Amino Acids

Proteins are the most diverse biomolecules on Earth, performing many functions required for
life. Protein enzymes are biological catalysts, maintaining life by regulating where and when
cellular reactions occur. Structural proteins provide internal and external support to protect and
maintain cell shape. For example, keratins are an important class of structural proteins found in
the hair, skin, nails, and feathers of animals. Motility proteins provide the basis for cellular and
whole organism movement, including muscle motor proteins that can move entire animals!
Membrane proteins transmit signals during cell-to-cell communication, transport molecules into
and out of cells, and protect living organisms by identifying and flagging invaders.

Protein functions are so diverse because of the many unique three-dimensional structures protein
polymers form. Despite such variety, proteins also share several specific structural characteristics
in their monomers, the amino acids. Structural similarities among amino acids make protein
synthesis a uniform and regulated process; however, each amino acid contains a unique structural
component as well. Specific differences between each amino acid interact to create unique three-
dimensional protein structures. Combined, the similarities and differences between amino acids
explain how cells can build a diverse pool of proteins from the same set of building blocks.

In every amino acid, one central carbon atom exists - the

alpha-carbon (α-carbon). Of the four atom groups covalently bonded to the α-carbon, three are
the same in all amino acids. The α-carbon is always directly bonded to one amino group and to
one carboxyl group (carboxylic acid). The name amino acid derives from the presence of these
two functional groups (amino + acid). All amino acids share a third common covalent bond to a
hydrogen atom, but the fourth atom (or atomic group) bonded to the α-carbon is unique in each
amino acid.

The fourth α-carbon bond may link to another single hydrogen atom, as in glycine, or to a group
of atoms. Atom groups range in both size and polarity or charge. For example, lysine contains a
large and ionic atom group. For simplicity, when a specific amino acid is not identified, biologists
use the term “R-group” to refer to the fourth atom or group bonded to the α-carbon. The term “R”
signifies the rest of the molecule and is used when discussing general structure and reactivity of
amino acids without complicating a structure by inclusion of R-group details.