Agency (IEMA). The results of these
surveys are submitted to the IDNS. Radiation surveys are also performed when radiation
producing equipment is installed or modified.

14.5.1 Medical X-Ray Equipment

Inspection of medical X-ray equipment includes:

· Measurement of the radiation output;

· Determination of the X-ray beam quality;
· Tests of operating controls;
· Tests of the collimators and other beam limiting devices;
· Tests of beam location and size indicators in relation to the actual X-ray beam; and
· Tests of interlocks, warning lights, and other safety devices.
Further details are not presented in this manual because these tests should only be performed
by a qualified medical or health physicist. Contact Radiation Safety for further information.

14.5.2 Analytical X-Ray Equipment

Figure 14.1 shows spectral distributions of X- rays from a tube with 1 mm Be inherent filtration
operated at 100 keV and with increasing thicknesses of aluminum filters. Note the two main
features of the spectrum representing the two mechanisms by which x rays are produced,
bremsstrahlung and electron displacement. Bremsstrahlung, or breaking radiation, is created
when the electrons that are bombarding the target in the x-ray tube decelerate in the electric
field close to the nucleus of the target atoms. The kinetic energy lost in this deceleration is
converted into x rays, the energies of which are dependent upon the charge on the electron,
which is fixed, and the strength of the electric field, which is dependent on the distance of the
electron from the nucleus. The bremsstrahlung X-rays are represented by the smooth portion of
the x-ray energy spectrum.

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Kinetic energy of the electrons bombard-

ing the x-ray tube target can also remove
electrons from target atoms. The energy
needed to free the electron from the shell
is called the binding energy. This
produces an atom with excess energy.
Additional kinetic energy may also be
imparted to the electron that is freed
from the target atom. When the vacancy
in the inner shell is filled, the binding
energy is released, creating a
characteristic x ray with an energy equal
to the binding energy. Characteristic X-
rays are monoenergetic and are
represented by the sharp peaks in the x-
ray energy spectrum.

From the spectrum, notice that as

aluminum filtration is added, the lower
energy X- rays are preferentially filtered
from the beam, increasing the average x-
ray energy penetrating the filter. This is
sometimes referred to as beam
hardening; however, even with significant beam hardening the average x-ray energy is
significantly lower than the maximum energy.

A formula to approximate the exposure rate from analytical x-ray equipment, Equation 14.2,
developed by Bo Lindell, was published in Health Physics, Volume 15, pp. 481-486. This
equation provides accuracy of ±25% for tubes with tungsten targets and 1 mm beryllium
windows operated at voltages between 25 and 80 kV. Other filtrations may change the
exposure rate by a factor of two.

X == (50) (V) (I) (Z)

(r2) (74)

Where X
_ = Exposure rate in Roentgens/sec
V = Voltage applied to x-ray tube in kV
Z = Atomic Number of Target
I = Current supplied to tube in mA
r = Distance from x-ray tube focal spot in cm

Measurement of the radiation fields emitted by analytical x-ray equipment can be very difficult
because of the energies of radiation emitted, the intensity of the beams and the very small
angles the primary beams frequently subtend. Measurement of scattered radiation can also be
difficult.

Geiger Counters
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Two types of portable radiation survey instruments are commonly used to perform radiation
surveys around radiation producing machines, Geiger counters and ion chambers. Geiger-
Mueller, G-M, survey meters are more sensitive than ion chambers, responding to fields as low
as 0.01 mR/h. The G-M detector is filled with a counting gas other than air, frequently a mixture
of helium and a halogen. Radiation creates ions in the counting gas, causing an electron
avalanche and discharge of the tube. The resulting pulse is counted by a rate meter with a
scale calibrated in units of exposure, most frequently milliroentgen per hour, or counts per
minute. Since G-M survey meters register pulses, they are frequently equipped with a speakers
that help the surveyor to hear each event that is detected. Further theory of operation can be
found earlier in this chapter.

The Geiger tube is significantly

smaller than the ion chamber,
allowing it to be positioned in
smaller spaces. Geiger tubes
can also be equipped with thin
end windows made of mica that
are only about 1.7 mg/cm2 thick,
which allow them to detect low
energy X- rays. When
measuring low energy X- rays
the end window should be
pointed toward the source of
radiation. Figure 14.3 shows the
energy response through the
end window of a Ludlum Model
44-7 end window detector, which
is commonly used at UIC.
Notice that this detector over-
responds by a factor of about 3
at 50-60 keV and under-responds by a factor of 10 at 10 keV. Since the spectra of x-ray
energies around analytical x-ray equipment are quite variable, it is not possible to predict the
overall energy response of the Geiger counter in such fields. Thus, Geiger counters may be
used as a sensitive tool to detect X-ray fields around analytical X-ray equipment, but should not
be used to accurately determine exposure rates.

A serious disadvantage of the Geiger counter is paralysis or saturation, explained below.

During saturation the meter will read zero or near zero in a radiation field that is above the
highest radiation field that the meter was designed to measure. This situation can be very
dangerous because the surveyor thinks there is no radiation field when the field could be
dangerously high. Saturation is readily encountered if a Geiger detector is placed in the primary
beam of most analytical X-ray units. For this reason the G-M survey meter should be switched
"on" in an area with a low radiation field, checked for proper operation, and moved slowly
toward the area being surveyed. If a high reading is immediately followed by a reading of zero,
the tube has probably saturated and appropriate precautions should be taken to avoid
exposure. (e.g.: Switch off the source of radiation by closing shutters, covering with shielding,
removing power from the tube, etc).

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When a Geiger tube discharges, the tube

cannot respond again for a brief period of
time. This duration is on the order of a
hundred milliseconds and is called dead
time. Any radiation that interacts in the
Geiger tube during the dead time cannot
create another pulse and therefore is not
detected. During the next hundred or so
milliseconds, called the recovery time, the
high voltage circuit must re-charge the
anode. During the recovery time the Geiger
tube will detect radiation events, but will
produce weak pulses that are not counted by the rate meter. As shown in Figure 14.4 the dead
time plus the recovery time is called the resolving time of the meter. As the exposure rate
increases, the number of radiation events that are missed also increases. For example, a
Ludlum Model 3 equipped with a Model 44-7 detector has resolving time losses greater than
50% at 200 mR/h, the top of the highest scale. When pulses occur so rapidly that the Geiger
tube never gets a chance to fully recover, there are no or almost no pulses strong enough to be
counted by the rate meter circuit. This results in a zero or near zero reading on the meter. In
general, saturation usually occurs well above the highest exposure rate that a given Geiger
counter is designed to measure. For the Ludlum Model 3/44-7 meter, designed to measure
exposure rates up to 200 mR/h, saturation occurs above 10,000 mR/h.
Another serious disadvantage of the G-M survey meter occurs when measuring radiation from
pulsed sources. Pulsed machine sources can emit a great number of x rays in an interval that is
shorter than the resolving time of the Geiger tube. In this case the tube can only create one
pulse no matter how many x rays interact in the detector. If the next pulse of radiation is emitted
after the tube recovers, it is detected. In effect, the meter is measuring the pulse rate of the
source. Since almost all of the x rays are not detected under these circumstances, the meter
reading in mR/h can be very much lower than the actual exposure rate. Since the source emits
pulses at very regular intervals, detection of pulsed fields can usually be recognized by an
extremely steady meter reading. Pulsed fields can be accurately measured using an ion
chamber as long as there is no significant radio-frequency interference and the instantaneous
exposure rate during the pulse is not excessive (see instrument manual or consult
manufacturer).

Ion Chambers

In air filled ion chamber instruments ions created in the sensitive volume of the chamber are
collected by a positively charged anode, usually a wire or rod that runs through the center of the
chamber, and the negatively charged chamber walls. This causes a very small flow of electrical
current that is measured with a sensitive electrometer circuit. Ion chambers are frequently used
to measure exposure rates from low energy X- rays because they respond accurately to a wide
range of X-ray energies, a property called energy independence. They can also be equipped
with very thin (1-2 mg/cm2) windows, allowing fairly accurate (±10%) measurement of radiation
exposures from X- rays with energies as low as 6 keV. The energy response curve for a
Victoreen Model 471 ionization chamber, taken from the instrument manual, is provided below
in Figure 14.5.

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Many ion chambers can also be operated in the integrate mode, allowing measurement of total
exposure over a fairly long time period. The primary disadvantages of ion chamber survey
meters are that radiation fields lower than about 0.1 mR/h cannot be measured accurately and
the sensitive volume of the chamber is frequently physically larger than the beam being
measured, a problem discussed below.

Ion chambers will produce accurate

measurements only when the entire
chamber is in a radiation field of uniform
intensity. The radiation field gradient across
a detector when the source is too close is
shown in Figure 14.6. If the detector in
figure was 3 inches in length, the distance
from the source to the near end of the detector would be 0.5 inches (based on the exposure
rates shown). Notice that the radiation field at the end of the detector closest to the source is 50
times greater than the exposure rate at the far end (100/2 = 50). If the distance from the source
to the detector were changed to one inch, the radiation field near the end of the detector would
be 16 times greater than the exposure rate at the far end. At some point, usually taken as 3
times the size of the largest dimension of the detector, the field is sufficiently uniform to make an
accurate measurement. In this example, the minimum distance needed to obtain an accurate
reading would be 3 x 3 = 9 inches.

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Small leaks in the shielding around

analytical x-ray equipment may produce
beams of primary or secondary radiation
that are very much smaller than the size
of the typical ion chamber. Even if the
beam has uniform intensity, the entire
window of the ion chamber must be in
the beam for the meter to produce an
accurate exposure rate measurement. If
only part of the window is in the beam,
the meter will produce a reading that is
lower than the actual exposure rate. This
occurs because all of the air in the
sensitive volume is not being ionized.
Corrections for this problem can be made if the total area of the chamber window and the area
of the chamber window that is in the beam are known. For example, the area of the window of
a Victoreen 471 ion chamber is about 62 cm2. As shown in Figure 14.7, suppose a beam
comes from a point source 2 cm behind the shielding through a 1 mm hole and impinges on the
chamber 10 cm from the shielding. The area of the beam that strikes the chamber is 0.28 cm 2.
The correction factor that should be applied to the reading on the meter is given by dividing 62
cm2 by 0.28 cm2 or 221. Multiply the meter reading by 221 to obtain the correct exposure rate.

While use of this method will provide the

correct exposure rate, measuring the
area of the beam that strikes the window
is usually not easy, practical, or safe.
Referring to Figure 14.8, one way to
avoid the uncertainty in the estimation of
the beam area would be to move the
chamber further away until the beam
covers the entire window. Using the
exposure rate at the farther location, X
_ 2,
a good estimate of the exposure rate at
the closer location, X
_ 1, can be obtained
by applying the inverse square law given
in Equation 14.3.

X1 = X2 [d2/d1]2 Equation 14.3

Where: X
_ 1 = Exposure rate at d1
X_ 2 = Exposure rate at d2
d1 = Distance 1
d2 = Distance 2

When using an ion chamber to measure radiation fields from analytical x-ray equipment,
remember to remove the equilibrium cap from the thin window and point the window toward the
source being measured. Exert caution when the cap is off because the window is easily
punctured.
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