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BEI Vol C Chapter 6 Generator PDF
BEI Vol C Chapter 6 Generator PDF
TURBINES,
GENERATORS AND
ASSOCIATED PLANT.
Volume C
. Modern . . .
.!
Power Station ·
Practice
Third Edition incorporating Modern Power System Practice
TURBINES,
GENERATORS AND
ASSOCIATED PLANT. ,
Volume· c . .
8~rgamon Press ·
'~i' ..
MODERN
POWER STATION PRACTICE
Third Edition
·volume C
Turbines, Generators and Associated Plant
PERGAMON PRESS
OXFORD . NEW YORK . SEOUL . TOKYO
'
-..ain Editorial PaneJ
: w Littler, BSc, PhD, ARCS, CPhys, FlnstP, CEng. FlEE (Chairman)
- E Johnson
Authors
:- ::::~--s 1 & 2 G. F. Hunt, BSc(Eng), CEng, MIEE
Series Production
P. M. Reynolds
H. E. Johnson
CoLOUR PLATEs
VI
FOREWORD
Vll
PREFACE
ix
CoNTENTs oF ALL VoLUMEs
XI
Foreword
G. A. W. Blackman, CBE, FEng
Chairman, Central Electricity Generating Board
and Chairman, British Electricity International Ltd
FoR oVER THIRTY YEARS, since its formation in 1958, the Central Electricity Generating
Board (CEGB) has been at the forefront of technological advances in the design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of power plant and transmission systems. During
this time capacity increased almost fivefold, involving the introduction of thermal and
nuclear generating units of 500 MW and 660 MW, to supply one of the largest integrated
power systems in the world. In fulfilling its statutory responsibility to ensure continuity of a
safe and economic supply of electricity, the CEGB built up a powerful engineering and
scientific capability, and accumulated a wealth of experience in the operation and
maintenance of power plant and systems. With the privatisation of the CEGB this
experience and capability is being carried forward by its four successor companies
National Power, PowerGen, Nuclear Electric and National Grid.
At the heart of the CEGB's success has been an awareness of the need to sustain and
improve the skills and knowledge of its engineering and technical staff. This was achieved
through formal and on-job training, aided by a series of textbooks covering the theory
and practice for the whole range of technology to be found on a modern power station. A
second edition of the series, known as Modern Power Station Practice, was produced in
the early 1970s, and it was sold throughout the world to provide electricity undertakings,
engineers and students with an account of the CEGB's practices and hard-won experience.
The edition had substantial worldwide sales and achieved recognition as the authoritative
reference work on power generation.
A completely revised and enlarged (third) edition has now been produced which updates
the relevant information in the earlier edition together with a comprehensive account of
the solutions to the many engineering and environmental challenges encountered, and which
puts on record the achievements of the CEGB during its lifetime as one of the world's
leading public electricity utilities.
In producing this third edition, the opportunity has been taken to restructure the
information in the original eight volumes to provide a more logical and detailed exposition
of the technical content. The series has also been extended to include three new volumes on
'Sta~ion Commissioning', 'EHV Transmission' and 'System Operation'. Each of the eleven
subject volumes had an Advisory Editor for the technical validation of the many
contributions by individual authors, all of whom are recognised as authorities in their
particular field of technology.
All subject volumes carry their own index and a twelfth volume provides a consolidated
index for the series overall. Particular attention has been paid to the production of draft
material, with text refined through a number of technical and language editorial stages and
complemented by a large number of high quality illustrations. The result is a high standard
of presentation designed to appeal to a wide international readership.
It is with much pleasure therefore that I introduce this new series, which has been
attributed to British Electricity International on behalf of the CEGB and its successor
companies. I have been closely associated with its production and have no doubt that it will
be invaluable to engineers worldwide who are engaged in the design, construction,
commissioning, operation and maintenance of modern power stations and systems.
March 1990
~.
-
Preface
The increase in generating capacity of the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB)
during the last thirty years has involved the introduction· of new 500 MW and 660 MW
turbine-generator plant for a variety of operational duties from base load to that of flexible
two-shift operation. These plants have been installed in nuclear, coal and oil fired. power
stations.
The early operational experience of the 500 MW units provided important data for the
design development of the 660 MW turbine-generator plant. These latter machines
benefited from the high quality approach to the design of major components by UK
manufacturers using their developed analysis techniques in the areas of aerodynamics and
stress analysis. The soundness of this approach has been demonstrated by the improved
reliability and performance of the later plants.
The Third Edition of Modern Power. Station Practice gives a detailed account of ex-
perience obtain<:d in the development, design, manufacture, operation and testing of
large turbine-generators in the last twenty years. The practice of testing and evaluation of
modern plant has proceeded as before; the advance in analytical and computational
techniques has however meant that the application of this experience to future design and
operation of large turbine-generator plant is of greater benefit than ever before.
One of the major tasks of the Turbine-generator Plant Branch in the CEGB was to secure
the development of Turbine-generators and their associated Plants to meet the needs of the
CEGB with due regard to economics, performance and reliability. As Head of the Branch
for some years I have felt privileged to have been asked to edit Volume C.
The authors of this volume have wide experience of the plant engineering field and all
are authorities in their particular field of Technology. I would like to record my sincere
thanks to these colleagues who have produced Volume C. They have undertaken the task
with an enthusiasm derived from the knowledge that this work will' be of the greatest
assistance to engineers in this field of technology worldwide.
P. HAMBLING
Advisory Editor - Volume C
....
-------------------------------------------------------------- ~ ----
Welding processes
Non-destructive testing '
Defect analysis and life assessment
Environmental effects
:c
,....-------------------~- -~-
-
Contents of All Volumes
Volume M - Index
Complete contents of all volumes
Cumulative index
Evan John Davies
Emeritus Professor of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
at Aston University in Birmingham, died on 14 April 1991.
!
xiv
CHAPTER 6
The generator
446
,.
~!i
Introduction
~CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
STATOR WINDING
'N'TER INLET MANIFOLD
E ~
HOSES~
TOR WINDING
ATER OU.TLET
MANIFO\~
II
STATOR ENDWINDING
SUPPORT BRACKET RETAINING RING
/
I
CORE ENDPLATE_ 1 .COR. E BAR
d- STATOR
INNER FRAME
STATOR
CAGED CORE TERMINAL BUSHINGS NEUTRAL
·OliGJJ i
STATOR END CONNECTORS
STATOR ENDWINDING
GENERATOR-lURE,:,;.:
HALF COUPLIN .•
~-~-~
~~;
r 1
--~!!!IIUII_Ik
(·.···-]
~--- ~
_j
~----- -~~~-
,. - GAS SEAL
FLANGE CONNECTIONS . -~ -- --- •.
TO CONDENSATE SYSTEM ' . __ / • TERMINAL BUSHING MAIN
FLANGE CONNECTIONS TO
STATOR WINDING WATER SYSTEM
n
::r
w
"0
Ftc;_ 6.1 Sectional view of a 660 !'v!W generator ~
(J)
Introduction
Both the pace of development and the rate of Other parameters, such as hydraulic pressure and
increase in unit output has slowed markedly in re- dielectric loss test values, are specified in various
cent years, as greater emphasis has been placed on CEGB Standards.
the reliability achieved by proven designs, and on Specific requirements for a new generator are con-
the advantages of interchangeability of major plant tained within its own specification, which covers items
components. peculiar to its location or duty, for example, tem-
perature of cooling water, power factor and reactances.
Where necessary, these requirements may differ from
those in the appropriate Standard. The expected op-
1.3 Standards and specifications erational life is quoted in the specification; this is
The British Standard covering generators is BS5000, currently 200 000 hours, with 10 4 start/stop cycles.
which refers to many parts of BS4999. The corre- These values are used in design calculations, e.g., crack
sponding international standard is IEC 34. Standards growth rate by fatigue.
specific for turbine-generators are BS5000 Part 2 and The following Standards are relevant:
IEC 34 Part 3. These standards specify acceptable
characteristics, values of temperature, vibration, noise,
IEC 34-1: Rotating electrical machines - rating and performance.
phase unbalance, harmonic content, excitation control
limits and tolerances, and test conditions, e.g., high IEC 34-2: Rotating electrical machines - methods for determining
voltage test levels. losses and efficiency from tests.
449
The generator Chapter 6
YEAR
2.5
IN SERVICE
M w M SUPERCONDUCTING
2.0
WEIGHT/RATING
kg/kVA
1.5
1.0
~
0.5
, LIQUID COOLING OF STATOR AND ROTOR
SUPERCONDUCTING ~-
ROTOR ~
10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
MVA RATING
IEC 34-3: Ratings and characteristics of 3-phase 50 Hz turbine 2 Synchronous generator theory
type machines. Some basic principles of theory and design are es-
tablished in this section in order that the descriptive
IEC 34-4: Methods for determining synchronous machine quan-
matter in later sections may be more easily understood.
tities from tests.
BS4999: General requirements for rotating electrical machines. 2.1 Electromagnetic induction
BS4999 Part 106: Classification of methods of cooling.
In a synchronous generator with the rotor running
at constant speed, the instantaneous voltage induced
BS4999 Part 101: Specification for rating and performance. in a stator conductor is proportional to the magnetic
flux density experienced by the conductor.
BS4999 Part 142: Mechanical performance - vibration.
BS3906: Electrolytic CO!'(lpressed hydrogen. In order to operate synchronously with the inter-
connected AC transmis'i'):l system, the generated
ES1 Standard 44-7: Testing the insulation system of bars. voltage is required to vary sinusoidally. The magnetic
450
Synchronous generator theory
flux density experienced by the stator conductors must poles operating at 1500 r/min. Salient-pole generators
therefore also vary sinusoidally. This is achieved by usually have more than four poles, for example, the
arranging, on the rotor, excitation coils which produce Dinorwig hydraulic turbine-generators have 12 poles
a flux whose density varies approximately sinusoidally and operate at 500 r/min. Generators producing other
around the circumference. frequencies are used for special purposes; those whose
As the rotor rotates inside the stator bore, a con- output is rectified for use as an excitation supply
ductor fixed in the stator will be subjected to an commonly operate at 150 Hz or 400 Hz.
approximately sinusoidally varying magnetic flux den-
sity, and will have an approximately sinusoidal voltage
generated along its length (Fig 6.4). The magnitude
of the flux density, which determines the magnitude 2.3 Load, rating and power factor
of the generated voltage, can be changed by varying Root-mean-square (RMS) values of alternating volt-
the direct current supplied to the excitation coils on ages and currents are implied in this chapter, unless
the rotor. specifically noted otherwise.
A single AC generator supplying a load has its
voltage/ current relationship dictated by the nature of
that load. For any load which is not purely resistive,
2.2 Speed, frequency and pole-pairs the sinusoidal voltage and current will not be m
The relationship between speed, number of pole- phase.
pairs and the frequency of the generated voltage is: The rated output of a single-phase generator is
the product of its rated voltage and its rated current,
f = pn expressed in volt-amps, kVA or MVA. The rated
power is the rated output times the rated power factor,
expressed in watts, kW or MW.
where f frequency, Hz
The rated power of a three-phase generator is three
n rotational speed, r/s times rated phase voltage times rated phase current
p number of pole-pairs times power factor. Virtually all CEGB generators
have their three phases connected in star, so that:
Cylindrical rotor 50 Hz generators have two poles line voltage -J3 x phase voltage
and operate at 3000 r/min, or less commonly four and line current phase current.
CONDUCTOR
IN STATOR
. 0~----------------------~----------------------r-
-V
MAGNETIC FLUX
PRODUCED BY
ROTOR WINDINGS
451
The generator Chapter 6
MCR POINT
452
I Synchronous generator theory
I INSTANTANEOUS
VOLTAGE
v
I v = Vsin (21rf) t
v
= Vsin 9
,. ....
I
i
------
PHASEC
\ I
I \
\
\
\ /
I
I
I
I
\
\PHASE B
\
\
Vbf
8,------------------------------+--------~~~
b = Bsm (100n) t
v = Vs1n (100nj t
v
0
453
The generator Chapter 6
2.6.2 Rated voltage, rated stator current and reactance. The term synchronous reactance (Xd + Xe)
rated power factor ' is used to express this effect, the IXd drop being
If the power factor is 'expressed as cos ¢, ¢ is the added to the IXe drop in the diagrams.
angle between the voltage and current phasors, as As the lagging power factor of the load worsens,
shown in Fig 6.8 for a lagging power factor. i.e., cos¢ is smaller and¢ larger, the required MMF,
Current circulating in the stator winding results in F, increases, i.e., more current is required in the
voltage drops: IR due to the winding resistance R, in rotor winding (Fig 6.9 (a}}. Conversely, if the lagging
phase with I, and IXe due to the winding 'leakage power factor increases or goes beyond unity into the
reactance', Xe, lagging I by 90°. R is negligibly small, leading regime, the rotor current must be reduced
and the resistive voltage drop is neglected henceforth. (Fig 6.9 (b)).
An 'internal' voltage E must be generated in the
winding such that after subtracting (phasorially) the
leakage-reactance drop, the rated voltage V is pro-
duced at the terminals. 2.7 Torque
In order to generate E, flux density Be and MMF The mechanical torque provided by the prime mover
Fe are required, such that the voltage, flux and MMF is balanced by an electromagnetic torque caused by
phasor triangles are all similar. The physical meaning the interaction of the magnetic flux and the current
of this is discussed later. flowing in the stator windings.
Current in the three-phase stator winding produces The rotor shaft must be designed to transmit rated
its own MMF, Fd, which acts in the same direction torque, and the stator must be able to withstand a
as Fxe· An MMF, F, must be provided, such that, similar torque reaction. In practice, the design must
when the Fd component is subtracted vectorially, cope with the very much higher torques produced
the resultant is Fe. This is achieved by increasing the during certain fault conditions.
rotor winding current and by the rotor moving ahead
of its open-circuit alignment, by the 'load angle', o,
as shown.
This demagnetising effect of the stator winding
current is known as armature reaction, and can be 2.8 Three-phase windings
seen from the diagram to be similar in effect (though The voltages and currents produced in each phase
much larger in magnitude) to that of the leakage must be identical, apart from their phase displace-
Be
IXd
Fd
454
Synchronous generator theory
PROPORTIONAL
TO F
PROPORTIONAL
TOF
IXd IXd
ments, in order to avoid the damaging effects of · profile which cannot be shaped to produce a sin-
unbalance. usoidal flux density variation (as can, approximately,
In this and the next section, a complete two-pole a salient pole on a multi-polar slow speed generator).
generator is considered, for simplicity. In a machine The flux density variation in a turbine-generator is
with 2n poles, a two-pole segment is exactly repeated of a stepped rectangular form (Fig 6.11), which con-
n times, and can be considered as electromagnetically tains a fundamental with odd harmonics of significant
equivalent to a two-pole machine. amplitude. The voltage induced in a single stator con-
An economic design of stator winding has many ductor would contain similar unacceptable harmonic
conductors connected in series, so the individual con- components.
ductor voltages are additive. Each 'go' conductor is In a series-connected winding occupying several
connected to a 'return' conductor, acted on by the adjacent slots in the stator, the voltage induced in
pole of opposite polarity, and thence to a third con- one conductor will be displaced from that induced
ductor adjacent to the first, and so on through the in its neighbour by the electrical angle subtended
phase. The 'return' conductors are disposed in a layer by the two slots, a in Fig 6.12. The sum of n such
displaced radially from the 'go' conductor, both in voltages is V + 2Vcos a + 2Vcos 2a + ... + 2Vcos
the slots and in the end region. (n - 1 )a if n is odd, or, 2Vcos a/2 + 2Vcos 3a/2
The usual and most economic arrangement is for + ... 2V cos (2n - 1
)a, if n is even. The ratio of
the winding ·of one phase to occupy one-sixth of the this to n V is the distribution factor Kd ( < 1).
circumference, with a parallel section of the same The effect of distribution on the third harmonic
phase occupying the position diametrical~y opposite voltage is to triple the effective angle, so that the
(see Fig 6.10). s.ummated voltage is:
2.9 Harmonics: distributed and chorded and the resultant third harmonic voltage is very much
winding reduced. A similar argument applies even more effec-
A cylindrical rotor generator has a circular rotor tively to harmonics of higher order.
455
The generator Chapter 6
/
PHASE C
P~.ASE 8
WINDING
SPACE
transfer the rated torque from the turbine to the
electromagnetic reaction at the air gap. Steel is the
only material which meets these requirements
economically. A single steel forging is used, from
which the central cylindrical body and its supporting
shafts are machined.
l
MMF DUE
TO COIL
I"
'
·'
FUNDAMENTAL
DEVELOPED VIEW
SHOWING STEPPED MMF WAVE
AND FUNDAMENTAL SINE WAVE
The shape and size of the winding slots are deter- keeping a low current density to minimise the loss
mined by an optmisation process, taking into account and temperature, as much of the area as possible
the following factors, and considering a radial cir- must be allocated to the winding copper.
cumferential section:
• The winding insulation must be mechanically strong
• The more ampere-turns the rotor can carry, the to withstand centrifugal and bending stresses, and
smaller the generator. Together with the need for stable to withstand load cycling. Adequate electrical
457
The generator Chapter 6
SLOT n
v
SLOT:
FIG. 6.12 The effect of distributing the stator winding over several slots
tracking distances from the winding to the rotor • The whole centrifugal force of the slot contents, the
body must be provided, since the winding is in retaining wedge and the tooth is resisted by the
direct contact with the ventilating gas, and dirt narrowest section of the tooth, normally the tooth
and oil may collect on insulation surfaces. The root. There must be an adequate safety margin
insulation must therefore be more substantial than between the maximum tooth stress at overspeed and
the operating voltage of about 600 V would require the proof stress of the steel.
in other applications.
·~·-·
l
··~·
• Passages for an appropriate flow of cooling gas
must be· provided in the winding copper section,
and also in the steel body section in some designs,
The optimisation of these conflicting requirements
has led, in the latest designs, to a departure from
parallel-sided slots to slots of trapezoidal section (Fig
4.'.
"-I~ to ensure that the specified temperature rise is 6.15).
i not exceeded. The winding slots are cut in diametrically opposite
pairs, equally pitched over about two-thirds of the
• The magnetic flux in the rotor is unidirectional periphery, leaving the pole faces without winding slots.
and normally substantially constant, so there is The resulting difference in stiffness in the two per-
no loss due to magnetic hysteresis or eddy currents, pendicular axes would produce a twice-per-revolution
but there must be an adequate magnetic section vibration; this is avoided by cutting equalising slots
particularly in the area of the winding slots. A in the pole faces (Fig 6.16). These are either similar to
high degree of saturation in the teeth would result the winding slots and are subsequently filled with short
in unacceptably high excitation requirements and steel blocks to restore the magnetic properties, or
losses. slits cut with a large diameter cutter in the radial
458
Turbine-generator components: the rotor
EFFECT ON
FUNDAMENTAL VOLTAGE
/
/ Jrl
EFFECT ON
THIRD HARMONIC
-~
VOLTAGE
EFFECT ON
FIFTH HARMONIC
VOLTAGE
vs
circumferential plane, at intervals axially along the Because the rotor winding slots are cut radially,
pole faces. it is not possible to fit a preformed coil into the slots
During a three-phase sudden short-circut at the since the span of a coil is smaller the lower down
generator terminals, torque peaks of four to five the slot it is, and considerable distortion would be
times full-load torque are experienced between the required to get the coils in. Each turn is therefore
LP turbine and generator shafts. The generator rotor assembled separately, either as half-turns or in more
shaft and coupling at the turbine end must be designed pieces, with joints either at the centres of the end-
to withstand this peak torque with an adequate safety turns or at the corners, being brazed together after
margin. The coupling is usually shrunk on and keyed each turn is assembled, to form a series-connected
or dowelled, and has oil-injection grooves for removal. coil. Hard, high conductivity copper, with a small silver
A proportion of the coupling bolts are fitted, the content to improve its creep properties, is used for
others have a clearance to the coupling holes. the coils. Depending on the method of ventilation,
Journal and journal-type shaft seal surfaces are rectangular sections with grooves and/ or slots, or
ground and polished to a high degree of circularity. tubular rectangular sections are used. When a trape-
Overall, good surface finishes and absence of sharp zoidal slot is used, the sections may be of several
blemishes are called for. Radii are made as large as different sizes. One or two turns in the width -of the
practicable to minimise stress concentrations. slot are normally used. Radially-aligned slots provide
gas exit passages (see Fig 6.17).
The coils are not individually wrapped with insula-
tion. Instead, slot liners of moulded glassfibre, or a
3.2 Rotor winding composite of glassfibre and a more flexible insulating
Winding coils are assembled into pairs of rotor slots material, insulate the coils from the sides and bottoms
symmetrically disposed about the pole axis, but in of the slots, and a block of insulation separates the
opposite senses in the two poles, i.e., clockwise cur- top turn from the wedge. Between each turn, thin
rent flow for the 'north' pole and counterclockwise separators of glassfibre or similar material, serve to
for the 'south' pole. insulate against the 10 V or so between adjacent turns
459
The generator Chapter 6
(Fig 6.18). Thick layers of insulation material on the Fans mounted on the rotor, primarily to circulate
inside surfaces of the end ring and end disc insulate hydrogen through the stator, assist the natural flow
them from the end windings. The spaces between through the rotor (see Fig 6.19).
turns in the end windings are partially filled with The ends of the winding are connected to flexible
insulating blocks, which ensure that the coils do not leads, made from many thin copper strips, which run
distort, and which contain holes and passages for radially inwards onto the shaft at the exciter end.
the transfer of ventilating gas·. These leads are housed in two shallow slots in the
Because direct current circulates in the winding, shaft and are retained by wedges. At a point axially
there are no eddy current or other frequency related beyond the end windings, the leads connect with
losses in the rotor winding. The resistance (I 2 R) loss, radial copper studs and thence to D-shaped copper
amounting to 2 MW at rated load, together with the bars housed in the shaft bore. Seals against hydrogen
rotational (windage) loss, must be dissipated, and the leakage are provided on the radial studs. From the
average winding temperature must not be allowed D-leads, connections are taken either to sliprings
to exceed ll5°C. A cooling system is used, in which . or to the shaft-mounted exciter connections in a
hydrogen is in direct contact with the copper con- brushless machine (see Fig 6.17).
ductors, for optimum heat transfer. The high ro-
tational speed produces a pressure head through the
rotor slots which causes hydrogen to flow from both
ends, under the end windings and axially through sub- 3.3 Rotor end rings
slots in the rotor and channels in the coils, whence Thick end rings are used to restrain the rotor end
it emerges radially through the wedges into the airgap. windings from flying out under the action of centri-
460
Turbine-generator components: the rotor
\_ __....=~
HIGH
MECHANICAL
STRESS
MAGNETIC
FLUX
fugal force. For electromagnetic reasons, these rings because of the coarse grain structure, particularly
have traditionally been made from non-magnetic steel, where the shape is complex.
typically .a 1807o Mn, 4% Cr austenitic steel. A 0.2% An austenitic steel, containing 18% Mn 18% Cr,
proof stress of 1000 MN/m 2 is available to cope with has recently been developed which has shown virtual im-
the high operating stresses. A ring is machined from munity to stress-corrosion cracking in exhaustive
a single forging, and is attached to the end of the tests, while maintaining other properties at least as
rotor body with a shrink fit designed to provide a good as the older material. This alloy is being used in
small residual interference at 20% overspeed. The new machines and for replacement rings, eliminating
material has proved to be liable to stress-corrosion the need for pe;iodic inspection.
cracking at the stresses involved, and all the surfaces ex- The end ring is prevented from moving axially
cept the shrink fit are given a protective finish to either by means of lugs mating with similar lugs on
ensure that hydrogen, water vapour, etc., does not the rotor body, or by small spring-loaded plungers
have access to the surfaces. Even so, it is recom- locating into grooves (see Fig 6.20). In both these
mended that rings are removed occasionally for de- designs, the ring must be rotated through a small
tailed surface crack detection using a fluorescent angle, when fully home axially, in order to lock. In
dye. Ultrasonic scanning is not entirely satisfactory, a different design, a screwed ring is used to pull the
461
The generator Chapter 6
SLIPRING
TERMINAL STUD
END BELL
INERTIA SLITS
ROTOR BLOWER
WINDING SLOTS
AND WEDGES
TURBINE
HALF COUPLING
462
POLE FACE
POLE SLOT DAMPING WINDING
END WEDGE POLE FACE
END WINDING
SUPPORT BLOCK
ROTOR BODY_-~~~~-
\-=::_-c-~
-~'\----=___.,_ _:__~-'--=:_1'. ':'_/-,
_, """ ~- I I ..
;,---.,~ -7=---:----- ~~: r:::t~~fjy r>~~~
=
~ ~ 1 "' '
"
INSULATING TUBE
Ill
Ill
.......~.......-
)
') ,
...,._......;......~~ 'l) •::-_:, RADIAL
~I') CONNECTION BOLT
.,~"
'l
"l
.
·;?~~
-.:.:._. ---::;:_ EXCQTER It --;
c
END
WINDING ""'
Q:
VENTILATION HOLES L :::l
Cll
I
co
Cll
INSULATING :::l
SEPARATOR Cll
BALANCING Ol
.....
PLUG HOLES -, 0
DAMPING RADIAL AXIAL LEAD CONNECTING
BARANDTAG CONNECTION RING (')
0
3
~ COOLING GAS FLOW
"0
0
:::l
WEIGHT Cll
:::l
.....
(/)
FIG. 6.17 Rotor winding
.....
:r
Cll
""'
0
.....
-l'> 0
Q')
w ""'
~--------------------------------------------·--
INBOARD
END
BALANCE
WEIGHT
OUTBOARD
END
ROTOR SHAFT
VENTILATION
SLOT
the slits, and prevent hot spots at the ends of the several brushes and holders on one of several re-
slits. movable brackets, each of which can be withdrawn
for brush replacement while running on-load, if spe-
cial precautions are observed (see Fig 6.22 inset).
Brush pressure is maintained by constant pressure
3.5 Sliprings, brushgear and shaft earthing springs. A brush life of at least six months should
Connections are taken from the D-leads in the bore, be obtained.
through radial copper connectors (which may have The brushgear is housed in a separate compart-ment
back-up hydrogen seals) and flexible connections, onto of the excitation housing, separately ventilated by a
the sliprings (Fig 6.21). For a 660 MW generator, shaft-mounted fan so that brush dust is not distri-
the rated excitation current is about 5000 A, and buted into other excitation components. Small leakages
sliprings must have a large surface area and run cool of hydrogen past the connection seals which might
in order to transfer this current satisfactorily. One accumulate in the brushgear compartments during pro-
design uses two sliprings of the same polarity in longed shutdown periods, are safely diluted by the
parallel. The ring surface is grooved and drilled to im- fan on start-up before excitation current is applied. Win-
prove its surface cooling. dows in the cover permit easy inspection of the
The brushgear shown in Fig 6.22 is arranged with brushgear.
465
The generator Chapter 6
Monitoring of excitation current and voltage and It is normal for a large generator to produce an
rotor winding temperature by resistance measurement, on-load voltage of 10- SO V between its two shaft
is simply achieved in a generator with sliprings, using ends, due to magnetic dissymmetry and other causes.
a current shunt and voltage connections in one of This voltage would drive .:urrent axially through the
the excitation cubicles. Rotor earth fault detection, rotor body, returning through bearings and journals,
and the application of tests such as the recurrent causing damage to their surfaces, and insulation bar-
surge method for shorted-turn detection, are also riers are provided to prevent such current circulation.
simply arranged. These need only be at one end, the exciter end, but
Where no main excitation sliprings are fitted (Fig must be present wherever the shaft would otherwise con-
6.23), signal may be transmitted from the shaft, via tact earthed metal, for example, at bearings, seals, oil
telemetry. Alternatively, a set of light current slip rings scrapers, oil pipes and gear-driven pumps. In
and brushgear may be provided for signal monitoring some designs, two layers of insulation are provided,
and protection purposes. with a 'floating' metallic component between them,
466
·O'RING
LOCKING PLATE
COMPRESSION RING
/
LOCKPLATE
SLIPRING , SLIPRING CONNECTION STRIP
CONNECTION TUBE
SLIPRING CONNECTION RING
INSULATING
LOCKING SCREW
PLUG
ROTOR SHAFT
SLIP RING
-i
c
...,
S!.
:::l
CD
I
<0
CD
:::l
...,
CD
....
QJ
0
SEALING GASKET 0
0
AXIAL LEAD TO
COMPRESSION PLATE 3
SLIPRING 'A' & 'D' ----
"0
----------====~
0
:::l
AXIAL LEAD TO CD
SLIPRING 'B' & 'C' :::l
......
(/)
......
~
CD
METHOD OF CONNECTING SLIPRINGS IN PARALLEL TO AXIAL LEADS
.)>.
0)
0......
-....1 0
...,
Fie. 6.21 Sliprings and connections
Chapter 6
The generator
RUBBER GLOVE
INSULATED HANDLE
j
WASHER
FLANGED INSULATING BONDED INSULATING
STEEL WASHER \ BUSHES TUBE
~
---~- ---
NUT
STUD
METHOD OF SECURING BRUSHGEAR PALMS
TO BRUSHGEAR SUPPORT BRACKET
INSULATING CAP
~ !
~·i I
I
A
MAIN GENERATOR
~ ROTOR SHAFT
SLIPRING
468
Turbine-generator components: the rotor
I
I
FLEXIBLE
CONNECTOR
R!NG NUT
"''
INSULATION
so that a simple resistance measurement between the It is important that the shaft at the turbine end
floating component and earth confirms the integrity of the generator is maintained at earth potential,
of the insulation. and a pair of shaft-riding brushes connected to earth
While all the insulation remains clean and intact, through a resistor achieves this. Because carbon
a voltage will exist between the shaft at the exciter brushes develop a high resistance glaze when op-
end and earth, and this provides another method erated for long periods without current flow, a spe-
of confirming the integrity of the insulation. A shaft- cial circuit passes a 'wetting' current into and out
riding brush enables this shaft voltage to be moni- of the shaft through the brushes; this circuit also
tored, and an alarm is initiated when this falls below detects when brush contact is lost (Fig 6.24). A
a predetermined value. different scheme, in which a current carrying contact
TURBINE
GENERATOR
MAIN EXCITER
RESISTORS - - - - - - - - -
FUSE HOLDER
LINK 1 OHM
STATION
EARTH
469
The generator Chapter 6
or rub anywhere a!ong the turbine-generator shaft slings throughout the operation. The use of a support
system can be detecte~, has also been used. trolley running on wheels of insulation material in
the bore is deprecated because of the core damage it
can cause. Adequate space for rotor insertion and
removal must be provided.
3.6 Fans The whole turbine-generator line of rotors is non-
flexibly coupled together and must be allowed to
Fans circulate hydrogen through the stator and coolers.
attain its natural catenary shape if the bearing load-
Identical fans are mounted at each end of the shaft,
ings are to be satisfactory. The supports for the
each ventilating half the axial length of the generator.
generator (and exciter) rotors must be set up so that
Fans are either of the centrifugal type, with many
these rotors form part of the catenary. Coupling
vanes in one annular assembly, or of the axial-flow
alignments are accurately set by the use of bridge
type in which the propeller vanes may be separate
bolted-on components (Fig 6.25). The diameter over gauges and concentricity checks, and the stator is set
up so that the radial airgap is approximately constant.
the blade tips may exceed that of the stator bore,
necessitating the fitting of one fan after the rotor The axial position of the rotor train is fixed by
the thrust bearing, which is located in the turbine.
has been threaded through the stator. Inlet and outlet
Axial expansion of the turbine rotors downstream of
conditions are far from ideal, and though stationary
the thrust face, and of the generator rotor, due to
guide vanes are used to reduce swirl, the fan effi-
temperature changes, may amount to 25 mm or more,
ciency is low. Noise reduction is not a major concern,
since the massive stator casing is an effective acoustic and this must be accommodated in bearings, seals,
fan baffles, oil scrapers, etc.
barrier.
470
Turbine-generator components: the rotor
~~ ~ 11 !1 ~
~:~~ ,-;~
:1
~\%~-~-~
- - -..-......-.....-.·-.·.-.-.·
. .- - C
(f ,>~1 \.-~-=;
~
----~II I
STAGE 5
STAGE 6 ~--J
471
The generator
Chapter .6
YIBRATION
ORIGINAL HOT
AMPLITUDE
OPERATING POINT
SECOND
CRITICAL
FIRST
CRITICAL
0
1000 2000 3000
SPEED, rimm AFTER OFFSET BALANCE, COLD
y
DIAPHRAGM \ RETAINING RING OUTER END COVER
\ I
\ I
SUPPORT KEY
-JOINT SCREW
WHITE METAL
SEAL FACE ~--
absorbent. If left inside an open stator, dry air must be transported. The completed core and core frame
be circulated. assembly was inserted into a substantial outer casing
Protection applied to journals, sliprings, etc., must for in-works testing c'md finally at site. Although
be removed before operation. Blanking tape and one-piece stators for 660 MW generators can now
collars, designed to prevent ingress of foreign ma- be transported, the two-piece concept has been con-
terial into the winding, must also be removed before tinued (see Fig 6.1).
operation.
4. 1 Stator core
4 Turbine-generator components: the The core provides paths for the magnetic flux from
stator one rotor pole around the outside of the stator wind-
The stator must carry the output winding, provide a ing and back into the other pole.
low reluctance path for the magnetic flux, and with- As the rotor rotates, carrying its flux distribution
stand the torque produced, both at rated load and with it, all points in the stator core experience a
during faults. sinusoidally-varying 50 Hz flux density. This would
When generators rated 300 MW and above were induce a 50 Hz voltage of about 700 V axially in a
first specified, it was found that the smallest prac- solid core, and to prevent large circulating currents
ticable stator core, assembled into the lightest pos- with their associated losses, the core is made of thin
sible casing was too heavy for transport by road steel plates coated with an insulating material; the
in the UK, within the statutory limitation of that voltage induced axially in each plate is about 50 m V.
time. Since it is not practical to design a core in The sheet steel from which core plates are cut
sections for on-site assembly, and complete core conforms to BS601, which specifies dimensional lim-
building and winding on site has disadvantages, a its, magnetic properties, silicon content (normally 3 OJo)
design evolved in which the core and windings were and state of annealing, and test methods. Sheet thick-
assembled into a skeletal core frame, which could nesses used are 0.35 and 0.5 mm, with a specific
473
-~
SEAL SHAFT
SEAL HOUSING
total loss value at 1.5 tesla and 50 Hz of 3.55 W /kg, where required, for the passage of cooling gas, by
or better. building in a ring of thicker plates to which small
Core plates are cut to form segments of an annular steel bars have been welded. These bars are aligned
ring, twelve segments per ring being common. Wind- in a mainly radial orientation, and serve to distribute
ing slots, location notches and holes for ventilation the gas through the ducts. Holes in the plates are
(if required) are cut in one pressing operation. The arranged to be in axial alignment and thus form axial
use of dedicated dies is justified, since nearly a quar.- ventilation ducts in some designs. At intervals during
ter of a million core plates are used in each 660 MW core building, heavy pressure is applied to consolidate
generator. The punched plates are ground to remove the assembly of plates.
edge burrs, and are then coated all over with one or When the build is almost complete, and with pres-
more thin layers of a baked-on insulating varnish. sure applied at the top end, the core is subjected to
With the core frame axis vertical, and one core a peripheral 50 Hz magnetic flux, which causes the
end plate in position at the lower end of the frame, plates to shake down further, following which the
a ring of core plates is assembled, located on dove- space created is filled with more core plates and the
tail-shaped keys on the inside periphery of the frame. top end plate is assembled and pulled down. Core
The radial butt joint between plates has as small flux tests are also carried out on the completed core,
a gap as possible to minimise magnetic flux distor- with a flux density in the back of the core 90-lOOOJo
tion. The next ring of core plates is assembled so of the rated value, in order to demonstrate freedom
that its butt joints do not coincide with those of from significant faults (Fig 6. 31). If sufficient acci-
adjacent rings (see Fig 6.30). dental contacts between adjacent plates occur, it is
Gaps in the build-up of core plates are created, possible for current to flow, causing local hot spots.
474
Turbine-generator components: the stator
An infra-red camera is used to scan the stator bore The net axial length of magnetic steel presented to
for areas of higher than normal temperature during the flux is less than the measured stacked length by
such a test. a factor between 0.9 and 0.95, known as the stacking
Some designs include a bonding agent between factor. This is because of the varnish layers (and
layers of core plates to ensure that individual plates, adhesive if present), and the air spaces between core
and particularly the teeth, do not vibrate independ- plate layers due to uneven plate thickness and im-
ently. Any wavyness in core build-up is corrected by perfect consolidation.
the use of suitable packing material. Slots for the stator winding conductors (bars) extend
Grain-oriented sheet steel, whose magnetic pro- radially from the bore. These slots have parallel sides,
perties are deliberately made different in the two so that the deep bars can be inserted radially, the
perpendicular axes, is used in some designs (Fig 6.32). teeth between them therefore increase in section with
Flux in a circumferential direction behind the winding increasing radial distance. The flux density i~ the
slots is arranged to coincide with the low loss orienta- teeth is therefore greatest at the bore, at the tooth
tion, which enables the back of the core to be op- tips, and is usually about 2 tesla for an acceptable
erated at a higher flux density than with non-oriented speci fie loss in the teeth. Since the slots and teeth
core steel, for the same specific loss. The opposite is are roughly equally wide at the gap, the mean peak
true for the teeth, where the flux is radial and the flux density in the air gap is typically 1 tesla. The
specific loss is higher than normal. A reduction in peak flux density in the core back is typically 1.5
outside diameter should be possible from magnetic tesla. Some leakage flux in the end winding regions
considerations, but the mechanical properties are ad- penetrates into the ends of the core. The axial com-
versely affected. Core plates of grain-oriented steel ponent of this flux induces alternating voltages in the
must be specially annealed after punching. teeth, and current flows around the teeth, as shown
475
---------------
The generator Chapter 6
in Fig 6.33, causing unacceptable additional losses. perature at the bore, as well as the final steady
To reduce this effect, one or more radial slots are temperature.
punched in the teeth for a few centimetres at the As noted earlier, if accidental contacts occur (at
ends of the core, referred to as Pistoye slots. the tooth tips or due to burrs at, or damage to, the
The rotating magnetic field results in a rotating slot surfaces), a circuit may possibly exist for a cir-
radially-inward force being applied to the core across culating current. The current level depends, inter alia,
a diameter, causing an ovalising distortion moving on the contact resistances between the back of the
synchronously. The strength of the core and core core plates and the core frame bars on which the
frame assembly must be able to resist this force with plates are assembled. In some designs, all these bars
minimum strain, which is transmitted to the windings (except one which earths the core) are covered with
and the outer casing as a 100 Hz vibration. It is also insulating material, minimising the chance of current
important that the assembly has no resonances near circulation (Fig 6.35). In others, there is no insu-
to the exciting frequency. lation, and the contact resistance is not only random,
Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core form but may vary with load as the torque reaction is
a significant proportion of the total loss. In UK transferred, causing a hot spot in the core to 'switch'
designs, the heat produced by these losses is removed on and off.
by hydrogen circulating radially in the ducts and
axially through holes, where these are provided (Fig
6.34). Thermocouples are built into the core, parti-
cularly in regio~s expected to be hotter than average, 4.2 Core frame
to ensure that the maximum detected core temperature The fabricated steel core frame is designed to be as
does not exceed the specified value. If a hot spot light as possible consistent with its required functions,
exists, or develops in service, it is unlikely that there as previously explained. As well as the functions
will be a thermocouple sufficiently close to it to already noted, it must be able to resist elastically the
provide an unambiguous alarm. An occasional flux axial pressure applied to the core.
test, when opportunity occurs, offers a better chance A core end plate assembly consists of a thick disc
of hot spot detection. A deep-seated hot spot may of non-magnetic steel, with (usually) separate non-
be detectable by observing the rate of rise of tern- magnetic 'fingers' to support the teeth. Because bolts
476
Turbine-generator components: the stator
477
The generator Chapter 6
COOLANT MANIFOLD
WINDING FLANGED JOINT COOLANT INLET
CORE CORE FRAME CORE END LEAD WINDING LEAD1 /'._~ANIFOLO
PLATE ~ CLAMP · _,
~~ I
I ;1_+H~,' - _L='~l11--~~;l I
I-·
BLANKING
PLATE
I
1
lie-,-:·,
r~
-,
"c~---
~"-'
==j-
1 ~~ ~~r---
JC>-----Cr
I .~------------
~~~,
li
AXIAL
li FLEXIBLE HOSE
EXTENT OF
PISTOYE INSULATING SLEEVE
SLOTTING
I
,•
MAIN
FLUX CURRENT
INDUCED BY
SUPPORT AXIAL FLUX PISTOYE
J
SADDLE SLOT
AXIAL VIEW OF
STATOR TEETH
Slots must therefore accommodate six similar the slot next to the previous one, and the winding
winding circuits, differing only in phase displacement; continues in this manner until one-sixth of the slots
and 42, 48 or 54-slot arangements are commonly used. are filled. Because of short-pitching, some slots. con-
A two-layer arrangement is adopted, in which a tain a top bar of one phase and a bottom bar of a
winding progresses from a top conductor (bar nearest different phase.
the bore) in a slot, bending in two planes after it A 776 MVA, 23.5 kV generator has a rated RMS
emerges from the core to span nearly a quarter of current of 19 080 A, i.e., a current of 9540 A per bar.
the circumference. At this point it is connected to a By cooling with water in contact with the conductor,
similar bar which continues the span but on a larger a current density of 8 A/mm 2 of cross-sectional area
conical diameter, and re-enters the core as a bottom can be achieved. With a slot width of about 45 mm,
conductor almost opposite the first (not exactly op- and allowing for insulation, the effective conductor
posite because of short-pitching). This bottom bar is width is restricted to about 30 mm. Sufficient area
then connected, at its other end, to the top bar in must be allocated for satisfactory water flow, and
478
Turbine-generator components: the stator
a:
CJ
>-
<(
a: c
w
z 2
w
(C) .2
w
I ;:
>- '-'
I >
0 ~
:::0
0 2,
a:
I v;
>-
z
CJ
;::: ""-o
M
(.)
w
(f) 0
>-
a: .:
it
(f)
<((f)
0<(
oc.D
--'>-
00
UI
CfJ(f)
WUJ
>->-
00
zz
WUJ
00
479
The generator Chapter 6
EARTHING STRAP
INSULATION
CLAMPING POSITION
EARTHING POSITION
CORE
480
Turbine-generator components: the stator
LONGITUDINAL
BEAMS
CORE SUPPORT
BARS'~
CORE
SIDE BEAMS
TRUNNION
MOUNTINGS
the radial conductor dimension becomes about 40 mm, effect is not quite nullified since leakage fluxes occur
with the overall radial bar dimension about 80 mm. in the end winding areas also, and some designs use
A current carrying conductor embedded in a nar- a transposition of greater than 360° in order that these
row slot in a magnetic material drives magnetic flux end effects shall not be additive.
around itself, mainly confined to the magnetic teeth, A differential eddy current voltage still exists bet-
but completing its circuit by crossing the 'airgap' ween the top and bottom of each strip, and current
represented by the slot width, further up the slot than will flow around it. The loss due to this current varies
the conductor (Fig 6.38). If the conductor is viewed as the fourth power of the radial dimension of the
as an assembly of separate strips, it can be seen that strip, so the incentive is to make the strip very thin.
the leakage flux density experienced by each strip However, the space required for insulation then
increases linearly with distance from the bottom strip. becomes excessive and compromise is needed. Water
This alternating leakage flux induces alternating volt- is circulated in rectangular section tube, which must
ages along the lengths of the strips, in quadrature with have a considerable depth, and in some designs an op-
the main voltage, and varying as the square of the timised mixture of tubes and thinner solid strips is
distance of the strip from the slot bottom. If a solid used (see Fig 6.40).
conductor were used, or if the strips were connected Conductors are made of high conductivity hard-
together at the core ends, these unequal voltages drawn copper. Each strip or tube has a thin coating
would circulate current around the bar, causing un- of glassfibre insulation, and is cranked to enable
acceptable eddy current losses and heating. all the strips in a bar to be assembled with the
In order to minimise this effect, the conductor Roebel transpositions correctly made. The bar ends
is divided into strips, which are lightly insulated, are bent using formers to give the required shape of
arranged in two or four stacks in the bar width. The end winding. The strips are bound together and the
strips are transposed along the length of the bar by main insulation is applied; a tape of mica powder
the Roebel method (Fig 6.39), in which each strip oc- loaded with a synthetic resin, with a glassfibre back-
cupies every position in .the stack for an equal axial ing, is wound without breaks along the length of
length, so that the eddy current voltages are equalised the bar. The straight part of the bar is pressed in
and no eddy currents circulate between strips. The a heated mould to cure the resin and obtain the
481
.--------------------------------------------
D DISTANCE FROM
D
SLOT BOTTOM. X
D
SLOT
CONTAINING
(a) CURRENT BELOW X (a) FLUX LINKAGE AT X DISTRIBUTION OF
(b) MMFAT X Ib) EDDY VOLTAGE AT X EDDY CURRENT
IDENTICAL
CONDUCTORS
482
FIG. 4.24 Heysham 2 condenser - modular construction
u.. ...
'""'"
• Currents induced in core end plates, screens, and forces are produced, both at rated load and parti-
end teeth.
cularly when large current peaks occur during fault
• Harmonic currents induced in the rotor and end conditions. The end turns must be strongly braced
ring surfaces. to resist the peak forces and also to minimise the
100 Hz vibration.
• Currents induced m frame, casing, endshields, fan The MMF produced in the end winding region by
baffles, etc. the combined effect of the stator and rotor end wind-
ings produces a considerable magnetic flux in the
end regions. Paramagnetic material would tend to
These individual losses have to be assessed so that concentrate the flux into itself, and electrically-con-
the appropriate cooling medium is directed to their ducting material would have eddy currents induced
sources, in order to a~oid~ unacceptable localised hot in it, causing both additional loss and potential hot
spots.
spots, Metallic inserts and fastening devices can be
caused to vibrate and loosen, or wear away their
surrounding medium. Consequently non-metallic com-
ponents are used, mainly moulded g!assfibre.
4.4 End winding support
Substantial support brackets are bolted to the core
In the end windings, bands of conductors are arranged end plate and provide a support for a massive glass-
side-by-side, all carrying the same current although fibre conical support ring. The outer layer of end
not all in phase, and considerable electromagnetic turns is pulled onto a bedding of thermosetting con-
483
li
'i
-
The generator Chapter 6
CROSSOVER INSULATION
ALTERNATE SOLID
AND HOLLOW
GROUP BINDING TAPE
COPPER CONDUCTORS
RIPPLE SPRING
ASBESTOS FINISHING TAPE
GROUP VERTICAL
SEPARATOR
STRAP INSULATION
TOP COIL
CLOSING WEDGE
OPPOSED TAPER WEDGES
APPLYING RADIAL RESTRAINT
484
r------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~
formable material between i! and the support cone, nals are housed on the external stems of the bushings.
and packers between the bars arch-bind the structure The connections from the generator terminals to the
circumferentially. The inner layer is treated similarly, generator transformer are described in Volume D.
with a ring of blocks pulled down onto the cone Phase isolated connections are always adopted, so
by through-bolts, completing the very rigid structure. that an electrical fault at the connections must start
Some designs use sheets of insulation material to as a line-to-earth fault, which is much less damaging
enclose any spaces and prevent the accidental ingress to the generator than a line-to-line fault.
of any foreign material. Magnetic material is parti-
cularly unwelcome, since it can be caused to vibrate
and abrade, or be heated by eddy currents and de-
grade the adjacent insulation (see Fig 6.33). Vibration 4.6 Stator winding cooling components
of the end windings must be minimised, since it can Water is the best of the commonly available media
promote fatigue cracking in the winding copper. This for cooling the stator winding, and imposes only one
is particularly serious if it occurs in a water-carrying condition that would not also apply to other fluids: it
tube, since hydrogen will leak into the water circuit. must be pure enough to be effectively non-conducting
Resonances close to 100 Hz must be avoided, since (electrically). It is continuously degassed and treated
both the core ovalising and the winding exciting force in an ion exchanger, with the following target values
occur at this frequency. Accelerometers in the end being aimed for:
winding structure allow any increase in vibration due
to support slackening to be monitored. Vibration am- Conductivity: 100 JLS/m
plitude is highly current dependent. Any looseness
developing after a period in operation can be cor- Dissolved oxygen: 200 j.tg/litre max (in some
rected by tightening the bolts, by inserting or tighten- systems > 2000 is acceptable)
ing wedges, and/or by pumping a thermosetting resin Total copper: 150 JLg/litre max.
into rubber bags located between conductor bars.
Figure 6.41 shows the stator core and end windings pH value: 9 max.
for a 660 MW generator.
At these levels, no aggressive attack on the winding
copper has been noticed after very many years' ex-
perience. Any erosion of copper is detected by the
4.5 Electrical connections and terminals monitoring equipment.
Electrical connections between one conductor bar and Water is passed into one or more inlet manifolds,
the next in series are made differently in different which are copper or stainless steel pipes running cir-
designs. In one, a common electrical and water con- cumferentially around the core end plate. From the
nector is formed by a copper tube bent into a U-shape, manifolds, flexible PTFE hos~s are connected to all
and brazed onto small copper waterboxes into which the water inlet ports on the stator conductor joints.
all the bar subconductors are brazed. In another, the In a two-pass design, water passes through both bars
electrical joint is made by a solid copper bolted joint, ~n parallel and is transferred to the two connected
with the water connections separate. It is common bars at the other end, returning through similar hoses
practice to insulate the joint or to enclose it in a to the outlet manifold which adjoins the inlet mani-
rubber housing. fold. This design minimises the number of hoses,
The conductor bars at the high voltage end (line but requires a larger pressure head of water across
end) and the low voltage end (neutral end) of a phase the winding (see Fig 6.43). In a single-pass arrange-
band are electrically connected to tubular connectors ment, hoses connect both ends of a bar to the
which run circumferentially behind the end windings manifolds, which are located at opposite ends.
at the exciter end, to the outgoing terminals, usually Thin metallic-sleeved components are crimped in-
with line terminals at the bottom and neutral ter- side and outside the ends of the PTFE hoses, and
minals at the top, although other arrangements do these are then attached to bosses on the manifolds
exist. These connectors are internally water cooled, and winding connectors, using screwed-up olives,
and must be insulated for line voltage. 0-rings or brazed joints. The casing hydrogen pressure
Terminal bushings (Fig 6.42) are proprietary paper- is everywhere greater than the water pressure in the
insulated items, with internal water cooling from the winding circuit, so that any leakage is of hydrogen
stator winding water system. Their insulation must into· water, rather than the reverse, which would be
be capable of withstanding the hydrogen pressure in damaging to the winding insulation.
the casing, with no perceptible leakage. It is common The loss input into the water circuit at rated load
practice to flange-mount the terminals on a plate of is designed to raise the water temperature by less
non-magnetic material, and to arrange for a terminal than 30°C. With an inlet temperature of 40°C, there
to be withdrawable from outside the casing. Current is plenty of margin before the\temperature at which
transformers for instrumentation and protection sig- boiling would occur, 115-120°C at the working pres-
485
The generator Chapter 6
486
Turbine-generator components: the stator
GAS SIDE
CONNECTION
PALM
SEAL
OUTER STATOR
SEAL FRAME
ALUMINIUM
TERMINAL
PLATE
CLAMP
FLANGE
TUBULAR COPPER
CONDUCTOR
MAIN INSULATION
EXCITER END
SEAL
CONNECTION PALM
AIR SIDE
487
The generator Chapter 6
,
MAIN TERMINAL TO
OUTLET MANIFOLD
PTFE HOSES
PHASE RINGS
\
I
COIL- TO-PHASE
RING CONNECTIONS
COIL-TO-COIL
CONNECTIONS
sure. Monitoring the temperature of each bar by horizontally inside the casing; they consist of banks
thermocouples, either in the slots or in the water of finned or wire-wound tubes through which water
outlets, enables a reduction or stoppage of water flow flows in one or two passes while hydrogen flows over
in a bar to be detected. them. The coolers are arranged so that their headers
are accessible (for tube cleaning) without degassing
the casing. The tubes and the cooler frame must be
supported so as to avoid resonances close to the
4. 7 Hydrogen cooling components principal exciting frequencies of 50 Hz and 100 Hz.
The advantages of hydrogen cooling, and its para- It is most important that moisture does not con-
meters, are described in Section 5 of this chapter. dense on the stator end windings, since electrical
Hydrogen enters the generator casing through an breakdown may then occur. The dewpoint of the hy-
axially-oriented distribution pipe at the top, carbon drogen (at casing pressure) must be at least 20°C
dioxide for scavenging being admitted through a simi- lower than the temperature of the cooled hydrogen
lar pipe at the bottom. emerging from the coolers, and this is continuously
The rotor fans circulate hydrogen over the end monitored by a hygrometer. In normal on-load op-
windings and through the stator core, while a parallel eration, the stator winding water maintains the wind-
flow passes through the rotor. At rated load, the ing temperature above 40°C; if condensation occurred
hydrogen temperature increases by about 25°C during it would be on the hydrogen coolers first. During
the few seconds taken to complete this circuit. Two run-up, however, the stator winding water is likely
or four hydrogen coolers are located vertically or to be cold, and it is either pre-heated electrically, or
488
.''
irculated for a lengthy period, to .warm the winding runners to accommodate the hydrogen coolers. At
fore the generator is excited. the ends, thick rings provide facings for the separate
end shields. Internal supports for the core frame, in
the form of horizontal footplates or spring plate fix-
ings, are provided, and external feet support the
8 Stator casing complete assembly. Lifting trunnions are usually made
.. e casing contains the stator core and core frame, detachable.
.nd must resist the load and fault torques. It must The design of the welded joints is carefully con-
:o provide a pressure-tight enclosure for the hy- trolled to avoid the presence of unfused lands wherever
ogen. Historically, casings have been made strong possible. The main welds have to be leak-tight against
nough to withstand the pressure developed by an hydrogen at 4 bar, which is a very exacting require-
'"1ition of the most explosive mixture of hydrogen ment. The complete casing may be too large to be
d air, without catastrophic failure. stress-relieved in an annealing oven, in which case
Because any mixture of hydrogen and air within it must be assumed that stresses up to yield. stress
he explosive range is not allowed to occur, attain- exist il). the welds. In one design, the casing is con-
~nt of explosion pressure is not a credible condition, structed in two halves, which are stress-relieved before
___ d to specify the casing on the basis of withstanding being welded together.
uch a pressure without leaks, as would be required The end shields are thick circular fabricated steel
BS5500, is unrealistic. Consequently, the full re- plates, ribbed to withstand the casing pressure with
tirements of the pressure vessel code are not invoked, minimal axial deflection. They house the shaft seal
hough some of them are applied. This pragmatic stationary components and, in some designs, the out-
mproach has been justified by worldwide experience over board bearing. Leak-free sealing of the end shield/
'ty years. casing joints against the hydrogen pressure, as with
Casings are fabricated steel cylinders of up to all other casing joints, is effected by gaskets, 0-rings
~5 mm thickness, reinforced internally with annular rings and sealing compounds injected into grooves.
td axial members which strengthen the structure and The completed casing assembly is hydraulically pres-
•rm passages for the flow of hydrogen (see sure tested, and finally must be demonstrated to be
Figs 6.44 and 6.45). Internal spaces are provided with leak-tight to a level corresponding to a fall from
COOLER ENCLOSURE
POCKET
~ FRAME RIB
TURBINE END PLATES
JACK SUPPORT
BRACKET ROTOR
COOLING GAS
COOLER SEAL ~~ ~ ~ DUCTS
END
PLATE
\,
JACK SUPPORT
BRACKET
MAIN TERMINAL
ENCLOSURE
489
The generator
Chapter 6
490
Cooling systems
rated hydrogen pressure of not more than 0.035 bar ductivity and specific heat of hydrogen, the effect
in 24 h. ' is that heat removal from heated surfaces is up
Some of the core vibration is' transmitted to the to ten times more effective, resulting in lower tem-
casing, and rotor vibration is transmitted through the peratures. Coolers can also be considerably smaller.
end shield and the foundations. The casing assembly
must be designed to avoid resonances in the range • The use of hydrogen imposes the need for herme-
of these exciting frequencies. tic sealing and condition control, which helps to
Drains are arranged so that any oil or water col- ensure that the original electrical clearances are
lecting in the bottom of the casing is piped to liquid maintained.
leakage detectors, which initiate an alarm. Distri-
• More importantly: the degradation of insulation
bution pipes for hydrogen and C0 2 are built-in; a
by oxidation processes cannot occur in a hydrogen
temperature sensor at the C0 2 inlet initiates an alarm
atmosphere.
if the incoming gas has not been adequately heated
and could chill the fal;>ricated casing locally. Electrical
heaters are fitted in the lower half of the casing to The disadvantages are:
maintain dry conditions during outages. • Since concentrations of from 4~o to 76~o of hy-
The casing is bolted down to the supporting steel- drogen in air are explosive, hydrogen must not be
work on packing plates which are machined after allowed to escape from the stator casing and its
trial erection to provide the correct alignment. Axial associated pipework in significant quantities and
and transverse keys prevent subsequent movement. become trapped in potentially explosive pockets.
The weight of the casing, complete with core frame, The casing and end shields have to be of rugged
coolers and water, is up to 450 tonnes. construction and leak proof, demanding meticulous
welding techniques. Penetrations such as the rotor
shafts, and all outgoing connections, must be posi-
tively sealed, the former requiring a sophisticated
5 Cooling systems sealing system.
A generator of this type has an efficiency of about
98.51Jio. Even though the. losses are low in terms of • A comprehensive gas control system is required.
the output, they amount to some 10 MW, all of For generators rated much above I 00 MW, air cool-
which must be removed by the cooling systems; the ing is not practical; more than half the total loss
heat lost by convection and radiation from the casing would be due to fan and rotor windage. At 500
is not significant. and 660 MW, hydrogen pressures of 4 or 5 bar are
In some stations, most of the generator (and exciter) economic; higher pressures than this have little or
losses are transferred into the boiler feedwater system no advantage. The only practical alternative at
by using condensate in the heat exchangers. While these ratings is complete wat~r cooling including
such an arrangement can be economic, there is a the rotor, which has not been adopted in the UK,
penalty in the form of added complication, and the and only rarely elsewhere, because of leakage pro-
most modern stations do !not have this feature. blems at the very high water pressures produced
by the rotation.
491
The generator Chapter 6
monitor the proportion of C0 2 in the gas passing to tored by several thermocouples, whose readings should
atmosphere; when tllis is sufficiently high, the C0 2 be averaged, at the inlets to and outlets from the
inlet is closed (see Fig' 6.46). hydrogen coolers. Typically, hydrogen is circulated
High purity hydrogen from a central storage tank at 30 m3 Is which, with a full-load loss input of about
or electrolytic! process is then fed through a bus main 5000 kW, results in a temperature rise of the order of
at about 10 bar to the gas control panel, where its 30°C. The cooled gas should not be hotter than 40°C,
pressure is reduced before being fed to the casing so the temperature of the gas entering the coolers
through the top admission pipe (Fig 6.47). Being very should not exceed 70°C.
much lighter, it displaces the C0 2 from the bottom Water cannot normally leak into the casing from the
of the casings via the C0 2 pipe to atmosphere, again stator winding water circuit or the hydrogen coolers,
with some degree of mixing. When the proportion since the water pressure is lower than the gas pressure
of C0 2 in the vent is low enough, the proportion in both circuits. It can be released from the shaft
of air left in the casing will be very low, and if the seal oil, particularly if the oil is untreated turbine
casing is then pressurised with hydrogen to its pp- lubricating oil which has picked. up water from the
erating pressure (say 4 bar), the proportion of air turbine steam glands. It is important that the mois-
will be reduced to a quarter of this low value. The ture content of the casing hydrogen be kept low
complete process normally occupies a few hours. enough to prevent condensation occurring on the
Separate procedures are followed to ensure that coldest component, which may be the water cooled
other components, such as tanks, are properly scav- winding. The differential pressure is used to circulate
enged, so that dangerous mixtures do not occur. The a flow of hydrogen continuously through a dryer,
reverse of the foregoing procedure, using C0 2 and typically of the twin-tower type, using activated alu-
then dry compressed air, is followed to remove mina, with automatic changeover and regeneration. A
hydrogen from the machine for inspection or for a motor-driven blower maintains the flow through the
prolonged outage. rotor when the rotor is not running at speed (see Fig
In one design of 500 MW generator, air is removed 6.49).
from the casing by drawing a vacuum, using the Continuous monitoring of the humidity of the cas-
pump normally used to degas the seal oil. The shaft ing gas is provided by means of a hygrometer. The
seals are arranged to seal effectively under this unusual maximum permissible dewpoint is not less than 20°C
operating condition. When the vacuum is as low as below the cold gas temperature, measured at casing
can be achieved, hydrogen is admitted, the resulting pressure. It is important that this caveat is observed,
purity when pressurised being sufficiently high.
Normally, hydrogen purity remains high, since air
particularly if the dewpoint is being compared with
that of a sample drawn from the casing and measured I
l
cannot leak into the pressurised system. Some air at atmospheric pressure.
may, however, be released from the shaft seal oil Hydrogen is circulated by the fans through the
flowing into the casing hydrogen space. Replacement stator core and end wiQdings, the precise paths being
hydrogen to make up for leakage is usually sufficient
to maintain the required purity.
different in different designs. The rotor acts virtually
as its own fan, hydrogen being drawn through the
[
The differential pressure developed across the windings and exhausted into the airgap, again dif- I
rotor fans is used to circulate a sample of casing ferently in different designs. The hydrogen removes i
I
hydrogen continuously through a katharometer-type the electrical loss in the rotor winding, the 'iron loss' !
purity monitor, which initiates an alarm if the purity in the stator core, the windage loss produced by the
falls below a p'reset value, typically 97o/o. The purity
monitor (and the gas analyser) can be calibrated with
pure gases from the piped supplies. A check on the
rotor and fans, and most of the electrical losses gen-
erated in the frame and end winding structures.
Because it is impractical to ensure that potentially
I
purity is also possible by monitoring the differential explosive mixtures of hydrogen and air never occur
pressure developed by the fans, which responds in the small bore instrumentation pipework, those
markedly to the change in density produced by air instruments and devices containing electrical circuits
impurity. in contact with the gas, such as katharometers, must
A pressure sensitive valve admits hydrogen from be intrinsically safe in such mixtures. This means that
the bus main if the casing pressure falls below a pre- a sudden break in an electrical circuit must not be
determined level, while a spring-loaded relief valve capable of providing enough spark energy to ignite
is set to release hydrogen to the outside atmosphere the gas.
if the pressure becomes excessive. It is important It is impossible to ensure complete freedom from
that these two 1 pressures are not set so close that leakage of hydrogen over the lifetime of the plant,
wastage occurs, particularly as the gas temperature and the areas near to potential leakage sources are
and pressure changes when on-load cycling. Monitoring classified into zones of differing degrees of hazard,
of the hydrogen consumption is a recently introduced described in detail in CEGB Code of Practice 098/34:
feature on some units (see Fig 6.48). 'Code of Practice for the Design Principles relating
The temperature of the hydrogen is normally moni- to the use of Hydrogen in Large Generators'. Zones 0
492
Cooling systems
I
~-----------------------------------------
1 TURBINE • ... PERFORATED ADMISSION PIPE ... ... EXCITER
I END GENERATOR STATOR CASING END
---------,
t '1
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I TO
t •
ATMOSPHERE
1-- .........
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GENERATOR GAS
DRYING SYSTEM
~
H KATHAROMETER
2
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GAS CONTROL
o- EMERGENCY PANEL
I INTEGRATING
FLOW METER ' - - -
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FROM CO
I "~
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- 1-
FROM
I HYDROGEN LP
DELIVERY MAIN s
;
l
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493
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TURBINE
END • • PERFORATED ADMISSION P!PE
GENERATOR STATOR CASING
t
• • EXCITER
END
- - -
~
,.
TO
ATMOSPHERE
.... -
........
~
.....
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-... ...
r-M- rM"
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LIQUID
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CHAMBERS
~ ~
... - -
- -
~ - ....
00
GENERATOR GAS
DRYING SYSTEM
~ H KATHAROMETER
2 ~
J.
.,.1
r---~~--------------~ GAS CONTROL
a-
INTEGRATING .___H><r----------f
EMERGENCY PANEL
FLOW METER ..
FROM C0
SUPPLY 2
I
-
-- r-~-~~-------~~~~~HYDROGENLP
FROM
DELIVERY MAINS
494
Cooling systems
TURBINE
END
PERFORATED ADMISSION PIPE
GENERATOR STATOR CASING • EXCITER
END
495
The generator
Chapter 6.
PRESSURE GAUGE
DRYER H, INLET
VALVE
ISOLATING VALVE
BLOWER
DISCHARGE
VALVE
co.
SECONDARY REGULATOR
~ ~""""
~
and 1, in which explosive mixtures exist continuously virtually impossible to eliminate some potential igni-
or occur in normal operation, should not be present tion sources, such as the rotating shaft rubbing an oil
if the principles outlined above are followed. Zone 2, scraper ring, or sparking at brushgear.
in which explosive mixtures are unlikely to occur
Another potential source of ignition occurs where
and, if they do will only exist for a short time, covers
currents are induced in pipework loops, as may be
:l,strumentation as previously noted; the hydrogen
the case when pipes are routed near to main con-
dryer and blower, the detraining tanks, and the in-
nections. Here, flanged joints are insulated to break
terior of the control cubicle to which hydrogen is the possible current path.
piped. Also classified as Zone 2 are the areas into
If a serious rupture occurs, e.g., the break-up of
which hydrogen may leak, through gaskets, seals, etc.,
a shaft seal, hydrogen may escape very rapidly, and
knowing the normal pressure behind the gas and its
if it encounters a source of ignition, say the shaft
propensity for rapid upward movement. Sources of
rubbing, it will burn intensely in the ambient air. In
ignition are not located in such areas. It is, however,
order to vent the casing to atmosphere outside the
496
Cooling systems
station, and to admit C0 2 to the casing, duplicated in the white-metalled ring, and flows along the clear-
valves are provided, one set bei~g located remote from ances between the shaft and the bore of the seal,
where any fire is conceivable (see Fig 6.50). both outwards to the drain and inwards to the hy-
Hydrogen has been used universally for 50 years drogen pressurised space. The inward flow rate is
for high speed generator cooling, and incidents such much greater than that for the thrust type, because
as this have been very rare. The meticulous attention it is not inhibited by centrifugal force, and it would
to safety precautions both in design and operation be capable of contaminating the hydrogen purity to
have been largely responsible for this good record. an unacceptable extent. To prevent this, all the oil
fed to the seals is subjected to vacuum treatment, in
which much of the air and water is removed. Against
this disadvantage, it is claimed that the journal type
5.3 Shaft seals and seal oil system seal is inherently better able to withstand disturbances
of the shaft by expanding to provide a larger clear-
Seals prevent the escape of hydrogen where the rotor
ance for oil flow if it is heated by excessive shaft
shafts emerge through the casing end shields. What-
ever their design, they are located in the end shields, movement.
and are inboard of the bearings. Two types of seal More sophisticated versions of the journal type seal,
have been commonly used: the thrust seal and the one of which has two separate oil supplies for inward
journal seal. and outward flow, have been developed to avoid the
need for vacuum treatment (see Fig 6.29). It is also
possible to keep the oil supplies separate from the
5.3.1 Thrust type seal main turbine lubricating oil supply, which is the source
of most of the entrained water.
In the thrust type seal (Fig 6.28), the seal ring acts
like a thrust face, bearing onto a collar on the shaft.
Turbine lubricating oil is fed to a central circum-
5.3.3 Seal oil system
ferential groove in the white-metalled face of the
seal ring, at a pressure controlled to be greater than In the conventional seal oil system (sec Fig 6.51), the
that of the casing hydrogen. Most of the oil flows main seal oil supply is taken from the shaft-driven
outwards over the thrust face and drains into a well. lubricating oil pump, with its pressure suitably re-
A small proportion flows inwards, against centrifu- duced. The pressure is further controlled by diaphragm
gal force and with only the oil/hydrogen differential valve which maintains a constant differential pressure
pressure behind it, into a drainage compartment which above casing gas pressure at the seals. The oil is cooled
is at casing hydrogen pressure. This oil can release in a water-cooled heat exchanger, and finely filtered
entrained air and water at this point, thus contami- to prevent metallic particles gaining access to the small
nating the casing hydrogen, as noted earlier, and it clearances at the seal faces.
is therefore important that the inward oil flow is ' the shaft sealing
Because it is necessary to maintain
small. oil at standstill, to prevent hydrogen escape, motor-
The seal ring is attached to a housing which must driven seal oil pumps are also provided; these act as a
be free to move axially to accommodate the 30 mm back-up in emergencies, and are initiated by falling
or so of axial movement imposed on the shaft by seal oil pressure. They are commonly vertical pump-
thermal expansion of all the coupled rotors down- motor units mounted on the top of the lubricating
stream from the turbine thrust bearing, as they pass oil settling tank with the pumps submerged. A battery
from cold to hot conditions. The housing is arranged fed DC motor-driven pump may be provided as a
to move inside a stationary member, using rubber back-up in case of supply failure, but this would
sealing rings to contain the oil and to create an axial be expected to operate only a few hours while the
pressure at the seal face. hydrogen is scavenged.
In some designs, an additional chamber between The oil flowing to the casing side of the seal is
fixed and sliding components is fed with oil at a in a pressurised hydrogen environment and must be
separately controllable pressure so that the overall collected in a 'break pressure' tank, which releases it
pressure at the seal face can be varied. In another through a float controlled valve and enables it to be
variation, additional pressure is provided "by springs. returned to the drain tank. The possibility of hydrogen
entering the drain tank is recognised; low level alarms
give a first warning (some form of pressure loop is
5.3.2 Journal type seal usually provided) and a blower exhausts the gas above
Here the seal resembles a short journal bearing float- the oil in the 'hydrogen section' of the tank to at-
ing on the shaft. In this case the shaft can freely mosphere. This blower aJso serves to reduce the
move axially through the seal, and it therefore does pressure in the bearing housings (communicated via
not have to accommodate the thermal expansion of the half empty drain pipes) below atmospheric, thus
the shaft. Again, oil is fed to a central annular groove reducing egress of oil vapour at the bearings.
497
The generator Chapter 6
TURBINE
END • PERFORATED ADMISSION PIPE
GENERATOR STATOR CASING EXCITER
END
- TO
- ~
-
......
ATMOSPHERE
i'- ......
~
-H-: !--
r'* ~
I--
/ /
LIQUID
ALARM
CHAMBERS
l-M- f-M-
--------«-
00
GENERATOR GAS
DRYING SYSTEM
H KATHAROMETER
2
,---~~--------------~
r--G-A_S_C_O_N~T-R_O_L______1 ____
o-
INTEGRATING '---- f-t><l---------i
EMERGENCY PANEL
FLOWMETER
t-• FROM C0 2
SUPPLY
-I-
' I r-~-~~---------~~--~-HYDROGENLP
FROM
DELIVERY MAINS
- - - - - H2
----co2
498
Cooling systems
PRESSURE
GENERATOR ACCUMULATORS
PRESSURE GAUGE
LIMIT SWITCH
TRANSMITTER
PRESSURE SWITCH
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
SWITCH
-----ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
CONTINUOUS
VENT RETURN --~-c><J--'
TO MAIN
OIL TANK
Q::J
I DRAIN
TO BARRING
'
GEAR INT,ERLOCK
COMPARTMENT
499
The generator Chapter 6
5.4 Stator winding water cooling system From the manifold, PTFE hoses connect to the elec-
Water in direct contact with the winding conductors trical joint ('nose') between a top and bottom con-
is the most effectiv·e and economic means of heat ductor bar, through which the water flows in parallel.
removal, and is used throughout the range of gen- At the exciter end, the water in each bar is trans-
erators under consideration (see Fig 6.52). Five main ferred through the electrical connector to a return
criteria must be observed: bar, and thence via another PTFE hose to the outlet
manifold, located alongside the inlet manifold. A
• The conductivity of the water must be very low, small flow is· tapped-off to cool the terminal bushings
to prevent current flow and electrical flashover. and phase connections. This is a double-pass system,
requiring higher pressure than a single-pass system,
• The means used to transfer water into the conduc- but half the number of hoses with their potential for
tors must be of high integrity insulation material, leakage.
not easily degraded. In the single-pass arrangement, the manifolds are
at opposite ends, and the water flows through only
• The velocity of the water must be low enough to
one bar in series. This system allows smaller water
prevent erosion, and the design must not allow cor-
passages in the conductors to be used because a
rosion to occur, either of which could lead to a
build-up of conducting material, causing an elec- higher pressure drop per bar can be tolerated.
trical flashover. Other variations may be seen in obsolescent designs.
In one, all the conductors comprising a phase group
• The maximum water pressure must be lower than were brought to a common waterbox, consisting of a
the casing hydrogen pressure, so that if any leakage large cast resin chamber with a bolted-on lid, inside
occurs, it is of hydrogen into the water circuit, since which electrical connections between conductors were
leakage of water into the winding insulation could made. In another, the water passed through five con-
lead to an electrical breakdown. ductor bars in series before returning to the manifold.
This required a high pump pressure but minimised
• The maximum temperature in the water circuit the number of hoses.
must be low enough to provide an adequate margin If the flow is significantly reduced, the water tem-
below boiling point (commonly about ll5°C at perature rises rapidly. Reduction in flow is therefore
the pressure involved). The design aims for an inlet sensed, usually by differential pressure across an ori-
temperature of just above 40°C, with an outlet fice plate or across the stator winding itself, and is
temperature of 65 -70°C. used to bring in the standby pump, and to trip the
unit, if flow is not restored quickly.
Demineralised water is used, which is obtained ini- Water pressure is determined by the height of the
tially, and made up, from the turbine condensate. A header tank and the pressure developed by the pump.
L. proportion is circulated through a demineraliser (Fig These are not contr6!led, since it is expected that
6.53) to ensure that the water quality described in the casing hydrogen pressure will not be allowed to
Section 4.6 of this chapter is maintained. All the fall much below its rated value in operation. During
metal with which the water is in contact is either start-up, the hydrogen pressure must be established
non-ferrous or stainless steel. Even small components before the water pump is started, to prevent a reverse
made of mild steel are not permissible because of pressure differential.
the propensity for magnetite to form and be held by The water circuit is tested initially to ensure that
electromagnetic forces. it has a very low leak rate, but hydrogen will enter the
Flexible hoses made of extruded PTFE (polytetra- water in small quantities. lt is detected by arranging a
fluorethylene) are used to transfer water into and out settling tank on the outlet side of the generator, before
of the conductors. This material has good electrical the header tank connection, where gas will largely
properties, is chemically inert and has a long life in detrain. It is collected in a chamber equipped with
the ambient conditions, has an extremely low friction timed release valves, and an alarm is initiated if the
factor so that particles are less likely to adhere, and release rate exceeds an acceptable level (see Fig 6.54).
is partially translucent in the thicknesses used, so Thermocouples in each winding slot provide a means
that flow (containing bubbles) can be observed. The of detecting a low flow through one (or both) of the
low friction has a disadvantage in that attachments conductor bars in that slot. More recent machines have
are more difficult to arrange, but leak-free crimped a thermocouple in each outlet hose, which provides a
joints have been satisfactorily developed (see Fig 6.33). more direct indication of incorrect flow. Water t1ow
The water is circulated by duplicated pumps, through does differ somewhat between different paths, and
a water-cooled heat exchanger and fine filter, to the outlet temperatures also differ; the best indication is
generator inlet connection. Designs differ from this a departure from normal operational experience for
point. In one, the main supply goes to a circular a similar condition of loading and primary cooling
manifold supported from the stator core end plate. water temperature.
500
,_ ~
SIGHT GLASS
FROM STATION''
DEMINERALISED
"'"' "'~" :
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END
GENERATOR
EXCITER
END
STATOH COOLANT
GAS RELEASE
DRAIN, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE
CONTROL AIR
ELECTRICAL
.......,~~~~~- -i --~ i
OVERFLOW
PIPE i STATOR WINDING MANIFOLDS~ RESISTANCE COLUMNS !STATOR WINDING MANIFOLDS i
' t VALVE
~
M
TO TO MAIN
y i -\-\-0
POSITIONER
,____..
DRAIN TURBINE TRIP TO GENERATOR AUXILIARIES
RELAY CUBICLE CW SYSTEM
'
~------,::_-=:=} ___ ___ ) :
I : :------ J
L_ --1
TO '
ATMOSPHERE I
_t_ '
I TO
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' GENERATOR
GAS SYSTEM
TtRAIN I
GAS TRAP
I
sl--------, j (
: ' y'
SIGHT
0\
,h_ . ~
~{1 ! ,--
GLASS (' r ------;coUNTER I ~·-------!>4-------- 1
,r,,,
"fr-----J I I
4 ,, : '"___)- - - - - __ j
: I
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T
GAS ALARM AND
AUTOMATIC I r _ _L __
-,---J)----------, ~-\~_P_r-N----j
RELEASE CHAMBER ' •
(t /)
A : t
=:=:--.J , I
--~-J' /t ~
~
- ~-- ~
{--------l
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.J
~dPS~
DC EMERGENCY AC STATOR AC STATOR
STATOR COOLANT COOLANT P COOLANT
DETRAINING 1' PUMP PUMP 'A
1 CHAMBER
L_ J j
I 1 i I I I I I I ()
-----~J ~-
0
L_____ f Q_
;:::)
co
en
-<
en
.-+
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s FIG. 6.52 Stator winding water cooling system 3
en
lOP COVER
GASKET
UNTREATED WATER
INLET VALVE
:•·;
r:
~:
~j
TREATED WATER
OUTLE f VALVE
,.:
DCMINERALISER COLUMN ~~
~:
~~
i;
~-
f,,
U-BOLT CLAMP--.____
j;·
,, !I
OUTLET PIPE
RFSIN
t
f.
t
I
ASSEMBLY I;}
!' *
L
f
~
II t
f
1:
RESIN REMOVAL VALVE {1.
a.
~
l
t'.
DRAIN VALVE l;
1
i
BOTTOM COVER r
502
Cooling systems
GAS OUTLET
__.IL---~ BODY
FLOAT OPERATED
SWITCH
SUPPORT
BRACKET
GAS INLET
As noted earlier, it is important that condensation epoxy resin insulation systems do not absorb mois-
does not occur on the windings. Some machines have ture, and a low IR is usually indicative of surface
an electrical heating element, or an automatic cooler contamination, which can be removed by warmed air
bypassing system, to prevent water that is too cold circulation.
from circulating in the windings during start-up and
early loading.
It is not easy to measure the insulation resistance
(IR) of a winding which has multiple high resistance 5.5 Other cooling systems
paths to earth through the water-filled hoses, and even Casing hydrogen is cooled by passing it through water-
draining out the water does not ensure that the inside cooled heat exchangers arranged horizontally or ver-
surfaces of the hoses are dry. Attempts have been made tically in the casing. The heat exchangers consist of
to use a specially designed resistance measuring device many tubes of non-ferrous metal with either metallic
which uses the water manifolds as 'guard rings', but strip fins or wire loops brazed to their outside sur-
this is not always satisfactory. Fortunately, modern faces (Fig 6.55). These coolers have a double-pass
503
The generator Chapter 6
EXCITER
FLEXIBLE
GASKET ~.
/ ~> :r~
,II!:.;;tr,/,.
I.~
END COVER
:s.~.'/
-J~
~
PLATE ,· (
-U , r
n
I
SMALL HOLE ' ··,
SEALING GASKET SLIDING
TUBEPLATE ' f /
INLET AND OUTLET
WATERBOX DOOR SEALING
STATOR END
WALL
GASKET
t
t
I
I
SEALING RING
504
Excitation
I'
• A
I
I
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11
DRAINS
TRENCH 4 x 25°o HYDROGEN COOLERS
*~
ATMOSPHERE
I~
--1
c
I
I
I
I '[
2 x I 00% STATOR
WATER COOLERS
I
: B I
I I
r L-1-o--------------------J
r -::LIARY COOLING
WATER OUTLET
505
The generator
Chapter .6
I
\
MAIN EXCITER STATOR
\
\
BEARING PEDESTAL
BEAR IN' PEDESTAL
I I
PILOT EXCITER I MAIN OIL PUMP
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The generator Chapter 6.
OUTBOARD
END COVER
CENTRE SECTION
STATOR CASING
CLAMPING RING-
BAFFLE
MAIN EXCITER
END
BAFFLE
AIR SCOOP
current for a pre-set time, after which the current is The rated current is well below maximum current;
ramped back to a safe value. therefore, for reasons similar to those given for the
The result of these measures is a pilot exciter having pilot exciter, no additional protection is provided.
a considerable design margin for normal duties. It is
not, therefore, CEGB practice to provide additional
pilot exciter protection.
6.2 Brushless excitation systems
6.1.8 Main exciter protection
The main exciter, like the pilot exciter, has con- 6.2.1 System description
siderable inbuilt margin compared with its normal The development of the solid state silicon diode, with
duties, the AC windings being insulated for 3.3 kV, its inherent robustness and reliability, made possible
even though normal working voltages are around 500 the design of a compact rectifier system that can be
V. During ceiling conditions, this rises to approxi- rotated at rated generator speed. This alternative to
mately 1000 V.
the conventional slipring excitation system eliminates
509
The generator Chapter 6
CORE KEY
TRANSFER HOLE LIFTING LUG
EXCITER LEAD
SUPPORT CLEAT
OUTER END COVER
/ ~ DIVIDING PLATE
/ /STIFFENING STRAP
~ BAFFLE
/ STIFFENING RING
GENERATOR
END
END WINDING
SUPPORT RING
DIRECTION OF
SUPPORT RING
ROTATION
FERRULE
CONNECTING STRIP
the need for brushgear maintenance and reduces the the bridge operates normally. In the unlikely event
overall unit size. of two diodes failing in the same bridge arm, a moni-
Basically, the brushless scheme consists of a re- toring circuit in the field of the main exciter detects
volving armature AC exciter supplying a rotating recti- the fault and trips the machine.
fier mounted on the same shaft, which itself is directly Because of the high excitation power requirements
coupled to the main generator shaft. of a 660 MW generator, a number of diodes are con-
The rotating excitation system does not use field nected in parallel in each rectifier bridge arm. A fuse
suppression switches and discharge resistors. The inain is connected in series with each diode to isolate it
generator field is de-energised by suppressing the ex- if it fails. Present CEGB requirements include built-
citer field which can be done rapidly by inverting the in redundancy of rectifier components so that, should
thyristor bridge which supplies it. The exciter time two of the parallel paths in each arm fail, full MCR
constants are short; therefore the time taken to sup- excitation requirements can still be supplied._ This
press the generator field is only slightly longer than increase in components has meant the use of larger
in a conventional system. diameter diode wheels. Diodes and their associated
All modern gas turbine units are fitted with brushless components have therefore to be designed to with-
excitation systems, where the pilot exciter, main exciter stand centrifugal forces in the region of 6000 g.
and diode wheel are overhung; this arrangement means Measurements of essential quantities, such as ro-
the equipment is readily accessible for inspection. The tor earth fault indication, field voltage and current
complete rotating system is balanced as a unit. The are obtained via a telemetry link or instrument slip-
rotating diode~ are connected in a three-phase bridge rings.
arrangement, the bridge arm consisting of two diodes Recent designs of rotating diode wheel have taken
in series, so that if one fails by going short-circuit, advantage of continued developments in semiconduc-
the other diode will continue to operate and hence tor diode technology to reduce the number of com-
510
Excitation
511
The generator Chapter 6
MAIN ENCLOSURE
AIR FILTERS
AIR TEMPERATURE
GAUGE
SHAFT
TURBINE
END ~
ARMATURE RETAINING
RING
-~~
ANTI-CONDENSATION
HEATER
The cathode-based diode modules are situated at bushes. Laminated copper straps connect the positive
the open end of the retaining ring, and in addition and negative rings to insulated radial studs in the
to the anode based components have two indicator shaft. These studs are screwed into the shaft bore
fuses mounted on the heat sink. Figure 6.63 shows a insulated D-leads.
typical cathode-based module. With a rotating rectifier system, diode condition
The DC output from the rectifier is connected to monitoring is not as simple as it is on the equivalent
copper alloy rings shrunk onto bushes on the shaft, static rectifier scheme. A method of indirect measure-
with insulation between the connection rings and the ment is required to indicate a diode failure. The blown
512
Excitation
ANODE-BASED CATHODE-BASED
DIODE MODULE DIODE MODULE
INSULATION
CYLINDER
INSULATION
CYLINDER
NEGATIVE RADIAL
TERMINAL STUD
-(UNDER)
RADIAL TERMINAL
STUD (POSITIVE)
SCREWED DOWELS
INSULATED CLAMPING
BOLT VENTILATION
HOLES
COUPLING
BUSH AND BOLT
COOLING-AIR FLOW
fuse detector performs this function; it consists of taining the three photoelectric cells associated with
two main units, an optical detector head and a ter- three separate light sources, two on the bottom face
minal unit containing the detection equipment, shown and one (the datum) on the top face. The light beams
diagrammatically in Fig 6.64. on the bottom face pass over the path traversed by
The optical detector head consists of a unit con- the tips of the diode failure indicator fuses as the
513
The generator Chapter 6
EPOXY RESIN
GLASS STEADY
STRAP
INSULATION
SUPPORT PILLARS
INDICATING
FUSES
DIODE~
METAL SUPPORT
PILLARS
INSULATION
PLATES
CONNECTION
STRAPS
CAPACITOR
FUSE
CAPACITOR
rectifier rotates. Under normal operating conditions, detector circuit, where an alarm signal is generated.
these light beams remain unbroken and the light shines To distinguish between the two rows (positive and
continuously on the photoelectric cell immediately op- negative) of indicator fuses, the light beams from the
posite, thus maintaining a constant signal. However, two probes are offset by an amount equal to half the
should a diode fail, the associated indicator fuse op- circumferential distance between fuses. Without this
erates and ejects a striker pin which interrupts the arrangement, signals from the two rows of fuses would
appropriate beam of light on each revolution. This be coincident and therefore unidentifiable.
interruption produces a pulsed DC signal at the output To establish the angular position of a failed diode
of the photoelectric cell which is fed to the blown fuse on the rotating rectifier, a fixed datum point is con-
514
I Excitation
DATUM
REf •
DATUM DATUM
SIGNAL DETECTOR
CIRCUIT
I OSCILLOSCOPE
I OPTICAL PROBE
INDICATOR
BLOWN
FUSt
SIGNAL
FUSE PIN
TUNGSTEN- HALOGEN
J LIGHT SOURCE
(BACK ROW)
I BLOWN
FUSE
DETECTOR 1---------<
REMOTE
CIRCUIT ALARM
CIRCUITS
l INDICATOR
FUSE PIN
LOCAL ALARM
INDICATOR
I
LAMP
I
tinuously scanned by the third photoelectric cell.
• Current measurement A current shunt is built into
The datum detector output is compared with the
the rotor winding, giving a rriV output correspond-
blown fuse detector signal and the relationship be-
ing to the 0-5000 A flowing in the field winding.
tween the two establishes the position of the failed
diode.
II • Earth leakage A DC supply is produced in the
j Generators fitted with brushless exciters employ tele- rotating electronic equipment, the positive supply
metry systems to provide measurement of generator of which is connected to the negative end of the
rotor winding quantities, including rotor current, volt- field winding via a resistor R3. The negative is con-
age, temperature and most importantly earth fault nected to the rotor shaft through a high value
indication.
resistor R4. Leakage to earth will result in current
The equipment uses solid state electronics, some flowing through these resistors which is measured
of which are shaft-mounted and the remainder rack- by the voltage drop across R3.
mounted within the A VR. The rotating units are com-
pletely encapsulated and accommodated in transverse
The output from the current channel is fed to a volt-
holes in the exciter shaft. Plugs and sockets are used
age controlled oscillator that produces a frequency
for connections. The power supply for the rotating
modulated (FM) signal, which is then conveyed to
electronics is supplied from the stationary unit at me-
the stationary unit by the aerial assembly. Voltage
dium frequency via windings on the aerial assembly.
and earth leakage signals are treated similarly. Values
The overall schematic of the telemetry system is shown
on Fig 6.65: of winding resistance and average winding temperature
are derived from the voltage and current signals.
• Voltage measurement The field voltage is obtained The signal from the field voltage demodulator is
from a voltage divider circuit connected across the also fed to an active filter tuned to the exciter funda-
field winding. This comprises resistors Rl and R2 mental frequency. Should a complete rectifier bridge
which have a voltage output of 0.6 V corresponding arm fail, signals at this frequency appear in the field
to the generator field voltage. winding causing the filter output to increase, initiating
an alarm.
515
The generator Chapter 6
VOLTAGE TO FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE
R1 CONVERTERS
CONVERTERS
-- p~~
VOLTAGE
H
DIVIDER
~
FIELD FM
WINDING A2 VOLTAGE VOLTAGE AMPI_I~IER VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
OUTPUTS
SHUNT
CURRENT
FM
OUTPUT
-- CURRENT AMPLIFIER
0-10V
DC
CURRENT
BRIDGE ARM
FAILURE
ALARM
OUTPUTS
EARTH
LEAKAGE
EARTH LEAKAGE
LIMITING RESISTOR
9kHz
OSCILLATOR
ROTOR
EARTH
AERIAL
ASSEMBLY
An alternative brushless exciter design cons1stmg The need for the two diodes in series was deter-
of a rectifier with a 3-2-2-8 arrangement of connec- mined from consideration of two diodes failing simul-
tions totalling 96 diodes is also in common use. The taneously in the same phase of the rectifier. If the
notation signifies three AC connections, two DC con- series diodes were not present, the result would be a
nections with two diodes in series and eight parallel short-circuiting of the generator rotor.
paths per bridge arm. The rectifier is designed to Indicator fuses are connected in parallel with the
maintain rated output following the failure of up to main fuses as a secondary method of determining
two paths in any bridge arm. diode failures. When the generator is shut down, in-
A circular row of fuse modules and two circular spection of the indicator fuses readily identifies failed
rows of diode modules are contained against the cen- diodes.
trifugal forces by a steel retaining ring. The diode For cooling purposes, air is circulated in a closed
modules consist of anode and cathode units, which are ventilation system which contains a water cooled heat
used in the positive and negative arm of the bridge. In exchanger. Air from the outlet side of the cooler cir-
contrast to the mark 1 systems, the mark 2 is fused on culates within the main enclosure. The self-fanning
the AC side of the rectifier and advantage has been action of the fuse and diode modules draws air from
taken of the improved peak inverse voltage capability the main enclosure through the rectifier.
of modern diodes to eliminate the capacitor fuse cir-
cuits. A typical mark 2 diode module is shown on
Fig 6.66. 6.2.3 Telemetry system
Fusing on the AC side means a reduction in fuse The telemetry system employed on this design of
size, as the elements are no longer subjected to the rectifier makes use of the principle of frequency di-
high induced generator field voltages which occur vision multiplexing and includes a number of addi-
during system faults and pole slipping incidents. tional features. The most significant of these is the
516
Excitation
LAMINATED
COPPER STR!1P
DIODE
BALANCE WEIGHTS
HEAT
SINK
INSULATION
BASE
BASEPLATE
LOCATION •AND HEATSINK
KEYWAY
indication and phase location of up to three blown fier is fed via the mixer unit 4 to the transmitter
fuses per phase, making a total indicating capacity 10 to give direct frequency modulation of the trans-
of nine blown fuses. The other changes are the use mitted carrier frequency.
of a single transmitter, directly modulated by the The transmitter output is transferred via the aerial -
field voltage, to which are added sub-carriers contain- to a carrier amplifier 16 and demodulator 17 to give a
ing the rotor current, blown fuse and earth leakage mean output voltage proportional to the carrier fre-
information.
quency. The output is then smoothed and scaled to
produce an output corresponding to the DC field
Voltage voltage.
517
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lt n! :-
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co
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t--J H
I II I :
DIVIDER
Y/1
I I
EIGHT SERIES
CONNECTED
I EIGHT SERIES
CONNECTED
TRANSISTOR
SWITCHES
I TRANSISTOR
SWITCHES
AND CURRENT 1 AND CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS I TRANSFORMERS
R3 C2
R4
PHASE
A
16 17
10 AERIAL
,, CAR FilER
AMF--LIFIER [ 1
CARRIER
EM00ULATOR
21-32kHz
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FIG. 6.67 Telemetry system block diagram -.
en
Excitation
519
The generator Chapter 6
AUXILIARY SUPPLY
110V 50Hz
D
ROTOR E::ARTH FAULT INDICATION RELAY
SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
UNIT
VOLTAGE
TRANSDUCER
4-20mA OUTPUT
TO DATA LOGGER
CURREN'!"
TRANSDUCER
4-20mA OUTPUT
TO DATA LOGGER
is the sixth harmonic of the exciter fundamental fre- excitation system. Early equipment contained diodes
quency. This ripple is associated with the normal of relatively low rating, where up to three diodes were
three-phase full wave rectification of the exciter ar- required in series to meet reverse voltage requirements
mature voltage. Should a bridge arm fail (to either during pole slipping. This, together with a cautious
open- or short-circuit), a component of ripple at the design approach, resulted in high spare capacity.
exciter fundamental frequency appears in the exciter The rapid development of semiconductor techno-
field. This is detected by a band-pass filter tuned to logy has resulted in a reduced number of simpler,
the exciter fundamental frequency. Once the input is more compact devices, capable of operating at high
of sufficient magnitude to overcome an internal bias voltage and current levels. Equipment of this type
signal, which is set to prevent spurious operation, a has a record of high reliability on the CEGB system,
relay is energised which initiates a Category B unit and is currently in use on a number of 660 MW units.
trip. With the introduction of the thyristor, the role of
the static rectifier has radically changed. The thyristor
rectifier plays an active role in the control of excita-
tion power to the generator field. Like the diode,
6.3 Static rectifier excitation equipment the thyristor conducts current in one direction only;
however, unlike the diode, the point at which con-
duction takes place can be controlled.
6.3.1 Introduction Excitation power modulation is achieved by con-
Excitation systems based on the static semiconductor trolling the thyristor firing angle, eliminating the need
diode bridge were the first alternatives to the DC for a main AC exciter. As the time constant asso-
520
Excitation
ciated with the exciter is the principal cause of delay, voltages appear across the rectifier in the reverse
its removal greatly improv~s the speed of excitation direction, it is CEGB practice to use diodes with a
system response, enhancing generator transient stability peak inverse capability of 3.4-4.2 kV, thus providing
margins. ample margin.
A feature of all static excitation equipment is the To protect the diodes against voltage spikes (caused
need for slipringS" and brushgear which require regular by diode commutation effects and external switching),
maintenance. As this is carried out on-load, an inter- each diode is provided with a dV /dt suppression cir-
lock system is normally provided so that access to cuit, consisting of a capacitor and series resistor. In
the slipring enclosure is prevented, unless a safety addition, each rectifier section has a resistor-capacitor
procedure has been followed. No further mention of suppression network connected across the DC output
sliprings or brushgear will be made here, as a detailed to limit voltage transients coming from the DC side
account of the equipment is given in Section 3 of this of the rectifier to within the peak transient voltage
chapter. rating of the diodes.
The rectifier diodes are easily dama-ged by over-
currents and are therefore individually protected by
6.3.2 General description of static diode rectifier high speed, high rupturing capacity fuses, with micro-
equipment switches for fuse failure indication. These fuses op-
A static rectifier system is an assembly of diodes and erate for an internal fault to isolate the faulty diode
diode protective equipment. Typical 660 MW rectifier and allow continued operation of the remaining diodes
units consist of up to four self-contained, three-phase, in the arm. The most severe fault experienced by the
full wave bridges. The number of diodes per section are diode is a short-circuit on the DC side of the rectifier;
selected so that MCR requirements can be met with one this is cleared by HRC fuse operation.
section out of commission. Each section is provided Overcurrents due to system faults or slipring flash-
with AC and DC isolators, and an interlock system overs are cleared by DC circuit-breaker operation.
ensures that, during on-load operation, access can be
gained to one section only.
Diode rating is based on the continuous and peak 6.3.4 Static thyristor rectifier schemes
inverse voltages, together with the current/time rating The thyristor has radically changed the role of static
on overload. A typical rectifier bridge has a number rectifier equipment, as it no longer plays a passive
of parallel paths per arm (the diodes being specially but an active role in the control of generator excita-
selected to ensure satisfactory current sharing) with tion. One of the principal features of this form of
one diode in each parallel path. excitation control is its very fast rate of response
To dissipate the heat generated during rectifica- due to the elimination of a main exciter. A typical
tion, the diodes are mounted on heat sinks. Cooling thyristor excitation scheme is shown on Fig 6.69.
is provided by either forced or natural air circula- Excitation power is generally taken from an excita-
tion and alarms are generally provided to warn op- tion transformer which is connected to the generator
erators of high temperature conditions which require output terminals. With this arrangement, the trans-
investigation. former primary voltage follows the generator terminal
Busbars are used for the AC connections from the voltage during normal and fault conditions. Under
main exciter, and for the DC rectifier output to the fault conditions the excitation power transformer must
generator field winding. The busbar system, like the be capable of meeting the field forcing requirements
exciters, is rated for llOOJo MCR and is capable of at reduced terminal voltage, and of withstanding the
withstanding the mechanical forces arising from the overvoltage experienced following a load rejection.
worst overcurrent fault conditions. An alternative scheme, which is not subject to
All rectifier equipments supplied to the CEGB must system voltage variations, is the compound source
meet the requirements of BS4417 which covers both rectifier system. These static systems use both current
routine and type testing. and voltage sources (generator terminal quantities) to
make up the excitation power source.
To ensure integrity under 'black start' conditions,
6.3.3 Rectifier protection however, a scheme based on shaft-mounted exciters is
Diodes are susceptible to overcurrent, which causes an attractive alternative. The exciter runs continuously
excessive heating of the element, and to overvoltages at ceiling output with low power factor, providing
which can pierce the rectifying element and cause com- the thyristor converter with a constant voltage source
plete breakdown. It is therefore essential for system of excitation power.
integrity that both the operating and ceiling voltages The thyristor rectifier unit is arranged in several
are within the capacity of the diodes. isolatable sections so that any one section can be ser-
During generator pole slipping or asynchronous op- viced while the remaining sections provide full MCR
eration, the peak voltages appearing at the slipring excitation requirements. Thyristor free-wheel and pole-
are about 2000 V on a 660 MW machine. Since these slip crowbar circuits are generally included to protect
521
The generator Chapter 6
EXCITATION
TRANSFORMER
I
I
REVERSIBLE I
CURRENT I
INPUT
FROM STATOR I
I
I
I
VOLTAGE FEEDBACK I
~---------~-------------------~------~~---~~
VT
I CURRENT FEEDBACK
I II_
I I I
AUTO
THYRISTOR
SIGNAL
CONTROL
SIGNAL
VOLTAGE
REFERENCE GENERATOR/MOTOR
I
I
AUTO/MANUAL
CHANGEOVER
I
I
the thyristors from excessive overvoltages. Direct cur- to connect a number of thyristors in parallel. This
rent voltage transformers (DCVTs) trigger the crow- presents difficulties, since individual thyristors have
bar into operation on detection of an overvoltage different forward path c,haracteristics, causing one to
condition. Free-wheel thyristors provide a path for conduct the majority of current; if allowed to con-
stored energy in the rotor during thyristor commu- tinue, this would cause breakdown. Forced current
tation and system fault conditions. The pole-slip crowbar sharing, by the addition of a low value resistance or
provides a path for the induced reverse direction pole- inductance in series with each anode, is normally used
slip current, so avoiding excessive pole-slip voltage to obviate this.
developing across the rotor terminals. Thyristor cooling is provided by a natural or forced
The DC output of the thyristor rectifier is provided air scheme. Temperature detectors mounted within the
with voltage and current surge suppression circuits air circuit provide early warning of high temperature
which are designed to protect the thyristor from volt- conditions, allowing appropriate operator action to be
age spikes generated during thyristor commutation or taken. On future large plant, the higher current ratings
field circuit-breaker operation. In addition, individual and associated losses may make it necessary to use
thyristors are protected against dV I dt breakdown by water cooled thyristor equipment.
a capacitor-resistor suppression circuit connected in Thyristor excitation systems can improve the steady
parallel (identical to the circuit used to protect diodes). state and transient stability limits considerably because
Overcurrent protection is provided by a series-connected of their ability to change the generator field voltage
HRC fuse. In the event of an individual thyristor almost instantaneously. They are therefore finding gen-
drawing excessive current the series fuse will rupture, eral application on generating plant which is connected
ejecting a striker pin which initiates an alarm. Over- to the periphery of the main transmission system,
current excursions are normally controlled by the A VR where the inversion mode of operation, in which the
to within the rotor heating limit; however, in the field current is rapidly reduced by the reversal of
event of a prolonged overcurrent condition, the ex- energy flow, is exploited to the full. The rapid field
citation is tripped through the field circuit-breaker. suppression achieved following isolation from the sys-
To meet the high current requirements of large tem under load rejection or fault conditions is illus-
turbine-generator excitation systems, it is necessary trated on Fig 6. 70.
522
Excitation
-----------------------------------
AC RECTIFIER
FIELD CURRENT
GENERATOR FIELD
VOLTAGE VFD
time _....
t,
523
The generator Chapter 6
VT VT
8 A
STATIC 400Hz
RECTIFIER
MONITORING
\/T
CHANNEL CHANNEL
A A
AVR CONVERTER
FIELD
DISCHARGE
PILOT EXCITER
SUPPLY
CHECKING
ALARM/TRIP
CHANNEL CHANNEL
B B
AVR CONVERTER
OVERFLUX
EXCITATION
TRIP & ALARM
TOTAL CURRENT
mammg equipment operates. The central function of terminal voltage also changes, increasing the error sig-
the A VR is to maintain constant generator terminal nal. The error is amplified by the regulator and used
voltage under conditions of changing load. There are, to increase or reduce excitation, as necessary, to bring
however, a number of other functions which are the voltage back to its original value. The need for a
required from the A VR, if a large generator is to rapid, stable response following such changes is of
operate satisfactorily under all operational conditions. paramount importance and, since control systems us-
The CEGB currently specifies dual channel A VR ing such high steady state gains would rapidly become
equipment complying fully with EES 1980 together with unstable, special signal conditioning networks are in-
manual back-up control on all 660 MW plant. This cluded. These consist of phase advance and phase
provides maximum reliability as the loss of one chan- lag circuits which have adjustable time constants al-
nel does not inhibit operational performance. Facilities lowing accurate tuning of the voltage response. To-
are provided to repair the faulty channel while the gether, these circuits act as a notched filter, reducing
generator remains in service. On small gas turbine gain at generator electromechanical oscillation frequen-
plant, single channel A VR equipment is specified. cies, whilst permitting the high gains necessary for
accurate voltage control. The setting of the time con-
stants is of great importance, as transmission system
6.4.3 The regulator · dynamic stability is sensitive to A VR settings. For
The A VR is a closed loop controller which uses a this reason, sophisticated analytical techniques (see
signal proportional to the generator terminal voltage Section 6.7 of this chapter) have been developed and
and compares it with a steady voltage reference. The applied in order to obtain optimal performance.
difference or error voltage obtained is then used to The A VR accepts the generator terminal voltage
control the exciter output. signal via its own interposing voltage transformer.
If the load on the generator changes, the generator The voltage signal is then rectified and filtered before
524
Excitation
being compared with the refer~nce voltage. Provision minal voltage and, if it exceeds a safe level (normally
is made for the operator to .change the reference 1.3 pu), the thyristor converter is immediately switched
voltage in response to system requirements. into the inverting mode, which reduces the field cur-
In addition to the basic voltage control require- rent in minimum time. This relay is only active during
ment, the A VR includes control loops which perform unsynchronised operation.
other vital tasks. These controllers, which include the The overfluxing relay is also only active during un-
MVAr limiter and overfluxing limiter, are discussed synchronised operation, when there is a chance that
in detail in Section 6.5 of this chapter. the generator transformer could be overfluxed if the
safe voltage/frequency ratio is exceeded. A special
relay detects this condition and initiates an alarm.
6.4.4 Auto follow-up circuit Control loops within the A VR will act to reduce this
With a dual channel design, both regulator channels to a safe level but, if the condition persists, the thy-
can be active at the same time, each providing half ristor converter is switched to the inverting mode and
the total generator excitation requirements. An alter- the excitation is tripped.
native arrangement allows for one channel to be active, Most faults within the regulator loop give rise to
whilst the other follows passively. Should a channel either an over or under excitation condition. There-
trip in either scheme, then the other picks up the fore comparator circuits are used to monitor regulator
full excitation requirement of the generator in a and converter bridge input and output levels. Alter-
'bumpless' manner. This is achieved using follow-up natively, a single comparator monitors the thyristor
circuits which track the primary (or active) channel output current and compares it with maximum and
and drive the standby channel output while a dif- minimum field current limits allowed. Transiently, these
ference exists between the two. limits are exceeded during system faults, but the chan-
nel is tripped if the condition persists beyond a few
seconds.
6.4.5 Manual follow-up
This is similar to the auto follow-up but is used to
adjust the manual control system in response to 6.4.,8 Thyristor converter protection
automatic channel changes. In the event of an A VR In addition to the above, A VR channels are tripped
failure, the manual control takes over in a smooth if any of the indicator fuses protecting the converter
bumpless manner. thyristors rupture. The thyristor converter is further
protected by a temperature sensing device which op-
erates in the event of excessive heating.
6.4.6 Balance meter
A balance meter is provided in the power station
control room and in the A VR cubicle. This monitors 6.4.9 Fuse failure detection unit
the difference between the automatic and manual The regulator relies upon a signal from the generator
control output settings. During automatic control, the voltage transformers for its controlling action. Loss
follow-up circuits ensure this error is minimal, whereas of the signal is due in general to failure of the fuses
during manual control no such facility exists to adjust in the voltage transformers. A fuse failure detector
the A VR, and a large discrepancy can therefore exist. unit monitors the input to each channel and compares
During manual operation and prior to selection of it with that of a check or reference transformer. If
A VR control, the balance meter is consulted and an a fuse fails in the voltage transformer supplying the
adjustment is made so as to avoid large MY Ar dis- reset voltage, the channel is tripped; a fuse failure
turbances following control changeover. in the reference transformer initiates an alarm.
525
The generator Chapter 6
software specified. Cost advantages are also envisaged 6.5 Excitation control
as standard memory circuits replace the present cus- In addition to the basic voltage control loop, modern
tomised printed circuit boards. However, the principal excitation equipment includes a number of additional
motivation lies in the range of sophisticated control" limiter circuits. These limiters operate as parallel con-
ler designs that the microprocessor makes physically trollers, in that their signals replace the generator
realisable. One class of controller is the adaptive voltage as the controlled variable whenever those in-
regulator, which (as the name suggests) is capable of put signals exceed predefined limits.
adjusting its structure to take account of changing
plant conditions. This type of regulator, shown sche-
6.5.1 Rotor current limiter
matically on Fig 6. 72, consists of a recursive real-
All exciters are capable of supplying generator field
time parameter estimator (based on a form of least
current well in excess of that required for normal
squares structure) which is used to identify the con- MCR operation. This field forcing capability or mar-
trolled plant. The estimated plant model is then used gin is necessary during system fault conditions, where
by the regulator to form the control law. A wide the additional reactive power provides the much needed
choice of regulator I control law designs exists; typical boost of synchronous torque. However, this current
strategies include pole placement and minimum var- must be restricted in duration because of the danger
iance. Both have a very flexible structure, making it of overheating the generator rotor which would cause
a simple matter to include additional input signals, insulation system degradation. To prevent overheat-
such as machine accelerating power (which has been ing, the exciter field current signal is applied to the
demonstrated to enhance transmission system dyna- rotor current limit circuit which detects values of
mic performance), and post-fault recovery. field current in excess of ll007o MCR.
CONVENTIONAL
SPEED GOVERNOR
GOVERNOR
VALVE REF
- POWER
TURBINE GENERATOR
GENERATOR OUTPUT
1--1-------------VOLTAGE
DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE TO
ANALOGUE DIGITAL
CONVERTER CONVERTER
RECURSIVE
~--~----~ ll~------~r
ESTIMATED
SYSTEM
PARAMETER
CONTROLLER
WITH ADAPTIVE
OPTIMAL GAINS
CONTROL
SIGNAL
526
Excitation
During system fault conditions, the A VR reacts to at one end of a transmission line oscillate with respect
boost excitation; normally this situation lasts only to those at the other end. These oscillations, known
milliseconds before circuit-br'eaker operation clears as power system oscillations, are load dependent and,
the fault. However, it is necessary to allow for the if not prevented, severely limit the MW transfer across
longest back-up protection clearance times and hence a the transmission system. To obtain a solution to this
delay of up to 5 s is specified. After this delay, the problem, an understanding of the basic machine tor-
rotor current limit circuit generates a signal which que relationships is necessary.
opposes that from the A VR and ramps excitation For a generator to remain in synchronism following
current back to a safe value. system faults, it must produce a braking torque to
balance the accelerating torques introduced by changes
to the electrical transmission system. The braking tor-
6.5.2 MVAr limiter que can be separated into two components:
~1odern A VR equipment is capable of controlling
generator operation at rotor angles of 130° to 140°. • The synchronous torque, which is in-phase with
This mode of operation is not, however, tenable when rotor angle changes and is necessary to ensure res-
transient stability criteria are taken into account; it is toration of rotor angle following displacements.
therefore customary to limit the generator operation
to a rotor angle of 75°. • The damping torque component, which is in-phase
The permissible leading MY Ar varies with the square with rotor speed changes and provides damping of
of the generator terminal voltage, the limit line being rotor oscillations.
defined by the following equation:
Where generating units are connected to the grid over
MVAr + MW y2 high reactance tie lines, fast response excitation sys-
tems are vital to maintain system transient stability.
VI sin¢ + VI cos¢ v2 This has the effect, however, of reducing the inherent
generator damping torque; consequently, under cer-
The in-phase and quadrature components of stator tain load conditions, generator rotor swings following
current are obtained from a form of phase sensitive system changes will have little damping.
rectifier. The signals are then compared with the As the component of torque in question is strongly
generator terminal voltage bias and, if the limit set- associated with rotor speed, a logical starting point
ting is exceeded, an output is generated which acts to for investigation is the generator torque speed loop
boost excitation and reduce rotor angle. shown in Fig 6. 73 (a).
The introduction of an A VR, while enhancing syn-
chronising torque, has a deleterious effect on the small
6.5.3 Overfluxing limit inherent generator damping torque (the latter is ob-
In addition to the overfluxing protection circuit, mod- tained by means of paleface windings or induced eddy
ern A VR equipment includes overfluxing limiter cir- current effects). This presents some difficulty, as from
cuits. This is a closed loop controller which monitors considerations of transient stability a fast response
the voltage/frequency ratio during unsynchronised op- high gain excitation system is necessary, however, its
eration. Should a predefined ratio be exceeded, the implementation could result in reduced power system
limiter generates a signal which acts to reduce ex- damping and a consequential reduction in load trans-
citation and thereby prevent generator transformer fer capability.
overfluxing. To counteract this, a device known as a power
system stabiliser (PSS) has been developed. Figure
6. 73 (b) shows the addition of such a device to the
6.5.4 Speed reference controller torque speed loop. A signal derived (in this case) from
In accordance with current CEGB functional require- shaft speed is used as the input to the stabiliser; this
ments, this feature controls the application of excita- is then processed and conditioned to provide sufficient
tion during the turbine run-up sequence. This limiter phase lead to compensate for the phase lags inherent
unit ensures that voltage is brought up to nominal and in the generator plant and transmission system. The
the unit synchronised with the minimum delay. output of the stabiliser is superimposed onto the A VR
demand signal in order that an increased damping
torque component is produced.
A comprehensive linearised generator and power sys-
6.6 The power system stabiliser tem stabliser representation is shown on Fig 6.73 (c),
where it can be seen that the PSS signal is fed to the
block denoted as GEP. This represents the generator,
6.6.1 Basic concepts exciter and power system, detailed knowledge of which
Situations have occurred where groups of generators is vital if the PSS is to compensate for the phase
527
The generator Chapter 6
t>T
s
' \ T
IWR AVR
AND AND
EXCITER EXCITER
t----'-------------- 1 h
PSSw(S)
r--- ---,
I I
I I
I I
I I
I ~
I L __________ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I K1 - f~~~~~T:~RRAE~~~~~gEc 1~A~gf6~ ;~~~~RICAL
I K2- PARAMETER RELATING CHANGE IN ELECTRICAL
TORQUE FOR A CHANGE IN MACHINE FLUX
I LINKAGE LlEq
I '-\ E ref K3- IMPEDANCE FACTOR
I "E, K4- DEMAGNETIZING EFFECT OF A CHANGE IN
I ROTOR ANGLE
I
I
K5 - ;;~~~J:GEJ~~T~E~~:~zgEci~AR~T~I~ ;~~~~NAL
K 6 - CHANGE IN TERMINAL VOLTAGE WITH CHANGE
I IN MACHINE FLUX LINKAGE t>Eq
L-------~~E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-------~
Tdo- MACHINE FIELD OPEN CIRCUIT TIME CONSTANT
EXC(S)- VOLTAGE REGULATOR SYSTEM
(c) COMPREHENSIVE LINEAR ISED
GENERATOR AND POWER SYSTEM STABILISER
528
Excitation
lag within GEP and produce a component of gen- if uncorrected, will result in prolonged rotor swings
erator torque in phase with speed changes. This in- in the region of 0.9-1.6 Hz.
formation can be obtained in a variety of ways, nota-
bly by on-load frequency response analysis, using pulse
Intra-plant modes
injection techniques and by computer simulation tech-
niques based on representative system models. Intra-plant modes of oscillation occur between units
within the same power station. Unlike the above,
these are not power transfer dependent but result from
6.6.2 Characteristics of GEP interaction between generator excitation systems. If
Extensive system investigations are used to establish action is not taken, intra-plant interactions will limit
the characteristics of GEP. All operating modes of the available PSS gain and hence its effectiveness.
the plant are examined to identify the conditions
under which stability is marginal. In general, operation
6.6.4 Principles of PSS operation
at leading power factor during times of low system
demand are the most critical. However, in the case of PSS action is inhibited during steady state trans-
pumped-storage plant, which will generally be operat- mi~sion system conditions, as it has a detrimental
ing in the pumping mode during these periods, the effect on voltage control. A steady state voltage offset
situation can be more critical because of the large is prevented by the use of a washout circuit at the
machine rotor angle with respect to the rest of the PSS input. The washout circuit, shown on the PSS
system. block diagram on Fig 6. 74, is essentially a differen-
A series of simulation studies is then conducted, tiating circuit which attenuates low frequency changes.
using detailed plant representation (including the A VR The time constant of the circuit, Tw, is chosen to
and PSS), the results being assessed by the analytical washout low frequencies but not to interfere with
techniques described in Section 6. 7 of this chapter. the signal conditioning networks at system electro-
The model PSS settings are adjusted until optimum mechanical frequencies.
excitation performance is achieved at all critical op- The signal conditioning network provides the phase
erating conditions. These settings are then used as a compensation, so that a torque is produced in phase
basis for plant commissioning tests, thereby reducing with speed changes. This network essentially shapes
expensive on-site testing. the PSS characteristic to provide the best damping
performance at all electromechanical modes. Generally
this is achieved by maximising stabiliser gain (within
6.6.3 System modes of oscillation the constraints imposed by the power system control
Examination of the basic torque-speed-angle loop in loop) and shaping the phase characteristic so that it
Fig 6.73 yields W0 (natural frequency of electro- has a slightly lagging value at the particular inter-
mechanical oscillations) = )(wKie/M) rad/s. For area oscillation frequencies of concern. To prevent the
typical values of machine inertia (M) and synchron- intra-plant interaction, tuning should ensure that the
- ising torque coefficients (Kie), the frequency range of overall phase characteristic is not greater than 90°
interest is 0.2-4.0 Hz. Within this frequency range, lagging at frequencies up to 4.0 Hz.
the oscillatory modes can be broadly divided into It is important to emphasise that PSS action is
three main components. intended to improve the system damping following
small disturbances. PSS action following system faults
will degrade A VR performance, and hence system
Inter-area or inter-tie oscillations
recovery; therefore, the stabiliser output is limited, so
Inter-area oscillations range typically from 0.2-0.6 Hz that A VR action is dominant during the first post-
and occur where two generation groups are connected fault cycles.
by a weak tie line; they tend to be power transfer
dependent. Inadequate damping of these modes will
result in operational difficulties, since power transfer 6.6.5 The choice of stabiliser signal
capability is reduced. These low frequency inter-tie An obvious choice for the stabiliser input signal is
oscillations have been initiated by random events oc- rotor shaft speed, measurements being generally made
curring during periods of high MW transfer over weak at the HP turbine pedestal. The drawback with this
transmission links and/or unusual load distribution. form of signal is its inherent susceptibility to shaft
torsional frequencies. This term refers to the reso-
Local mode oscillations nance conditions on the shaft line which cause one
section of shaft to oscillate with respect to another
These occur where a single generator is exporting
with little natural damping. These frequences act
power over a high reactance transmission link. In
through the PSS and excitation system to set up elec-
these situations the need for static thyristor excitation
tromechanical torques which tend to aggravate the
systems (because of transient stability requirements)
situation and, in the extreme, to cause shaft damage.
aggravates the problem of steady state stability which,
To eliminate this potential problem, detailed infor-
529
The generator Chapter 6
STABILISER
LIMITS
L1
STABILISER
K
(1 + T,S) (1 + TdS) 1 + T.s
--
1+T
OUTPUT ....----
-L2
VT CT
VT
COMP AVR;EXCITER/GENERATOR
I..A..Lv '-A..Lv GRID
rY""'"V"\
ERROR
GENERATOR TERMINAL
VOLTAGE
mation is required of the shaft torsional conditions 6.7 Excitation svs,tem analysis
so that, if possible, speed probes can be mounted at Trends in modern generator design, with the empha-
a torsional node and suitable torsional filtering can sis on large thermally-efficient but electrically-remote
be applied.
centres of generation, have combined to reduce trans-
Because of these considerations, use is made of a mission system stability margins. As a consequence,
signal derived from generator electrical power which the primary responsiblity for power system dynamic
is related to shaft speed by the following relationship: and transient stability rests with the generator excita-
tion system.
erator to the system increases,, the synchronous tor- oscillatory response. It is possible to simplify the
que component is reduced. Under these circumstances, interpretation of the root locus diagram by consider-
the A VR bucks and/ or boosts the generator field ing those poles which lie furthest to the right as
current in such a way that the generator itself develops dominating the system response.
the additional synchronising torque. This approach is extended to the multivariable situ-
A properly tuned A VR therefore performs a vital ation by making use of modern state variable theory.
role in the maintenance of stable system operation The system considered is first linearised about the
under all operating conditions, and this section is operating point of interest and the equations of state
concerned with the methods developed and employed formed.
to analyse A VR performance, and hence to arrive at
tuned settings. X AX+ CV Input equation
y DX + FV Output equation
6.7.1 Frequency response analysis
Frequency response analysis is based on the injection where X is the vector of state variables, Y is the
of a sinusoidal signal at the input to the A VR and vector of output variables, A is the state matrix and
the corresponding measurement of generator terminal C,D,F are the feedback, input and output matrices,
voltage magnitude and phase shift. This procedure is respectively.
repeated over the range of frequencies necessary to A series of simulations is conducted over the com-
identify the plant, which in the case of the generator plete generator operating regime, using a detailed
excitation system is 0.2-4.0 Hz. Results are plotted model of the turbine-generator and excitation sys-
in the form of inverse Nyquist or Bode diagrams, from tem. The dominant poles (or equation solutions) are
which information on system stability and damping plotted for a range of control settings, and those iden-
can be obtained. These tests can be repeated for a tified as providing optimal damping at the most critical
range of A VR settings until an acceptable system operating condition are selected for commissioning
response is established. Performance indices used in purposes. This method of analysis therefore provides
this form of analysis are system gain and phase mar- advanced information regarding equipment settings
gins, both of which are measures of relative stability. and plant performance, thus reducing expensive com-
In general, a phase margin of 40° or more, and a missioning time.
gain margin of 6 decibels is considered good design
practice for most feedback control systems.
An alternative approach is the injection into the 6.7.3 Large signal performance investigations
AVR summing junction of a short duration rectan- The foregoing methods are based on the response of
gular pulse. The corresponding machine terminal volt- the excitation system to small signals; hence non-
age response is measured and harmonically analysed linearities can be ignored and the system assumed to
by a computer, using a fast Fourier transform pack- be linear.
age. The results are then plotted in the form of an It is equally important, however, to investigate the
inverse Nyquist diagram from which measurements performance of the turbine-generator plant following
can be made of relative stability and damping. This substantial changes in operating conditions. In these
approach has a number of distinct advantages, par- situations the non-linear characteristics of the plant
ticularly during on-load testing as, unlike variable must be taken into account to obtain realistic results.
frequency techniques, pulse injection testing can be These large signal performance investigations pro-
undertaken without the risk of exciting power system vide a means of evaluating excitation system response
oscillations. foll9wing a major transmission system disruption (gen-
erally a three-phase fault at the generator transformer
high voltage terminals is used for standard studies
6.7.2 State variable analysis and investigations), which could jeopardise system
l."A common method used to assess the performance transient stability.
I and stability of feedback control systems is to track Transient stability analysis is primarily concerned
the path taken by the roots or poles of the closed with the effect of transmission line faults on genera-
loop transfer function. Changes in system parameters, tor synchronism. While certain simplistic approaches
I such as gain and time constants, cause these poles
to move. The path taken by the poles in response
exist dealing with the case of a single machine operating
onto an infinite bus (such as the equal area stability
to control system changes can be plotted and are criteria), a full multi-machine solution is generally
531
The generator Chapter 6
jW
STABLE UNSTABLE
FORM OF TIME-DOMAIN
RESPONSE
~
MAGNITUDE
MAGNrTUDE
~ ~ I 15
~-V--VTJMJ
X
X X
LOCATION OF EIGENVALUE
OR ROOT IN S-PLANE
J__..-/
MAGNrTUDE MAGNITUDE
I~ TIME
TIME
-6 -4 -2
FIG. 6.75 S-plane showing possible root locations with corresponding time response
The ability to simulate these situations is essential the windings are not ~older than their ambient hy-
to the CEGB, because generator excitation system drogen. Cooling water to the hydrogen, distilled water,
performance under system fault conditions cannot be winding water, seal oil and excitation heat exchangers
demonstrated by test methods, due to the potential is established. The lubricating oil system (common
risk to system stability. with the turbine) must also be operating, and also the
jacking oil system if the shaft is at standstill.
The run-up cycle is primarily determined by the
requirements of the steam turbine, and may be under
7 Generator operation the control of an automatic run-up system. It is ad-
In this section, the operation of the generator under visable to pass through the first and second critical
all common conditions is considered. Electrical and speeds of the generator rotor (roughly, 800 and 2200
other parameters are introduced as necessary in order r/min) quickly to avoid subjecting the bearings to
to describe the condition. the increased vibration amplitudes which may occur
at these speeds (see Fig 6.27).
As the rated speed is approached, excitation may be
automatically applied by the voltage regulator (or this
7.1 Running-up to speed may be manually applied) by closing the exciter and
Before running-up to speed, the casing and other main field switches. The resulting voltage will be pre-
components will have been scavenged of air and filled vented, by a voltage/frequency control device, from
with hydrogen to a pressure approaching the rated. being greater than would maintain rated voltage/fre-
Hydrogen pressure increases with increasing tempera- quency, so as to prevent overfluxing of the generator
ture and the objective is to achieve rated pressure transformer. At rated speed, rated voltage should be
when on steady load. The seal oil system must be generated, with the machine on open-circuit, unless
operating in order to contain the hydrogen. The stator some other voltage condition is required. Speed is
winding water system is established, taking care that under the control of the turbine governor. Vibration
532
Generator operation
533
The generator Chapter 6
of loading, line outages and faults are carried out to (c) Marntaming stabrrily b; ,, , •eas:ng excrtation
MYA/Xd (or strictly Rated MV.A/Xq where Xq is scale of a vector meter, across which cursors travel
~he quadrature axis synchronous rea,ctance), determines parallel to the axes, representing generated MW and
the theoretical limit of stability. The practical values MVAr, the operating point being where the cursors
of leading reactive outputs, allowing a margin for intersect. Permissible operating areas are indicated
overshoot, with different types of excitation control on the instrument.
(see Section 5 of this chapter), can be plotted on a It can be seen that the capability chart is another
MW -MV Ar diagram. The example shown in Fig 6. 78 manifestation of the generator phasor diagram. Op-
allows for instantaneous increases in MW of 40Jo at eration at rated load and about 0.95 power factor
rated load and I OOJo at zero load. leading is possible, though rarely required.
RATED STATOR
C\,IRRENT
RATED CONDITIONS
104%MW
THEORETICAL
STABILITY
LIMIT
PRACTICAL
STABILITY RATED ROTOR
LIMIT _.- CURRENT
LAGGING
535
The generator Chapter 6}i
7. 7 Synchronous compensation
While operation in this mode is not foreseen fod
generators of this rating in the UK, a note here isl
included for completeness. A generator, synchronised~
STATOR
VOLTAGE
%
STATOR to the system, may be used to generate or absorb!
CURRENT
% reactive MV A, while drawing its loss power from the;
system. By varying its cxcit<ttion, it can be operated:~
over the range shown on Fig 6.78, to meet the re-·{
quirements of the system. It is not normally possible~
to drive the turbine at rated speed with no steam flow, ;
ROTOR CURRENT
and smaller generators operated in this way are de-
coupled from their turbines. At large values of leadingj~
FIG. 6. 79 Open- and short-circuit characteristics reactive generation, stator core end temperatures may;i
be high, because the axial components of MMF from~
both stator and rotor windings become more in phase,:~
insulation is not a normal requirement for these large resulting in higher values of axial leakage flux. '~
·~
generators. It may, however, be necessary to demon- :jl
~~~
strate the capability of the connections between gen-
erator and transformer, in which case the short-
7.8 Losses, efficiency and temperature
circuit would be applied at the transformer terminals.
Manual control of excitation is essential. Many separate components of loss can be identified,~
The open- and short-circuit characteristics enable some of which are substantially constant irrespective
certain parameters to be established. Short-circuit ra- of load; others can, for simplicity, be assumed ro:
tio (SCR) vary approximately as (stator current) 2 • These com-
ponents are listed below, with kW values given for a
typical 660 MW generator at rated conditions:
Rotor current for rated voltage on open-circuit
Rotor current for rated current on short-circuit Constant losses Coolant loss, kW~fl
Ifo Fan loss Hydrogen 600 ~
Ifs Rotor windage loss Hydrogen 350 ~;1
Other windage loss Hydrogen 150 ~
~
This rough measure of steady state stability is nearly
Open-circuit core (iron) loss
Bearing loss
Hydrogen 950 j
the reciprocal of Xd; minimum values of 0.4 and Lub oil 600 .~
0.5 are specified for the 500 and 660 MW units, re- Shaft seal loss Seal oil 100 !J~
spectively. Rotating exciter constant loss Exciter air 100 ~
!'l
Auxiliary system losses, e.g., motors 100
Synchronous reactance Xd may be quoted as the
reciprocal of short-circuit ratio, in which case it is Variable losses Coolant loss, kW
the value corresponding to the degree of saturation Stator copper loss Stator winding water 1600
at rated voltage on open-circuit (which is not the same Eddy current loss in
as that at rated load). It is of interest when discussing windings Stator winding water 600 1
operation close to the stability limit, in which case Additional core loss,
its unsaturated value is appropriate and given by: due to higher flux and
end loss
Rotor current for rated current on short-circuit Hydrogen 1600
Loss in core end plates
Rotor current for rated voltage on airgap line and frame
Loss in rotor surface
Ifs Rotor copper loss ~
Hydrogen 2400
Ifg Variable excitation loss
i
'i
Exciter air !50
~
536 ~
~
1:'
Generator operation
The total loss is typically 9300 kW, and the effi- nents of concern are the negative sequence components.
ciency is 98.60Jo. The efficiency is slightly higher at In order to circulate negative sequence currents
about 80% than at 1000Jo MW load, and also im- thr,ough the generator stator and transformer wind-
proves as the power factor increases towards unity. ings, a system of negative sequence voltages must be
' The losses shown in the list are removed by the var- produced by negative sequence flux, i.e., flux rotating
ious cooling systems described in Section 5 of this at synchronous speed but in the opposite direction of
r
!;
chapter. The total loss removed by each system is
therefore known, and the tlow rates are designed to
maintain an appropriate temperature. In the hydro-
rotation to the main flux. This cuts the rotor at twice
the rotational speed, and induces a 100 Hz voltage in
the rotor surface. 100 Hz current flows in the outside
gen system, 30 m 3 Is of hydrogen is circulated, being 'skin' of the rotor body, in the wedges and in the
cooled to about 40°C by the heat exchangers, and top winding conductors, as if these components were
reaching about 65°C on entry to the coolers. The part of the squirrel cage of an induction motor.
stator core will attain about 75°C, except at the ends, Additional heating therefore occurs in these regions;
which are likely to be hot, but within the BS limit in particular, in positions where current transfers
of 120°C. The rotor winding will reach an average from one component to another, such as at the wedge
temperature of 105°C with local hot spots perhaps ends, and at the endring shrink face-..
20°C higher than this, which poses insignificant ther- Because of the potentially damaging effect of this
mal stresses on the insulation and creep conditions on extra heating, limits on the extent of unbalance have
the copper and aluminium components. to be established. These are conservatively set to ini-
In the stator winding water system, conditions differ tiate alarms when the negative sequence component
j' · between single and double pass arrangements, but exceeds 50Jo of the rated current and to trip at above
t'" with inlet water cooled to 40°C, the outlet water will IOOJo. The component is detected by a three-phase cir-
1
';•, not exceed 70°C. Hence the winding copper will bare- cuit designed to respond to negative sequence current.
ly exceed 70°C, and then only at the water outlet In some designs, copper shims are placed in the
~;
~H
end, and the winding insulation will nowhere exceed ends of the rotor slots, below the wedges, and extend-
" 100°C. CEGB specifies Class F insulation with Class ing outboard of the rotor body to form a continuous
B rises, which are very comfortably met in these ring, in order to assist circumferential current flow
, ,., designs. and to minimise the small intense hot spots where
A considerable advantage of water cooled windings current transfer is concentrated. Where circumfer-
is that the temperatures are inherently constrained to ential slots are cut into the pole faces (Section 3 of
be very low, thus maximising the intrinsic life of the this chapter), means for transferring surface current
insulation. Also, since the temperature rises of the across the slots are provided, usually in the form of
"' core and windings are similar, problems associated copper strips retained by wedges in shallow 'pole
with differential thermal expansion are minimised, face slots', to avoid overheating at positions of current
;·,;; and it has not been found necessary to incorporate concentration. ,
~{;
ii~~
features in the end windings to accommodate axial The shallow surface current paths must also handle
"·[: movement. the very much larger, short duration currents imposed
~
:~ by unbalanced conditions during transient faults. A
J;~·t
"t'
rough criterion of acceptability is provided by assuming ('
~
500/660 MW generators, and 'instantaneous' trip-
generator. However, it is possible for much larger ping is initiated if this value is exceeded (see Fig
unbalances to exist, for example, if one phase of a 6.81).
circuit-breaker remains closed while the others are The surface current paths are also involved in any
open for considerable lengths of time, then the ability condition in which the generator is connected to the
of the generator to withstand such conditions must system but is not operating synchronously. This may
Jf~~; be established.
The well known method of resolution of unbal-
happen on total or partial loss of excitation, and
can usually be tolerated by the generator for a short
•• anced phasors into systems of symmetrical components time, although slip frequency surges will occur on
'"· is used in the analysis shown in Fig 6.80. Because the system. Because the induced currents are at slip
generators are invariably connected to transformers frequency, they are able to penetrate further into the
whose LV windings are arranged in delta, which there- rotor, wedges and winding, and the thermal conditions
i,. fore do not have a neutral connection, zero sequence are not as critical as with the 100 Hz currents pro-
voltages and currents cannot exist. The only campo- duced by unbalanced operation.
537
The generator Chapter 6
1/ao
Va
Vb
Vc+
V
Vc
Vco
Vc-
Va+
Vb-
Va-
VC+ Vb+
7.10 Transient conditions vious positiOn, i.e., o changes, so that the electrical
Changes in the load demand, system operation con- power generated changes to restore equilibrium. The
ditions and the response of other generating units, combined effect of similar load changes occurring in
mean that conditions at the unit transformer terminals many units acts to restore the system frequency to its
are constantly changing. Increase in overall demand original value.
causes a fall in frequency to which the speed gover- Coincident with the change of load will be a change
nors of all the connected turbines respond. Their rate in system voltage, which causes the voltage regulator
of response depends on the settings of the individual to adjust the excitation to restore the original voltage
governors, some units being deliberately arranged to value. (A large voltage change may require a trans-
act more responsively than others. former tapchanging operation to maintain the gen-
A highly responsive unit varies its steam inlet valve erator terminal voltage near its rated value.)
position frequently, causing the steam throughput to Flux cannot change in the machine instantaneously,
change and altering the torque equilibrium. The ro- and the rate-of-change is influenced by the transient
tors move forward or backward relative to their pre- reactance Xd, . This depends largely on the flux paths
538
Generator operation
t-------------------------------------------
I
PeRMISSIBLE FAULT CURRENT
LMES MCR CURRENT
32 I
I
I I
I --
- t -- - - -
\ I
f---
I
i
I. \ I
I' I
I
I
1\
I \\
\
I
I
I,
li _\
-~ ~
1\ ""' ~HASE-TO-PHASE FAULT CURRENT
--
--
..........
I ~ r-_
I
r--
I
i
i
I I "'-... r--....._
PHASE TO-EARTH FAULT
,CURRENT
---r-- -- -
r-
r-- r-- ~ECREASING 30% CONTiNUOUSLY
I 10 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 100
TIME-S
I !'
~bracing the stator winding slots, the airgap and change of flux induces currents in the rotor surface
539
The generator Chapter 6
INSTANTANEOUS
RISE
100 + - - - - - - - , , _ - - - - - - - - - - l - - - - - - - - - - _______...
VOLTAGE
%
L----~~-------~~----------------~------------
ROTOR CURRENT TIME
(since force varies as current squared), and in the between two phases. Here, the phasors become highly
connections, which would result in considerable move- unbalanced, and the 'negative sequence reactance',
ment if the components were not adequately sup- X 2 , helps to determine the peak current, which may
ported to resist them. It is therefore vital to establish attain a maximum of 2v'2 x v'3(V /Xct" + X 2) which
the value of sub-transient reactance. (It should be is of a similar magnitude to that in the three-phase
noted that the thermal effects are not troublesome case.
because of the rapid rate-of-decay of current.) In a line to earth fault, the 'zero sequence reactance',
Another reason is to ensure that the main circuit- X 0 , is involved, and the peak current may be 2v'2 X
breaker (and low voltage switch, if fitted) is able to v'3 (V /Xct" + X 2 + Xp) usually considerably lower
withstand these very large through-currents and that than the three-phase value, depending very much on
it can, if necessary, break them although, in practice, the neutral earthing arrangement.
it rarely breaks on the first peak of current. Works tests for X 2 and X 0 are not normally carried
To measure the transient and sub-transient re- out, even on prototype designs, since X 2 is easily
actances and their associated time constants, a three- derived from the positive sequence reactances, and
phase short-circuit is suddenly applied to the prototype the value of X 0 is not as critical as the others.
generator running at speed during the in-works tests, Another factor involved in transient stability repre-
while excited to one or more agreed voltage values, and sentations is the inertia of the rotating masses, usually
the resulting three-phase currents recorded. Figure quoted as the 'inertia constant' H, with units of MW
6.83 shows a typical trace and how the Xct' and Xct" seconds/MY A (or simply seconds). For these ratings,
values are deduced, while Fig 6.84 shows how the H will be of the order of 3.0, of which the generator
reactances vary with initial voltage due to saturation. contributes only about 0.8. The higher the inertia,
A generator terminal fault, though physically vir- the longer the time taken to accelerate the rotors
tually impossible, imposes the most severe of the into instability, allowing more time for corrective
three-phase conditions, with the effective voltage 1.0 action and hence a bigger margin.
per unit, or higher. More likely is a fault on the
system which, because of the interposed reactance
of the generator transformer, imposes short-circuit
currents similar to those from a terminal fault at a 7.11 Neutral earthing
voltage equal to Xct /(Xct + Xe), where Xe is the
II II The neutral ends of the three phases of the stator wind-
reactance of the transformer and that part of the ing are connected together, outside the casing, by the
system between it and the fault. 'star-bar', which may be located underneath the cas-
A type of fault more likely to occur, particularly ing alongside the line connections, or above it in a
inside the generator, is one involving a short-circuit special enclosure. The star point is connected to earth
540
Mechanical considerations
I f-'UL.l. LOAD
CURRENT AND ROTOR 7
NO-LOAD CURRENT
fault initiation less likely and fault current compara-
tively low.
Sf-IORT CIRCUIT
6 8 10 40 50 100 200 300 The process of load reduction is the reverse of that for
load increase except that, when the load has reached
a low value, the main circuit-breaker (or the LV
I
STAfOR AND ROTOR SHORT-CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
WITH 100'1c ASYMMETRY
switch, if fitted) is opened, and with it the turbine
steam valve and the excitation crcuit-breakers. The
I·1c •. (J.83 Three-phase short-circuit current characteristics
unit runs down in a time determined by the inertia
I
EACTANCE
The turbine must usually be barred for some hours
on shutdown, and lubricating oil must be maintained
to all the bearings during this process.
It is usual to leave the hydrogen in the generator
I 30
casing, unless a prolonged shutdown is envisaged or
access to the casing is required in order to avoid
wastage of gas. The pressure will fall as the tem-
I 20
perature drops, but it is not usual for the pressure to
be maintained exactly at rated value, nor for water to
SUB-TRANSIENT
be circulated in the coolers and windings. It is essential
I 10
REACTANCE that the shaft seals are supplied with oil both during
barring and when ~tationary, to prevent hydrogen leak-
age, and, because of the possibility of moisture ingress
from the seal oil, the blower may be run in order to
I circulate hydrogen through the dryer.
I 50
8 Mechanical considerations
I· 541
The generator Chapter 6
8.1 Rotor torque life. Results from models do not scale accurately and
At a constant load (eiectrical output and generator at the most extreme (and therefore most damaging)
losses) of P kW, the tor'que (Nm) experienced at the stress, the highly non-linear effects of material damp-
turbine-generator coupling is 9545P divided by (r/min). ing must be considered.
The coupling must be capable of transmitting the In the UK, where high speed reclosure is not prac-
torque associated with rated output continuously with- tised, sub-synchronous resonance due to the use of
out deformation. These couplings commonly have series capacitors is not a problem and the operation
four of their bolts closely fitted into both coupling of the transmission system is under close control,
flanges, while the other bolts have smaller diameter it is thought that the combination of very high stresses
and a clearance in the coupling holes. The torque is and very low probability of occurrence results in an
transmitted partly through the fitted bolts and partly acceptable risk for rotors designed to conventional
through friction between the flange faces. The full specifications, and that lifetime monitoring is not
torque must also be transmitted through the shaft justified.
end at the turbine end, which must therefore be de- The exercise has highlighted the need to avoid
signed to withstand it. stress raisers such as unnecessarily small radii, and to
In the very much larger section of the rotor body, ensure a high quality surface finish. It has also drawn
shear stress due to torque is very much less than in attention to the need to design the generator to ex-
the shaft ends and is not of significant magnitude. citer coupling to withstand torques of the order of
Also, the transmitted torque reduces in a linear man- the rated generator torque, since it has been shown
ner along the length of the rotor body, so that at that these can exist during transient conditions.
the exciter end, only the small torque required to The requirement for torque transmission places a
drive the rotating exciters (and any other coupled equip- limit on the minimum diameter of the shaft and therefore
ment) has to be transmitted. of the journal. An acceptable compromise between
As noted previously, during electrical faults, stator the higher loss associated with a large diameter and
currents of many times rated value occur, and these adequate hydrodynamic stability results in a bearing
cause electromagnetic torques of a similar magnitude. somewhat shorter than its diameter for these ratings.
The torque reaction at the turbine to generator cou- Bearing performance is described in Chapter 1.
pling and in the associated shafts depends, among
other things, on the ratio of inertias of the turbine
and generator rotors, but can also be several times
rated torque. The specification requires that the shaft 8.2 Stress due to centrifugal force
and coupling shall be designed to withstand stipulated All rotating components are subjected to stresses due
fault conditions, without failure, though not neces- to centrifugal forces, and are designed so that the
sarily without permanent distortion of components yield stress of the material exceeds the stress at over-
such as coupling bolts. It is not unknown for the speed by an adequate saf,ety factor. Usually the com-
fitted coupling bolts to exhibit distortion after a severe ponents closest to the limit are the rotor teeth, rotor
electrical fault. wedges, end rings and outermost winding conductors.
Materials subjected to repeated high stresses ex- The tensile stress in the rotor teeth was considered
hibit a lifetime, during which damage is accumulated, as part of the rotor optimisation in Section 3 of this
and at the end of which failure occurs fairly rapidly. chapter. It is greatest at the tooth root, but will have
Much effort has been devoted to establishing models local concentrations at the wedge dovetail. There will
of turbine-generator shaft systems in order to be able also be a high local stress where the wedge transfers
to predict their remaining 'life' (i.e., ability to with- the centrifugal force (CF) load of the slot into the
stand further faults), knowing the history of the faults tooth. Detailed finite element analysis is carried out
to which they have already been subjected. This has to ensure that unacceptable stress concentrations are
been done analytically, knowing the torsional char- avoided. These stresses are constant at constant speed,
acteristics of the rotor system, and computing the so that the only cyclic factor is the number of stop-
shaft torques due to postulated electrical transients. start cycles, which is relatively few ( < 104 ) over the
It was found that in the case of rapid reclosure of a lifetime of the machine. Thus crack propagation by I
, I
circuit-breaker following clearance of a faulty line, high cycle fatigue from this mechanism alone is not
the magnitude of the peak of torque depends very of concern.
critically on the timing of the instant of reclosure. Similar considerations apply to the slot wedges, in
This has also been demonstrated, during transient which the loading pattern is similar to that in a short
conditions, using values of stress obtained from strain beam in bending, uniformly loaded on its underside,
gauges fixed to the shafts. Devices which calculate and with built-in ends. Aluminium alloy wedges are
shaft torques from electrical inputs have also been commonly made from extruded sections, but have
used. the outermost layer (1 mm, or so) machined away
It is difficult to relate measured or calculated torque where stresses are high, so that the properties of the
peaks accurately to damage caused, or to remaining parent metal are fully realised. It would be necessary
542
Mechanical considerations
to take the creep behaviour of, aluminium into con- rotational hoop stress due to the rotation of the
sideration at temperatures in e~cess of 100°C, but ring. At rated speed and overspeed, the stress at
it is not usual for wedge temperatures to exceed this the shrink-fits may be less than that in the centre.
value (see Fig 6. 85). There is also an axial stress due to the higher thermal
Pole face wedges are much less stressed, and are expansion of the copper in the end winding relative
commonly made of steel. to that of the steel ring. As noted in Section 3.3 of
The most inboard of the field lead wedges may this chapter, direct contact of the end disc onto the
be unusually highly stressed because of the extra CF shaft is not normal, since the flexure of the shaft
loading imposed on it by the section of connector would transmit a small alternating stress onto the
leading into the winding. highly stressed ring which could promote crack pro-
The shrink-fits of the end ring onto its seatings pagation by high cycle fatigue. Again, it is important
on the rotor body and end disc reduce as speed that the stresses under all conditions are analysed in
increases, and are greatest at standstill. There are detail, and this may necessitate a three-dimensional
therefore large circumferential strains at the ends of finite element computation in order to ensure free-
the rings, and correspondingly high stresses, at stand- dom from high stress concentrations, particularly at
still. As speed increases, the centrifugal force of the the sudden changes of section involved (see Fig 6.86).
rotor end windings imposes a load and stress in the In the rotor conductor nearest the wedge, it is the
central part of the ring, which combine with the compressive stress produced by the centrifugal force
J
~~\
~ ~~/[\ ~
\ --~~ /~ ""~~/""',{ / l/
~-irr, ~ II\ II\,( - ~
~Vv/~,., '-+5'"'/
~ v~~ :LJ I
/
------. / v
VVI
VV
L! I
I I
J
r- \I/ "-,V
">
\/
"'V \~
"'+-- D
I //VI I
I
I
·~ /I I
I
/I
I
I
'
I
FIG. 6.85 Finite element mesh for tooth-wedge stress calculations
I 543
The generator Chapter 6
One feature of this is that th~ rotor must usually be second increases the required flux magnitude; both
,.... run down in speed before the changed vibration dis- increase saturation, the effects of which are highly
appears, when the cycle can be repeated. non-linear (see Fig 6.87). One result of this is that
Once the rotor is at speed and temperature, it does overall iron losses will be higher than those calculated
not tend to suffer from high cycle effects. It is more for no-load conditions, and their distribution will dif-
vulnerable to effects promoted by relative movement, fer. Another is that the calculation of the required
such as abrasion, when running at lower speeds and MMF (rotor current) required for any load condition
\\'hile barring, when the centrifugal locking-up is cannot be accurately based on the simple phasor
absent. diagram. Since the rotor is necessarily designed with
little margin, accurate calculation of the rotor current
needed for rated conditions is essential.
8.5 Noise
. The generator rotor, with its fans, generates very
' high noise energy at speed. The spectrum is wide, but
contains peaks at frequencies related to the number
· of fan blades and slots.
The other main source of noise is generated by
. the stator core when magnetically excited. As pre-
viously noted, the magnetic forces 'ovalise' the stator
, core, causing vibration and noise at 100 Hz and mul-
tiples. The main component of magnetic noise, how-
ever, arises from distortions on a much smaller scale,
that of the magnetised iron crystals, in the pheno-
menon known as magnetostriction, at 50 Hz and
multiples thereof.
The robust stator casing acts as an effective sound
attenuator, and little can be achieved to reduce the
- transmitted noise further, for example, by the acoustic
treatment of the inside surfaces. In practice, the major
sources of high noise intensity tend to occur in the
driven components such as exciters, which have fans
operating in air and no heavy steel surround. Some-
times the complete line of driven units is housed under FiG. 6.87 Flux distributioq on load
an acoustic cover to attenuate these sources. Access
doors and windows must be provided, and these can
reduce the effectiveness of the covers.
A sound power level of 93 dBA is specified at A method previously used took as its basis the
- 1 m distant from the plant. Legislation may require simple no-load unsaturated phasor diagram, and de-
this to be reduced for new plant in the future. fined an imaginary reactance, the 'Potier' reactance,
empirically derived, which was used to define a 'Potier'
voltage drop, IXP, for the given load conditions. An
internal voltage required to overcome this voltage
drop, the 'Potier voltage' was thus established. The
9 Electrical and electromagnetic aspects MMF difference between the airgap and open-circuit
__ Some electrical and magnetic aspects of generators, characteristics at the 'Potier voltage' was then pha-
not previously considered, are dealt with in this section. sorially added to the unsaturated MMF phasor. In this
way, the increasing and non-linear effects of sat-
uration were taken into consideration (see Fig 6.88).
Present methods use finite element calculations,
9.1 Flux distribution on load which can be reduced to two dimensions for the
When, in previous sections, magnetic flux densities central part of the machine. Even so, the detailed
·have been mentioned, operation at rated voltage, geometry and non-linear magnetic characteristic make
no-load has been assumed, where the load angle is the calculation complex.
zero and the rotor operates in the 'direct axis'. In In the end regions, a three-dimensional approach
. practical load situations, the load angle is 40-50° is almost essential, although various schemes have
,md the effective f1ux level must be large enough to been devised in which simplifications can be made.
overcome the leakage reactance voltage drop. The In addition to the difficulties already noted, the thick
first effect distorts the flux pattern markedly; the conducting plates in which non-linear eddy currents
545
The generator Chapter 6
STATOR
VOLTAGE
ADDITIONAL ROTOR
CURRENT REQUIRED
FOR POTIER REACTANCE DROP
mi
I v
ROTOR CURRENT
are induced, and other conducting components,. must tance. If higher values are required than the 'natural' ·~
be included in the modelling. It has reached the design produces, the leakage reluctance can be re- !
stage of refinement where detailed changes, say, in the duced by making the slots narrower, and/or sinking
thickness of magnetic screens, can be modelled in them deeper into the core. Again, this is extravagant
~~
order to optimise the design, and to indicate where and results in a larger design.
potential hot spots may occur due to unwanted flux If lower values are required, it is not usually suf-
concentrations. ficient to manipulate the slot geometry, and a more
basic change to the design might be needed.
Using computer programs similar to those men-
tioned in the previous section, more accurate repre-
9.2 Control and calculation of reactances
II The reactance of an inductive circuit determines its
sentation of the reactances can be made, over the
range of load conditions, than is possible by simple
voltage/current relationship. In a generator, different calculation.
reactances are identified in order to model or de-
scribe voltage (or flux)/ current relationships under
different circumstances.
The synchronous reactance, Xct, relates the arma- 9.3 The cause and effect of harmonics
ture reaction MMF (proportional to stator current) to As explained earlier, stator winding distribution is
the MMF needed for rated flux in the air gap. For a designed to minimise the generation of harmonic volt-
given design of machine, increasing the radial length ages and currents.
II. of the air gap proportionately reduces Xct and im-
proves steady state stability. This results in a larger
The stator winding is invariably star connec.ted, so
that triple harmonics cannot occur in the line voltage
outside diameter, and a higher rotor current at full or current. Since one pole of the rotor is identical
.1' load. with the other, it cannot produce second-order flux
II The stator leakage reactance, Xf, is not a specified harmonics, which would make the two halves of the
quantity, and its value is a matter of economic design. flux wave dissimilar. The only harmonics of signi-
The transient and sub-transient reactances, Xct' and ficant magnitude which will appear are those of order
l Xct", are specified. They describe the flux/current rela-
tionships during transient changes, and under these cir-
S, 7, 11, 13, etc., with diminishing amplitudes, and
those near to the rotor slot pitch, e.g., 41 and 43
II
cumstances, ·the amount of flux encircling the sta-
tor slots, rotor slots and end windings are of impor-
for a 42-pitch rotor slotting. The no-load rated volt-
age wave must not contain a greater total harmonic ]
I
546 l
i
Electrical and electromagnetic aspects
content than that specified in RS5000, in which cer- source impedance, and can circulate significant cur-
tain ranges of frequency are more highly weighted rent through bearings, seals, etc., causing eventual
than others because of their effect (in the transmission break-up of white-metalled surfaces.
system) on communications lines. This now rather out- Voltages of the same frequency as the shaft-driven
dated concept is still accepted as an agreed and useful excitation machines can be measured on the generator
criterion, since high harmonic levels can induce high shaft, but these are capacitively coupled, have a high
local losses in parts of t~e generator, e.g., the rotor sour.ce impedance and will not sustain a large current.
surface. The steam turbine rotors may develop a voltage
In practice, harmonics are generated by the con- due to the electrostatic action of steam and water
nected loads, a recent trend being the even-order droplets on the blades, and one function of the shaft
harmonic requirements of equipment using thyristors. earthing brushes is to ensure that this is discharged.
This must be supplied by the generators and must A phenomenon which has occurred (rarely) on tur-
therefore appear in the flux wave, causing rotor surface bines is that, where a rotor or rotors have a degree of
losses similar to those produced by unbalanced load permanent magnetism and there are contacts of low
conditions. resistance between shaft and earth at suitable axially-
Rotor windings occasionally develop short-circuits separated locations, the small generated voltage can
between adjacent turns in a coil, and while this is not circulate a small current through the turbine casing,
usually of great concern, the difference in flux pat- which, in certain designs, can act as a partial 'turn'
tern from the two poles is detectable, using a small of a winding encircling the shaft. This then produces
flux coil mounted in the airgap. When the signal from an MMF and therefore a higher shaft voltage, the
one pole is offset against the signal from the other, whole process building up until many thousands of
differences reveal any abnormality. Another method amperes circulate, causing damage at the contacts. It
which has been suggested uses the presence of second is therefore important to ensure that deliberate con-
harmonics in the stator current, as noted above, but tacts, such as earthing brushes, have a resistance (say,
this has to be able to reject those imposed by the load 1 ohm) deliberately included in series, and that heavily
requirements. magnetised shafts are de-magnetised (see Fig 6.24).
The residual magnetism of a generator rotor will
normally produce a voltage of several hundred volts
at speed, even without external excitation; and access
9.4 Magnetic pull to terminals, connections, etc., must not be allowed.
1 If the rotor is exactly centred in the bore of the sta-
i tor, the magnetic pull between one pole of the rotor
and the stator will be exactly balanced by that of
the other. If not centred, there will be an unbalanced 9.6 Field suppression
f pull acting as an attractive force on the pole with If an electrical fault occurs in ' the generator, the
" the smaller air gap. However, the air gap of these connections, or on the generator transformer, the
large machines is so large (80 to 130 mm), in order protection will act to trip the main circuit-breaker.
t to achieve the required synchronous reactance, that This will extinguish the stator current within one
J centring the rotor to a readily achievable accuracy cycle of circuit-breaker operation but the flux cannot !'
does not impose a magnetic pull at all comparable be reduced so quickly. In all except brushless ma-
1 with the gravitational force on the rotor.
chines, a field circuit-breaker is connected in circuit
1 Similarly, the net axial magnetic force on the rotor between the excitation source and the rotor winding.
If this were to be opened, the instantaneous reduc-
is Lcro if it is axially centred in the stator, and this
is the condition normally achieved at rated load with tion in current would induce a large (several kV)
l the rotors at their normal temperatures. With the voltage in the rotor winding, with the risk of insulation
breakdown.
i usual axial offset which occurs with the rotors cold,
Instead, a field suppression resistor is inserted in
the axial magnetic pull is only of the order of a few
series with the rotor winding, the excitation source
t thousand Newtons and is not a significant additional
circuit being opened subsequently. The resistor has
f load on the thrust bearing.
an ohmic value of 1 to 3 times that of the winding,
and reduces the current (and flux) rapidly, without
imposing an excessive voltage. Thus the ability of the
flux to prolong the current in the fault is safely
9.5 Shaft voltage and residual magnetism minimised.
The production of a voltage (predominantly at 50 Hz) In brushless machines, direct suppression of the
, from one end of the generator rotor to the other oc- rotor winding current is not possible. The exciter field
~~-~: -~"~~~s~ ~;~om~- asymmetry, ei.tb.~r af tb.e ?asi.ti.arr
1 , ·= . ~ .::> .... ,!"!e ,,ator. or some d1fference m mag-
;·ro;:-~<-:'. T!"!is me-:hanism has a low effecti\·e
curre.rrt i..s ca~i..dt'j ce.duce.d b':f the. ()~<C'>'i'>t~()~ (){ th~
exciter field switch (this also applies in a non-brush-
less machine), or by invenion of the thyristors, but
547
Electrical and electromagnetic aspects
content than. that specified in R$5000, in which cer- source impedance, and can circulate significant cur-
• tain ranges of frequency are more highly weighted rent through bearings, seals, etc., causing eventual
,than others because of their effect (in the transmission break-up of white-metalled surfaces.
system) on communications lines. This now rather out- Voltages of the same frequency as the shaft-driven
l dated concept is still accepted as an agreed and useful excitation machines can be measured on the generator
-'- criterion, since high harmonic levels can induce high shaft, but these are capacitively coupled, have a high
local losses in parts of t~e generator, e.g., the rotor sour,ce impedance and will not sustain a large current.
surface. The steam turbine rotors may develop a voltage
_ In practice, harmonics are generated by the con- due to the electrostatic action of steam and water
nected loads, a recent trend being the even-order droplets on the blades, and one function of the shaft
harmonic requirements of equipment using thyristors. earthing brushes is to ensure that this is discharged.
\ This must be supplied by the generators and must A phenomenon which has occurred (rarely) on tur-
--.therefore appear in the flux wave, causing rotor surface bines is that, where a rotor or rotors have a degree of
losses similar to those produced by unbalanced load permanent magnetism and there are contacts of low
conditions. resistance between shaft and earth at suitable axially-
- Rotor windings occasionally develop short-circuits separated locations, the small generated voltage can
between adjacent turns in a coil, and while this is not circulate a small current through the turbine casing,
usually of great concern, the difference in flux pat- which, in certain designs, can act as a partial 'turn'
.....:. tern from the two poles is detectable, using a small of a winding encircling the shaft. This then produces
flux coil mounted in the airgap. When the signal from an MMF and therefore a higher shaft voltage, the
one pole is offset against the signal from the other, whole process building up until many thousands of
differences reveal any abnormality. Another method amperes circulate, causing damage at the contacts. It
~ which has been suggested uses the presence of second is therefore important to ensure that deliberate con-
harmonics in the stator current, as noted above, but tacts, such as earthing brushes, have a resistance (say,
· this has to be able to reject those imposed by the load 1 ohm) deliberately included in series, and that heavily
requirements. magnetised shafts are de-magnetised (see Fig 6.24).
The residual magnetism of a generator rotqr will
normally produce a voltage of several hundred volts
at speed, even without external excitation; and access
9.4 Magnetic pull to terminals, connections, etc., must not be allowed.
t If the rotor is exactly centred in the bore of the sta-
.l tor, the magnetic pull between one pole of the rotor
and the stator will be exactly balanced by that of
the other. If not centred, there will be an unbalanced 9.6 Field suppression
·l~ pull acting as an attractive force on the pole with If an electrical fault occurs in 'the generator, the
·~the smaller air gap. However, the air gap of these connections, or on the generator transformer, the
large machines is so large (80 to 130 mm), in order protection will act to trip the main circuit-breaker.
~ to achieve the required synchronous reactance, that This will extinguish the stator current within one
·f centring the rotor to a readily achievable accuracy cycle of circuit-breaker operation but the flux cannot
does not impose a magrietic pull at all comparable be reduced so quickly. In all except brushless ma-
, with the gravitational force on the rotor. chines, a field circuit-breaker is connected in circuit
j Similarly, the net axial magnetic force on the rotor between the excitation source and the rotor winding.
If this were to be opened, the instantaneous reduc-
is zero if it is axially centred in the stator, and this
is the condition normally 'achieved at rated load with tion in current would induce a large (several kV)
f the rotors at their rionnal temperatures. With the
voltage in the rotor winding, with the risk of insulation
breakdown.
usual axial offset which occurs with the rotors cold,
Instead, a field suppression resistor is inserted in
the axial magnetic pull is only of the order of a few
series with the rotor winding, the excitation source
~thousand Newtons and is not a significant additional
circuit being opened subsequently. The resistor has
$ load on the thrust bearing. an ohmic value of 1 to 3 times that of the winding,
and reduces the current (and flux) rapidly, without
imposing an excessive voltage. Thus the ability of the
flux to prolong the current in the fault is safely
9.5 Shaft voltage and residual magnetism minimised .
. The production of a voltage (predominantly at 50 Hz) In brushless machines, direct suppression of the
~ from one end of the generator rotor to the other oc- rotor winding current is not possible. The exciter field
. curs because of some asymmetry, either of the position current is rapidly reduced by the operation of the
of the rotor in the stator, or some difference in mag- exciter field switch (this also applies in a non-brush-
\ netic properties. This mechanism has a low effective less machine), or by inversion of the thyristors, but
l
547
;r
:~...
I
tested .at 3500 V, having withstood higher test voltages the insulation, among other quality checks.
during manufacture. However, the arduous operating In operation, electromagnetic forces cause the bars
conditions may cause insulation to become physically to vibrate at 100 Hz in the slots and end windings,
damaged, displaced, or just oily or dirty from con- to an extent limited by their restraining devices. If
tamination, and such high voltages are less easily bars become loose in their slots due to relaxation.
withstood in an older rotor. of ripple springs or wedges, the layers of insulation i
When brushes are being changed with the generator tape may become locally de-laminated, in spite of
on-load, it is common practice to ensure that the the bonding resin. Electrical discharges can occur at
excitation control is on 'manual', so that the rotor such sites which might eventually lead to electrical
cannot be subjected to field forcing voltages, and to breakdown of the bar to earth. Fortunately, in a hy-.
disconnect the earth fault indication biasing voltage. drogen atmosphere, carbonisation of the surfaces does"
It may be thought to be advantageous to earth the not occur as readjly as it would in air, and break-
slipring being worked on deliberately, but if this were downs from this cause are uncommon. Discharge on
done and an earth fault developed in the rotor wind- the bar surface, either in the slot, or across the end
SLIPRINGS
AND BRUSHGEAR MAIN FIELD
SUPPRESSION
SWITCH
MAIN
FIELD
EXCIT~R
SUPPRESSION
SWITCH
FIELD
WINDING
548
Operational measurement, control, monitoring and protection
winding surfaces, may occur, particularly where the 10 Operational measurement, control,
semi-conducting shrface treatment layers become bro-
monitoring and protection
ken or damaged, but again this does not normally
lead to breakdown. Much more likely is mechanical Many of these subjects have been mentioned in pass-
damage to the insulation by pieces of core punching ing. In this section, each group is considered as a
co-ordinated whole.
which become detached, magnetic debris (which can
cut 'wormholes' into the end winding insulation un-
der electromagnetic forces), and abrasion of packing
blocks into insulation. For these reasons, insulation
10.1 Routine instrumentation
thicknesses have not been reduced to take advantage
of the superior electrical properties available with Provisions vary between manufacturers and have chang-
modern insulation systems. ed over the years, but the following is representative.
Considerable effort has been devoted to devising
means of detecting signs of insulation deterioration, 10.1.1 Temperature
for instance, by observing discharge activity in a
permanently installed, capacitively coupled device, or Thermocouples are used to detect the temperature
in:
by radio frequency aerials inside the casing; both
methods are still being developed. Discharge energy is • Stator core - in teeth, back of teeth, core ends
predominantly in the 1 MHz range, whereas corona and axial centre.
discharge, which also occurs, is predominantly at a
higher frequency. Occasional 'fingerprint' measure- • Core end plates and end plate screen these are
ments can show whether either activity is increasing permitted to attain higher temperatures than the
with time. core if not in contact with insulation.
Similarly, an overall measure of the insulation
integrity of a whole phase can be gained by mo- • Hydrogen inlet to and outlet from coolers -
nitoring the capacitative component of current at several, to allow averaging.
various voltage levels, usually expressed as 'tan delta'
• Stator winding, either one per slot or in water outlet
values, i.e., a measure of (very low) power factor.
hose - basically to monitor water flow in in-
Breakdown, however, is most likely to occur from dividual bars.
one local area of damage, as already noted, and the
poor results from this local area are swamped by the • Hydrogen seal faces - to detect rubbing, or oil
better measurements of the rest, so that such methods starvation.
are relatively insensitive.
Stator insulation withstands more than twice its • Stator frame, at C0 2 inlet to detect freezing.
rated line voltage, i.e., >2['\"'3 x maximum (phase)
operating voltage], and an insulation sample will with- Resistance elements or other thermometers are used
stand at least twice this again, so there is a huge for:
safety margin on intact insulation. Even so, testing
at high voltage is destructive, and repeat testing in • Water inlet and outlet temperatures in all water
service is deprecated. cooling systems.
If an earth fault occurred at one of the phase
ends, the voltage at the neutral would be elevated, • Oil outlets from bearings and seals.
and that at the other phase ends could rise to )3 x
• Seal oil at outlet from cooler.
normal. This condition would persist for only a few
seconds, at most, before the protection acted to trip • Hydrogen to and from cooler, as back-up to ther-
the unit and suppress the flux. In normal operation, mocouples.
the maximum voltage a winding can attain is limited
to about 350Jo above rated, for example, if rated • An ohmmeter is used to display rotor winding _
load were tripped, but again this would quickly be temperature.
suppressed.
Surges arising from switching or other operations • Temperatures are monitored during works tests
on the system are greatly attenuated in the generator and during on-load commissioning, to ensure that
transformer, and do not pose a significant hazard to the specified limits have not been exceeded. The
the generator winding. These large machines do not alarm level would normally be set above the high-
est temperature attained at rated load with the
haYe multi-turn coils, which are more at risk from
warmest ambient conditions, but recent thoughts
'c:~ges. The surge withstand voltage is quoted at about
are that this practice may miss early warnings of
!'5 -90 kY. but surge withstand tests are never carried
out. developing abnormalities. If a measured tempera-
ture is related to other parameters, such as current
549
The generator
Chapter 6
and cooling water temperature, or even compared • Vectormeter (on control desk).
to other similar' signals to see that its magnitude
in the established scatter pattern is correct, by using • Excitation voltage, current.
a dedicated microprocessor, a more informative
• A VR indications (locally, on A VR panel).
indication can be provided to the operator.
• Diode failure.
10.1.2 Pressure • Shaft voltage.
Fig 6.90 srows a typical condition monitor console. • Regeneration of dryer, by timer and automatic
valves.
..
'• 0
ro· 0
0
"'
0
"
o;
I!
I·
CONDITION MONITOR
~·
I 551
The generator Chapter 6
10.4 On-load monitoring, detection and of one or more turns in a coil becoming short-
diagnosis circuited. (In some machines, this condition may be
Detection of abnormal conditions is divided between continuously monitored.) The condition normally re-
two sections: on-load detection techniques, described quires remedial action but it is prudent to check that
here, and techniques which are applied off-load, at the situation is stable.
standstill, or during maintenance, which are grouped
with Tests under Section 11 of this chapter.
Some equipment is provided so that on-load checks 10.4.2 Core or condition monitor
can be carried out periodically on a routine basis in In this device (Fig 6.90), hydrogen is drawn from
order to ensure that previously established conditions the casing through a chamber in which a radioactive
have not changed. source emits a normally constant rate of electrons.
Ionised particles in the hydrogen stream, due to dust
or liquid aerosol droplets, cause the collected current
10.4.1 Air gap flux coil to fall, and initiates an alarm at a given level. It is, in
A search coil monitors the rate of change of leakage effect, a sophisticated smoke detector. The particles
flux in the air gap as the rotor rotates (Fig 6.91). may be from areas of overheating stator core (hence
The signal from one pole is subtracted from the signal the name) or from insulation; they can be trapped in
from the other; significant differences are indicative a filter and analysed.
I
.,
•·,
'!
t.[
·"
:>I
~
"~
:~;~
'~
'"
I '
-~
~·
~'"
:j
'~
l
a i!
i
i
•l
j
I .j
-1 552
FIG. 6.91 Airgap search coil and waveforms
Operational measurement, control, monitoring and protection
30
b
SEARCh COIL WAVEFORM
23 ~ FAULTED COIL
15
20ms
VOLTAGE IV)
-8
--15
-23
3.0
2.5
15~
10~
05
a -0 5
I 553
The generator Chapter 6
'
• Class 2 protection initiates the closing of the tur-
bine stop and interceptor valves. The load reduces
to I U7o or less within a few seconds; this situation
is detected by a 'low forward power' relay which,
after a short delay, initiates a main circuit-breaker
EXCITATION SUPPLY
SOOV 4000A DC It TYPICALLY <0.75mA
trip. The process takes 4- 5 s from the original
EARTH
LEAKAGE initiation and is intended to prevent a possible speed
CURREtH
DETECTION runaway if the overspeed governor does not func-
RELAY
tion correctly on load rejection. Consequently, those
-30V BIASSING VOLTAGE
conditions in which a 5 s delay can be tolerated
I STATION
EARTH
before tripping are arranged to be protected by a
Class 2 trip.
SWITCH OPEN· K~ Vt
• Stator winding earth fault With high impedance
neutral earthing fault current could be tolerated for
SWITCH CLOSED K ~
1 the 5 s of a Class 2 trip, but this condition has
been found to be the forerunner of a more serious
v1 I v2'
APPARENT CHANCE \I.\= K 1
- K
fault in the windings and Class 1 tripping is now
recommended.
I VOLTAGE V, ACROSS FAULT RESISTANCE R
o-.\K ve"' \K (\/., + V:
CURRENT It IN FAULT RE'SISTANCE ~
1
1
V2
Am
• High hydrogen temperature The most positive
method of protection against a complete loss of
I FAULT RESISTMJCE R, ~ V
1
I 554
Maintenance, testing and diagnosis
the fault had time to develop into a more damag- stator water.
ing fault between ph~ses. Any sudden departure from normal conditions
should be investigated. Changes in shaft or stator
• Second rotor earth fault winding overhang vibration should be correlated with
load and temperature, and changes in stator core or
casing vibration with voltage and temperature. Con-
10.5.2 Class 2 trips dition monitor excursions should require samples to
be analysed. Such information may be invaluable
• Loss of stator winding water flow This is time when assessing the condition of the machine at the
delayed to allow the standby pump to start. next major outage, or when planning remedial work.
• Exciter rectifier bridge-arm failure This protects
against the loss of all the diodes in one arm of the
excitation rectifier. 11.2 Maintenance and tests when shut
• Loss of excitation Detected by a mho relay after down for a short outage
the rotor has moved into a pole slipping mode. During outages as short as 2- 5 days, the casing would
not normally be scavenged, and the shaft would be
• High vibration This is described in Chapter 2. barred for much of the time. Therefore the generator
and its systems are not much more accessible than
• Emergency pushbutton This is described in Chap-
when in operation.
ter 2. Cleaning of brushgear and the slipring area can be
carried out to remove built-up deposits of carbon,
possibly soaked with oil, which can form electrical
11 Maintenance, testing and diagnosis tracking paths. It may be po,sible to grind the slip-
rings.
lf the brushes are lifted clear of the sliprings and
a pair of insulated brushes fitted, a test on the rotor
11.1 Maintenance and tests during operation windings can be made with a recurrent surge oscillo-
Sliprings and brushgear require regular maintenance scope (RSO). In this test, a steep-fronted pulse is
to ensure trouble-free operation. The selective pass- applied to one end of the winding. Any abnormality
age of more current through one particular brush in the winding, such as a short-circuit between turns,
can lead to excessive wear on that brush, so that will cause a smaller surge to be reflected back to the
even though an average brush life is 6 months, one source, just as if the winding were a transmission
brush may wear to the point where spring pressure line. Figure 6.94 shows typical waveforms of signals
is lost within 2 weeks. Facilities for on-load brush reflected from each end.' By subtracting the signals,
changing are provided, and are necessary for base an abnormality may be detected. Such tests can be
load units. Occasionally, slip rings may require re- very sensitive, and must be interpreted with care.
surfacing by grinding, but this cannot be done on-
load and must await a shutdown. Shaft riding earthing
brushes, and the instrumentation brushes provided
on some 'brushless' units, also need regular attention. 11.3 Maintenance during a longer outage
There is little other maintenance work which can If the outage is known to be longer than a week or
be carried out with the machine on-load, apart from so, the casing can conveniently be scavenged. When this
keeping clean components such as pedestal and exciter has been properly carried out, access to the inside of
insulation shims, emptying drains when necessary, and the casing can be gained by withdrawing a cooler,
noting what they contain, cleaning or replacing filter or to the end winding area by taking off a cover
elements where possible, and ensuring that pumps, in the endshields.
control valves, etc., are functioning correctiy. Visual examination of the interior may reveal ex-
Apart from monitoring both the regular and more cessive amounts of oil, indicative of a malfunctioning
specialised instrumentation, as described earlier, there shaft seal, or of water, indicating a cooler or cooling
are few tests which can usefully be carried out. Cal- circuit leak. Signs of overheated insulation may be
ibrating checks can be made on the purity meter evident, or of powdered glass or mica, indicative
by diverting pure hydrogen through it, and manual of abrasion of insulation. Excessive burning or welding
sampling can provide samples of casing hydrogen for . between core bars and the core back may indicate
back-up monitoring of impurities and moisture con- an embedded core fault. Loose packers, bolts or
tent, and of stator winding water for pH value, oxy- hoses in the end winding may be apparent, and loose
gen and copper content, and conductivity. In some debris may be visible. The effort involved in such
stations, means are provided for the on-load testing an inspection is worthwhile to preserve confidence
of certain protection devices, for example, flow of in the continuing good performance.
555
The generator Chapter 6
10 ""
~
-
p-~
~
v
Jr
r
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- .r
~//
·'
VOLTS
4 JV !
/I..)
v'-''
~~ fl\
'[/\f ~
-··--
0
I~ )v-LA... fA J!L----, I
I
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DEVIATION
Al.fl ~~
I
I l.JVV'\AAA. fwvvvv--r
i
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10 40 "fJ 70 9J 100
TIME ,S
All such examinations of the interior must be sub- stator is possible. Inspection of the rotor surface,
ject to the rigorous enforcement of rules concerning particularly where crack initiation sites are suspected,
tools, the wearing of overshoes, etc., to ensure that such as the gaps between short wedges, should be
foreign materials are not left inside. The stator casing carried out. Inspection down the radial ventilation
heaters should be kept on once degassing has been holes to check that insulation packing has not moved
completed. to block the gas cooling passages, is recommended,
At these outages, seals and bearings may be dis- following which the holes should be sealed with a
mantled for inspection, both for signs of wear and continuous strip of adhesive tape, to prevent the
damage, and of electrical discharges due to the pass- ingress of debris.
age of shaft current. The inside of exciters can also Limited inspection of the end winding is also pos-
be inspected, as can components in the various aux- sible, and signs of fretting, looseness, distortion of
iliary systems. coils, or movement of insulation, blades or coils
A limited amount of testing can be carried out, e.g., should be looked for. If the pole-to-pole crossover
the insulation resistance of the rotor winding, using a is visible, it is advisable to examine it for signs of
500 or 1000 V megger, and the IR of the shaft current fatigue cracking.
insulation if islanded. End rings should be examined for surface cracking
and, by using ultrasonic techniques, for embedded
defects. The CEGB guidelines recommend that those
end rings which are not of 18118 material should be
11 .4 Maintenance and tests with the removed after about 80-90 000 h in operation, and
machine dismantled skimmed to a depth of about 0.25 mm over the cyl-
If the outage is to be long enough for the rotor to indrical surfaces (but not the shrink face), following
be withdrawn, much better access to both rotor and which a fluorescent dye ('Zyglo' or equivalent) ex-
556
~----------------------------------------------------------------~,--
· amination is made. Defects greater than 2 mm should be performed on the rotor winding, with slipring
' be ground out, blending in the .ground area so that brushes lifted.
' there are no discontinuities. Finally, the ring must If any hot spots in the stator core are suspected,
· be re-treated with its protective finish before being or as a reassurance exercise, a core flux test can be
· refitted. The whole operation requires great skill and carried out. This may take the form of an hour long
~ experience, and though it can be carried out at site, test with about rated flux in the core, using about
it is better done at the manufacturer's works, fol- 10 turns of 11 kV cable wrapped around the core
, lowing which the rotor can be subjected to overspeed and fed from a suitable 11 kV source, and using
i and balancing runs. These comments also apply to an infra-red camera to scan the bore to monitor its
; exciter end rings. temperature. Easier, but less positive, is a low flux test
Examination of the stator core can be carried out using one turn of light current cable and a magnetic
: by inspecting the bore for loose areas, which can imperfection detector.
I be tightened by insertions of hard insulation, or by It is not easy to ensure that the stator winding
' treating with an epoxy-based liquid having low sur- is dry enough to make an insulation resistance test
' face tension which will penetrate between the la- meaningful, though a technique of applying a vacuum
minations. Ventilation ducts should be inspected for to the winding has been used. A 2 or 2.5 kV motor-
''debris, blockages and broken spacer bars. The back ised megger should be used, monitoring one phase at
.' '0\ \.'D.'\. '\.'0'i.'\. ~\\\ W'9~a\ 't'.\'\.'t'S~)'Y'e \\>~\\\)11~ L>'i 'Ct:>1'e \I) a l1me, ana mamtam'mg fhe test tor l 0 minutes so
core bars, or damaged core bar insulation, where that the polarisation index can be obtained. It is
• this is fitted. Some core back burning, and some not normal to apply a high voltage test, the only ex-
fretting products (e.g., 'cocoa dust') seems to be ception being after some damage has occurred, possi-
innocuous. The core frame can be inspected for ob- bly with partial replacement of the winding, when an
\ious signs of damage, and patches of overheated agreed HV test on the remaining bars gives some
paint or metal should be investigated. reassurance.
E\ery stator slot wedge should be checked for tight-
n-:'~~ along its whole length, using a tightness tester
de1 eloped in 1985, or by tapping with a coin or simi-
l~n l>biect to observe the expected 'ringing', indicative 11.5 Reassembly
,,r .1 tight slot. Airgap flux coils can be fitted or With the rotor reassembled, mechani~·a! checks such
:en ell eel at this stage. as alignment, axial clearances and concentricity of cou-
C.,r,nor end windings can be more thoroughly checked plings, and of the rotor in the stator, arc carried out,
~han a-; described in the previous section. Signs of and that all locking plates and other cle\ ices are pro-
lc'O.,cncss of packings, fretting, slack fastenings, etc., perly assembled. All jointing materials, 'uch as gaskets,
a: c all indicative of movement. If there are unfilled 0-rings, jointing compound, etc., should be renewed,
bags between coils, these can be filled with epoxy and the appropriate leakage tests 'carried out.
resin at this stage. The surfaces should be cleaned using It is so important that small metallic items do not
a proprietary cleaner suitable for electrical windings, fall into, or get left inside, the generator, where they
but it is not recommended that repainting is under- could be drawn into the windings, that a strict ac-
I '1.11!' taken without the manufacturer's advice. If a 'worm- counting system for such items is recommended.
~ '~1 \ lwlt:' (made by small conducting particles) is found, Several expensive failures have occurred a short time
the particle should be removed and the insulation after a major maintenance outage, due to this cause.
patched rather than left in, possibly to break through
'lllj'·i: intL' the copper.
~~Iii The state of the hoses and their connecting joints
should be checked. A leakage test on the stator wind- 11.6 Diagnosis
in.;:. using vacuum or pressurised air with a tracer If the reading of any instrument has been outside its
gao. 1\ ill reveal any significant leaks. It may be expected limit, or caused concern in other ways, it is
con.,idered prudent to renew all the rubber 0-rings, sensible to investigate its possible causes during an
bl'th :n these locations and elsewhere, if they have outage. It may be tempting to extend the operating
b~cn in sen ice for several years. Care must be taken regime beyond its normal level, before such an out-
lL' · ,, ilo11 the assembly instructions meticulously, as age, in order to observe the effects, but this is not
01 ercJghtening may damage the joints. recommended, since a 'stable' fault hch been known
The opportunity should be taken to clean the sta- to become 'unstable' during such operation. causing
tor casing. particularly at the bottom, noting if water problems when the unit is recommissioned.
ha~ collected, and checking that the flow to the leak- Specialised techniques, some in their de1 elopment
a£e detector is unobstructed. phase, may be a\ ailable to assist in ,uspected fault
l lnsulat1on res1stance tests should be carried out
on the rotor winding, using a 500 or 1000 V megger,
location, and up to date advice should be sought.
Sometimes readings of more than one type may
and on excitation windings. An RSO test could also be high, though not so high as to be alarming in
1 557
•- 1
!
Maintenance, testing and diagnosis
' amination is made. Defects greater than 2 mm should be performed on the rotor winding, with slipring
- : be ground out, blending in the .ground area so that brushes lifted.
' there are no discontinuities. Finally, the ring must If any hot spots in the stator core are suspected,
· be re-treated with its protective finish before being or as a reassurance exercise, a core flux test can be
i refitted. The whole operation requires great skill and carried out. This may take the form of an hour long
\ experience, and though it can be carried out at site, test with about rated flux in the core, using about
. it is better done at the manufacturer's works, fol- 10 turns of II kV cable wrapped around the core
' lowing which the rotor can be subjected to overspeed and fed from a suitable II kV source, and using
!: and balancing runs. These comments also apply to an infra-red camera to scan the bore to monitor its
1 exciter end rings. temperature. Easier, but less positive, is a low flux test
· '· Examination of the stator core can be carried out using one turn of light current cable and a magnetic
' . by inspecting the bore for loose areas, which can imperfection detector.
t be tightened by insertions of hard insulation, or by It is not easy to ensure that the stator winding
treating with an epoxy-based liquid having low sur- is dry enough to make an insulation resistance test
face tension which will penetrate between the la- meaningful, though a technique of applying a vacuum
minations. Ventilation ducts should be inspected for to. the winding has been used. A 2 or 2.5 kV motor-
:·debris, blockages and broken spacer bars. The back ised megger should be used, monitoring one phase at
:, of the core will reveal excessive welding of core to a time, and maintaining the test for I 0 minutes so
core bars, or damaged core bar insulation, where that the polarisation index can be obtained. It is
this is fitted. Some core back burning, and some not normal to apply a high voltage test, the only ex-
·fretting products (e.g., 'cocoa dust') seems to be ception being after some damage has occurred, possi-
:tinnocuous. The core frame can be inspected for ob- bly with partial replacement of the winding, when an
vious signs of damage, and patches of overheated agreed HV test on the remaining bars gives some
paint or metal should be investigated. reassurance.
Every stator slot wedge should be checked for tight-
ness along its whole length, using a tightness tester
developed in 1985, or by tapping with a coin or simi-
lar object to observe the expected 'ringing', indicative 11.5 Reassembly
of a tight slot. Airgap flux coils can be fitted or With the rotor reassembled, mechanical checks such
. renewed at this stage. as alignment, axial clearances and concentricity of cou-
Stator end windings can be more thoroughly checked plings, and of the rotor in the stator, are carried out,
than as described in the previous section. Signs of and that all locking plates and other devices are pro-
. .looseness of packings, fretting, slack fastenings, etc., perly assembled. All jointing materials, such as gaskets,
.are all indicative of movement. If there are unfilled 0-rings, jointing compound, etc., should be renewed,
:bags between coils, these can be filled with epoxy and the appropriate lekkage tests 'carried out.
resin at this stage. The surfaces should be cleaned using It is so important that small metallic items do not
a proprietary cleaner suitable for electrical windings, fall into, or get left inside, the generator, where they
but it is not recommended that repainting is under- could be drawn into the windings, that a strict ac-
·. taken without the manufacturer's advice. If a 'worm- counting system for such items is recommended.
hole' (made by small conducting particles) is found, Several expensive failures have occurred a short time
the particle should be removed and the insulation after a major maintenance outage, due to this cause.
patched rather than left iu, possibly to break through
;'into the copper.
;, The state of the hoses and their connecting joints
.'·should be checked. A leakage test on the stator wind- 11 .6 Diagnosis
, 1ng, using vacuum or pressurised air with a tracer If the reading of any instrument has been outside its
. gas, will reveal any significant leaks. It may be expected limit, or caused concern in other ways, it is
:::considered prudent to renew all the rubber 0-rings, sensible to investigate its possible causes during an
~.both in these locations and elsewhere, if they have outage. It may be tempting to extend the operating
.~peen in service for several years. Care must be taken regime beyond its normal level, before such an out-
ji'tb follow the assembly instructions meticulously, as age, in order to observe the effects, but this is not
yovertightening may damage the joints. recommended, since a 'stable' fault has been known
:~} The opportunity should be taken to clean the sta- to become 'unstable' during such operation, causing
tor casing, particularly at the bottom, noting if water problems when the unit is recommissioned.
:'has collected, and checking that the flow to the leak- Specialised techniques, some in their development
:age detector is unobstructed. phase, may be available to assist in suspected fault
Insulation resistance tests should be carried out location, and up to date advice should be sought.
'on the rotor winding, using a 500 or 1000 V megger, Sometimes readings of more than one type may
,and on excitation windings. An RSO test could also be high, though not so high as to be alarming in
- The generator Chapter 6
--
themselves. Wheh judged jointly, clues may be ob- which the plumbing and insulated connections have
tained which individual' ~eadings might not have re- to withstand with no detectable leakage. Stainless
vealed. steel pipes, with some welds having to be made in
situ, were found to be necessary in the UK experience.
- 12 Future developments
Nevertheless, water cooling the rotor winding and
other parts, for example, the stator core, may be an
answer if unit ratings much above 1300 MW are en-
visaged. One difficulty, that of aqueous stress cor-
rosion of rotor end rings, has been removed with
the advent of 18/18 rings. A major advantage is
12.1 Extension of present designs that in an all-water-cooled generator, hydrogen is
The choice of 3000 or 1500 r/min for future turbine- no longer necessary, and the casing can be of much
generators is made almost entirely from considerations lighter construction. The rotor can operate in a partial
of the steam turbine and its steam cycle. ln general, vacuum to reduce windage losses.
if a two-pole generator can be designed and manu-
factured at a particular rating, then so can a four-
pole generator, its overall dimensions will be a little
larger. 12.3 Slotless generators
The present UK designs with water cooled stator The very large radial dimension of the air gap in the
windings and hydrogen cooled stator core and rotor 660 MW design appears to be a waste of space, and
can be extended to .at least 1300 MW by extrapola- prompted much activity in the 1970s into the design
tion. Increases of the order of lOOJo to the rotor and of generators with slotless stators and even slotless
casing diameters, electrical loading (ampere conductors rotors. In a slotless stator, winding conductors oc-
per metre of circumference), magnetic densities and cupied a radial dimension of about half the stator slot
voltage, and perhaps 25% on length over the pre- depth, and since there were no teeth, could occupy
sent designs, would be envisaged (see Fig 6.3). The twice the circumferential distance. This is economical
increased diameter and length of the rotor result in on outer core diameter, and because the conductor
the critical speeds and alternating bending stesses bars are not embedded in iron slots, a more eco-
being similar to those of the present machines. A nomical design of insulation should be possible.
judgement would have to be made about the number The idea has not been pursued, largely because
of parallel paths in the stator winding of a two-pole it was overtaken by the superconducting generator
machine. If only two paths are used, the number concept, which promised greater economies of size,
of slots and bars is low, but the bar forces become better efficiency and the prospect of much larger unit
very large; if four are used the circuits cannot be ratings than any other design.
exactly balanced, and circulating currents and losses
are generated. Parameters, such as reactances and effi-
ciencies, would not be very different from those of
the present machines. 12.4 Superconducting generators
The phenomenon of superconductivity can be applied
to DC circuits, but cannot sensibly be used with the
rapidly changing fluxes and currents involved with
12.2 Extension of water cooling
50 Hz (see Fig 6.95). It is therefore used only in the
Since water cooling has been used so effectively for rotor windings, where it has two advantages:
the stator winding, it may be wondered why it is not
used in the rotor winding where space is at such • The rotor I2 R loss is reduced to zero.
a premium. Water cooled rotor windings have been
successfully operated; in the UK in a 500 MW unit • The rotor current and MMF can be very large, so
with an experimental rotor for a few months, and that higher levels of flux density can be used than
internationally in a few units commercially. are permitted by iron saturation.
The more intensive cooling provided by water means
that smaller winding copper sections can be used, but
this increases the resistance and therefore the l 2 R The need to maintain the rotor winding at a tem-
loss. In a hydrogen cooled 660 MW rotor, this loss perature of 10 K means that only that amount of
is about 2.5 MW at rated load, so a worthwhile heat which can be removed by the refrigerant can
reduction in section brings an expensive loss penalty. be allowed to pass into the rotor, so that elaborate
There are difficult problems to be solved in feeding heat shields are necessary. Liquid helium is used as
the water into and out of the rotating rotor, but the the refrigerant, the windings being made of a ni-
major concern is that the centrifugal force imposes obium-tin alloy embedded in a copper matrix. The
very high pressures (20 MPa) in the water circuit, rotor body is made from a stainless steel forging.
558
- Other types of generator
CONCRETE STATOR
- DRIVE END
STATOR WINDING
OUTER ROTOR
SUPERCONDUCTING WINDING
TAIL BEARING
At the higher flux densities envisaged, an iron core chines from an established design achieve a settled
offers no advantages and the disadvantage of the reliability of better than 990Jo, and operate at an
magnetic core loss, so a cast 'concrete' core is en- efficiency of better than 98.5%. Those breakdowns
visaged. Some form of outer environmental screen which do occur are generally due to lapses in quality
around the core is necessary to prevent leakage flux control, or if in old machines, to practices long since
from inducing currents in support steelwork, etc., overtaken. Thus the impetus for embracing new ma-
this can take the form of an annular magnetic or terials and technologies is not great.
conductin,g copper scr.een.
Many problems remain to be solved, and develop-
ment is ongoing in seyeral countries. If the technique
reaches the stage where reliability is as good as for 13 Other types of generator
conventional machines, it offers the possibility of up Generators, other than the 500 and 660 MW turbine-
to 5000 MW in one generating unit, a prospect not generators and direct coupled AC exciters for tur-
available through any other known technology. bine-generators, described in the previous sections, m
operation by the CEGB include:
though there are some units in which higher pressure The comparatively low speed meant large diameters,
hydrogen is blown through the hollow conductors of and 011-~itt:: assembly of the stators was essential (see
the stator winding. ' Fig 6.97). Air cooling was adopted, mainly for rea-
In other respects, the generators are very similar sons of reliability. Partly on account of this, the
to the larger, more modern units, except that they are stator winding bars were unusually deep, with a large
less intensively rated. In some cases, a degree of number of subconductors, necessitating a 540° Roebel
refurbishment has been carried out to extend their transposition. The core was stacked in situ, being com-
operating lives beyond the 25 years or so already pressed with hydraulic jacks at intervals, and bonded
achieved. together for mechanical stability.
There are also a number of gas turbine driven A fabricated steel spider surrounds the forged steel
generators intended for peak load and synchronous shaft and carries the keyed-on laminated rim and poles.
compensation duty. These have ratings up to 70 MW, Great care was taken to ensure the integrity of the
and are usually air cooled. The single-piece stators are welds, which are subject to an unusual amount of
of lighter construction than is necessary in hydrogen cyclic stressing.
cooled units, and the auxiliary systems are minimal. Ventilation is provided by motor-driven fans blow-
In some cases they were designed for unmanned sta- ing cooled air onto the stator end windings top and
tions, so manual monitoring equipment and sophis- bottom, with some booster fans for the centre of the
ticated logging is minimal. Brushless excitation is core. Water cooled heat exchangers are mounted at
universal, for reasons of minimum maintenance, and the outside diameter of the core.
even the fuses protecting the excitation diodes have The thrust bearing has an arduous duty, having
been omitted. a load of 510 tonnes and requiring larger thrust
A noteworthy feature of the most recent of these pads, at the specific loading, than had previously
units is the facility to disengage the prime mover, been used at the specific loading and speed. Each
or, in the case of the Quad-Olympus units (Fig 6.96) pad rests on a 'mattress' of coiled springs, and is
in which the generator is driven at both ends, both arranged to pivot centrally to allow for rotation in
prime movers. Then, after a period of peak load gen- both directions. Lubrication is by oil bath and natu-
eration, the synchronous clutches are disengaged, leav- ral oil circulation, with an immersed water cooled
ing the generators operating as synchronous compen- heat exchanger.
sators, with excitation controlled to suit the require-
ments of the system. When peak load or emergency
generation is next required, the gas turbines are run- 13.2.1 Excitation and control
up to speed and the clutches moved into engagement. Two variable-frequency starting equipments are pro-
vided for the station, each rated at 14.8 MV A, consist-
ing of air cooled thyristor rectifier/ AC connector/
inverter banks.
13.2 Water turbine driven salient-pole syn- On starting as a pump, the stator winding is fed
chronous generators with low frequency AC from the starter, using forced
There are only a few of these on the CEGB system, commutation at speeds below I 0% and natural com-
but the most recent, the pumped-storage units at mutation thereafter. It is run to just above 500 r/min
Oinorwig, rate a brief description to complement the and is synchronised as it runs down through syn-
water turbine section in Chapter 5. chronous speed. There are also arrangements for start-
The six generators are each rated at 330 MW, 0.95 ing one unit as a pump from another, being driven
power factor, 18 kV, 500 r/min, and have a motor up to speed by its turbine.
rating slightly lower when operating in the reverse Excitation power is taken from the generator ter-
direction. minals, through a transformer to a thyristor bridge,
The very onerous requirements included: whose output is controlled by the A VR, and then to
the sliprings which are located at the top end of the
• Full speed, no-load to full-load, in I 0 s. rotor shaft.
The synchronous operation of such machines fol-
• From rest to full-load in 100 s.
lows very closely that of steam-driven turbine-gen-
• From full-load pumping to full-load generating in erators. The electromagnetic loading is considerably
90 s. less, leading to a smaller radial air gap. The very
different magnetic path presented by a pole centre
• 5000 stop/start cycles per year. line and an inter-pole gap results in marked differ-
• Multiple load cycling from 5007o to 100% for system ences in direct axis and quadrature axis synchronous
frequency regulation. reactances, compared to a turbine-generator in which
they are almost identical; this is the 'saliency' effect.
• Availability of 9807o and mode change reliability of By applying excitation in the reverse direction to
99%. normal, an increase in the steady state stability can
560
• • AUTOMATIC DRY ROLL TYPE
AIR INTAKE FILTERS
GAS GENERATOR AIR
INTAKE FILTER HOUSE
BYPASS DOORS
A C GENERATOR AIR
INTAKE FILTER HOUSE
GAS GENERATOR
ACOUSTIC CELL
TURBINE AND GENERATOR
LUB. OIL PACKAGE
POWER TURBINE ACOUSTIC SCREEN
0
~
A C GENERATOR ::r
(1)
,,
r
·'
be gained, i.e., operation further into the leading stalled in a few stations for emergency duty. The
reactive regime becomes possible.
generators are standard industrial units with proven
high reliability. The need for sudden run-up after long
periods at standstill means that brushless excitation
13.2.2 Other features and casing heaters are essential.
Other features peculiar to these machines include the
continuing integrity of stator bar insulation in an air
environment, the continuing stability of the bonded
stator core and the built-up rotors, the vacuum ex- 13.4 Induction generators
traction of dust from the shaft brakes, and the very These machines, rated usually at less than I MW,
high overspeeds possible; e.g., a transient value of 1.5 are used in remotely controlled run-of-the-river hydro
for Dinorwig. plants, and in wind generators on an experimental
basis. Such machines do not operate synchronously,
but have a characteristic similar to induction motors
except that they run at above synchronous speed. A
13.3 Diesel engine driven salient-pole greater input from the prime mover increases the
generators power output. Like all induction machines, they draw
their magnetising current from the system and there-
These machines, with ratings of a few MW, are in-
fore do not require an excitation supply.
562