1.

Pure substances
A pure substance is a sample of matter with both definite and constant composition with
distinct chemical
properties. A pure
substance can be either
an element or a
compound, but the
composition of a pure
substance doesn’t vary.

 Elements
An element is
composed of a
single kind of atom. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has all the
properties of the element.
Here’s an example: Gold is an element. If you slice and slice a chunk of gold until only
one tiny particle is left that can’t be chopped any more without losing the properties
that make gold gold, then you’ve got an atom.
Allotropes
Allotropes are two or more forms of the same element in the same physical state (solid,
liquid, or gas) that differ from each other in their physical, and sometimes chemical,
properties. The most notable examples of allotropes are found in groups 14, 15, and 16 of
the periodic table. Gaseous oxygen, for example, exists in three allotropic forms: monatomic
oxygen (O), a diatomic molecule (O2), and in a triatomic molecule known as ozone (O3).
Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element;[1] the atoms of the element
are bonded together in a different manner.
Non-metals Metals Metalloids
Carbon, Oxygen, Tin, Iron, Cobalt, Polonium Boron, Silicon, Arsenic,
Phosphorus, Selenium, Germanium, Antimony,
Sulfur Tellurium

A striking example of differing physical properties among allotropes is the case of carbon.
Solid carbon exists in two allotropic forms: diamond and graphite. Diamond is the hardest
naturally occurring substance and has the highest melting point (more than 6,335°F
[3,502°C]) of any element. In contrast, graphite is a very soft material, the substance from
which the "lead" in lead pencils is made.
The allotropes of phosphorus illustrate the variations in chemical properties that may occur
among such forms. White phosphorus, for example, is a waxy white solid that bursts into
flame spontaneously when exposed to air. It is also highly toxic. On the other hand, a
second allotrope of phosphorus known as red phosphorus is far more stable, does not react
with air, and is essentially nontoxic.
Allotropes differ from each other structurally depending on the number of atoms in
a molecule of the element. There are allotropes of sulfur, for example, that contain 2, 6, 7,
8, 10, 12, 18, and 20 atoms per molecule (formulas S2 to S20). Several of these, however,
are not very stable.
  Compounds
A compound is composed of two or more elements in a specific ratio. For example,
water is a compound made up of two elements, hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). These
elements are combined in a very specific way — in a ratio of two hydrogen atoms to
one oxygen atom, known as:
Many compounds contain hydrogen and oxygen, but only one has that special 2 to 1
ratio we call water. The compound water has physical and chemical properties
different from both hydrogen and oxygen — water’s properties are a unique
combination of the two elements. IMPORTANT: Chemists can’t easily separate the
components of a compound: They have to resort to some type of chemical reaction.

Mixtures
Mixtures are physical combinations of pure substances that have no definite or constant
composition — the composition of a mixture varies according to who prepares the mixture.
A mixture refers to the physical combination of two or more substances in which the
identities are retained and are mixed in the form of solutions, suspensions, and colloids.

Mixtures are the one product of a mechanical blending or mixing of chemical substances
such as elements and compounds, without chemical bonding or other chemical change, so
that each ingredient substance retains its own chemical properties and makeup.
Although chemists have a difficult time separating compounds into their specific elements,
the different parts of a mixture can be easily separated by physical means, such as filtration.
For example, suppose you have a mixture of salt and sand, and you want to purify the sand
by removing the salt. You can do this by adding water, dissolving the salt, and then filtering
the mixture. You then end up with pure sand.
Mixtures can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous:
A homogeneous mixture, sometimes called a solution, is relatively uniform in composition;
every portion of the mixture is like every other portion. For example, if you dissolve sugar in
water and mix it really well, your mixture is basically the same no matter where you sample
it.
A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture whose composition varies from position to position
within the sample. For example, if you put some sugar in a jar, add some sand, and then give
the jar a couple of shakes, your mixture doesn’t have the same composition throughout the
jar. Because the sand is heavier, there’s probably more sand at the bottom of the jar and
more sugar at the top.
Separation of mixtures

 Chromatography
Chromatography is a separation technique used to separate the different components in a
liquid mixture. It was introduced by a Russian Scientist Michael Tswett. Chromatography
involves the sample being dissolved in a particular solvent called mobile phase. The mobile
phase may be a gas or liquid. The mobile phase is then passed through another phase called
stationary phase. The stationary phase may be a solid packed in a glass plate or a piece of
chromatography paper.
The various components of the mixture travel at different speeds, causing them to separate.
There are different types of chromatographic techniques such as column chromatography,
TLC, paper chromatography, and gas chromatography.
Paper chromatography is one of the important chromatographic methods. Paper
chromatography uses paper as the stationary phase and a liquid solvent as the mobile phase.
In paper chromatography, the sample is placed on a spot on the paper and the paper is
carefully dipped into a solvent. The solvent rises up the paper due to capillary action and the
components of the mixture rise up at different rates and thus are separated from one
another.
Applications:
 To separate colors in a dye.
 To separate pigments from natural colors.
 To separate drugs from blood.

 Centrifugation
Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very small and can pass through a filter paper.
For such particles, the filtration technique cannot be used for separation. Such mixtures are
separated by centrifugation. So, centrifugation is the process of separation of insoluble
materials from a liquid where normal filtration does not work well. The centrifugation is
based on the size, shape, and density of the particles, viscosity of the medium, and the speed
of rotation. The principle is that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter
particles stay at the top when spun rapidly.
The apparatus used for centrifugation is called a centrifuge. The centrifuge consists of a
centrifuge tube holder called rotor. The rotor holds balanced centrifugal tubes of equal
amounts of the solid-liquid mixture. On rapid rotation of the rotor, the centrifuge tubes
rotate horizontally and due to the centrifugal force, the denser insoluble particles separate
from the liquid. When the rotation stops, the solid particles end up at the bottom of the
centrifuge tube with liquid at the top.
Applications:
 Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
 Used in dairies and home to separate butter from cream.
 Used in washing machines to squeeze water from wet clothes

 Simple distillation
Simple distillation is a method used for the separation of components of a mixture containing
two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition and have sufficient difference in their
boiling points.
The distillation process involves heating a liquid to its boiling points, and transferring the
vapors into the cold portion of the apparatus, then condensing the vapors and collecting the
condensed liquid in a container. In this process, when the temperature of a liquid rises, the
vapor pressure of the liquid increases. When the vapor pressure of the liquid and the
atmospheric pressure reach the same level, the liquid passes into its vapor state. The vapors
pass over the heated portion of the apparatus until they come into contact with the cold
surface of the water-cooled condenser. When the vapor cools, it condenses and passes down
the condenser and is collected into a receiver through the vacuum adapter.
Applications:
 Separation of acetone and water.

 Distillation of alcohol
Fractional distillation: Fractional distillation is used for the separation of a mixture of two or
more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling points is less than 25K. The apparatus
for fractional distillation is similar to that of simple distillation, except that a fractionating
column is fitted in between the distillation flask and the condenser.
A simple fractionating column is a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide surface
for the vapors to cool and condense repeatedly. When vapors of a mixture are passed
through the fractionating column, because of the repeated condensation and evaporation,
the vapors of the liquid with the lower boiling point first pass out of the fractionating column,
condense and are collected in the receiver flask. The other liquid, with a slightly higher boiling
point, can be collected in similar fashion in another receiver flask.
Applications:
 Separation of different fractions from petroleum products.
 Separation of a mixture of methanol and ethanol.

 Filtration
Filtration is any of various mechanical, physical or biological operations that separate solids
from fluids (liquids or gases) by adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass. The
fluid that passes through is called the filtrate. In physical filters oversize solids in the fluid are
retained and in biological filters particulates are trapped and ingested and metabolites are
retained and removed. However, the separation is not complete; solids will be contaminated
with some fluid and filtrate will contain fine particles (depending on the pore size, filter
thickness and biological activity).

 Precipitation
It is the creation of a solid from a solution. When the reaction occurs in a liquid solution, the
solid formed is called the 'precipitate'. The chemical
that causes the solid to form is called the 'precipitant'.
Without sufficient force of gravity (settling) to bring
the solid particles together, the precipitate remains
in suspension. After sedimentation, especially when
using a centrifuge to press it into a compact mass, the
precipitate may be referred to as a 'pellet'.
Precipitation can be used as a medium. The
precipitate-free liquid remaining above the solid is
called the 'supernate' or 'supernatant'. Powders
derived from precipitation have also historically been
known as 'flowers'. When the solid appears in the
form of cellulose fibers which have been through
chemical processing, the process is often referred to as regeneration.

 Magnetism
Purification
Purification in a chemical context is the physical separation of a chemical substance of
interest from foreign or contaminating substances. Pure results of a successful purification
process are termed isolate. The following list of chemical purification methods should not be
considered exhaustive.
Affinity purification is used to purify proteins by retaining them on a column through their
affinity to antibodies, enzymes or receptors which have been immobilised on the column.
Filtration is a mechanical method to separate solids from liquids or gases by passing the feed
stream through a porous sheet such as a cloth or membrane, which retains the solids and
allows the liquid to pass through.
Centrifugation is a process in which light particles are revolved at high speed with the help of
an electric motor so that the fine particles which do not settle at bottom would settle down.
Evaporation is used to remove volatile liquids from non-volatile solutes which cannot be
done through filtration due to the small size of the substances.
Liquid–liquid extraction removes an impurity or recovers a desired product by dissolving the
crude material in a solvent in which other components of the feed material are soluble.
Crystallization separates a product from a liquid feed stream, often in extremely pure form,
by cooling the feed stream or adding precipitants which lower the solubility of the desired
product so that it forms crystals. The pure solid crystals are then separated from the
remaining liquor by filtration or centrifugation.
Recrystallization: In analytical and synthetic chemistry work, purchased reagents of doubtful
purity may be recrystallized, e.g. dissolved in a very pure solvent, and then crystallized, and
the crystals recovered, in order to improve and/or verify their purity.
Adsorption removes a soluble impurity from a feed stream by trapping it on the surface of a
solid material such as activated carbon which forms strong non-covalent chemical bonds
with the impurity. Chromatography employs adsorption and desorption on a packed bed of
a solid to purify multiple components of a single feed stream.
Smelting is used to produce metals from raw ore, and involves adding chemicals to the ore
and heating it up to the melting point of the metal.
Refining is used primarily in the petroleum industry, whereby crude oil is heated and
separated into stages according to the condensation points of the various elements.
Downstream processing refers to purification of chemicals, pharmaceuticals and food
ingredients produced by fermentation or synthesized by plant and animal tissues, for
example antibiotics, citric acid, vitamin E, and insulin.
Fractionation refers to a purification strategy in which some relatively inefficient purification
method is repeatedly applied to isolate the desired substance in progressively greater purity.
Electrolysis refers to the breakdown of substances using an electric current. This removes
impurities in a substance that an electric current is run through
Sublimation is the process of changing of any substance (usually on heating) from a solid to
a gas (or from gas to a solid) without passing through liquid phase.
Bioleaching is the extraction of metals from their ores through the use of living organisms.
2. States of matter

 Solid
In a solid the particles (ions, atoms or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces
between particles are strong so that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate.
As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change
their shape by force, as when broken or cut.
In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a regularly
ordered, repeating pattern. There are various different crystal structures, and the same
substance can have more than one structure (or solid phase). For example, iron has a body-
centred cubic structure at temperatures below 912 °C, and a face-centred cubic structure
between 912 and 1394 °C. Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases,
which exist at various temperatures and pressures.[2]
Glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range order are
not thermal equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described below as nonclassical
states of matter.
Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids
by freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of sublimation,
and gases can likewise change directly into solids through deposition.

 Liquid
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains
a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite if
the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point,
it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance.
Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules
have enough energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means
that the shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is
usually greater than that of the corresponding solid, the best known exception being water,
H2O. The highest temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature.[3]

 Gas
The spaces between gas molecules are very big. Gas molecules have very weak or no bonds
at all. The molecules in "gas" can move freely and fast.
A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container but it
will also expand to fill the container.
In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of intermolecular forces
is small (or zero for an ideal gas), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is
much greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies
the entire container in which it is confined. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating at
constant pressure to the boiling point, or else by reducing the pressure at constant
temperature.
At temperatures below its critical temperature, a gas is also called a vapor, and can be
liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A vapor can exist in equilibrium with a liquid
(or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid).
A supercritical fluid (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above the critical
temperature and critical pressure respectively. In this state, the distinction between liquid
and gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of a gas, but its high
density confers solvent properties in some cases, which leads to useful applications. For
example, supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract caffeine in the manufacture
of decaffeinated coffee.

Particles constituting substances

Atom structure
All atoms are made from three subatomic particles

� Protons, neutron & electrons.

These particles have the following properties:
In the above table I have used a unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu). This unit is
much more convenient to use than grams for describing masses of atoms. It is defined so
that both protons and neutrons have a mass of approximately 1 amu. Its precise definition
will be given later.

Particle Charge Mass (g) Mass (amu)

Proton +1 1.6727 x 10-24 g 1.007316

Neutron 0 1.6750 x 10-24 g 1.008701

Electron -1 9.110 x 10-28 g 0.000549

The important points to keep in mind are as follows:

Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass, while the electron is approximately 2000
times lighter.
Protons and electrons carry charges of equal magnitude, but opposite charge. Neutrons carry
no charge (they are neutral).
It was once thought that protons, neutrons and electrons were spread out in a rather uniform
fashion to form the atom (see J.J. Thompson’s plum pudding model of the atom on page 42),
but now we know the actual structure of the atom to be quite different.
What does an atom look like?
Protons and neutrons are held together rather closely in the center of the atom. Together
they make up the nucleus, which accounts for nearly all of the mass of the atom.
Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus and constitute almost the entire volume of the
atom. Although quantum mechanics are necessary to explain the motion of an electron
about the nucleus, we can say that the distribution of electrons about an atom is such that
the atom has a spherical shape.

Atoms have sizes on the order of 1-5 � (1 angstrom = 1 � = 1 � 10-10 m) and masses on
the order of 1-300 amu.
To put the mass and dimensions of an atom into perspective consider the following
analogies. If an atom were the size of Ohio stadium, the nucleus would only be the size of a
small marble. However, the mass of that marble would be ~ 115 million tons.
What holds an atom together?
The negatively charged electron is attracted to the positively charged nucleus by a Coulombic
attraction.
The protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force.
How many electrons, protons and neutrons are contained in an atom?
Atoms in their natural state have no charge, that is they are neutral. Therefore, in a neutral
atom the number of protons and electrons are the same. If this condition is violated the atom
has a net charge and is called an ion.
The number of protons in the nucleus determines the identity of the atom. For example all
carbon atoms contain six protons, all gold atoms contain 79 protons, all lead atoms contain
82 protons.
Two atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons are
called isotopes.
How does the structure of the atom relate to its properties?
Chemical reactions involve either the transfer or the sharing of electrons between atoms.
Therefore, the chemical reactivity/ properties of an element is primarily dependent upon the
number of electrons in an atom of that element. Protons also play a significant role because
the tendency for an atom to either lose, gain or share electrons is dependent upon the
charge of the nucleus.
Therefore, we can say that the chemical reactivity of an atom is dependent upon the number
of electrons and protons, and independent of the number of neutrons.
The mass and radioactive properties of an atom are dependent upon the number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus.
Note: The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom completely determine its
properties and identity, regardless of how and where the atom was made. So it is inaccurate
to speak of synthetic atoms and natural atoms. In other words a lead atom is a lead atom,
end of story. It doesn’t matter if was mined from the earth, produced in a nuclear reactor,
or came to earth on an asteroid.
Symbolism
There is a symbolism or shorthand for describing atoms which is universally used across all
scientific disciplines:

Atomic Number (Z) � The # of protons

Mass Number (A) � [The # of protons] + [the # of neutrons]

The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom are uniquely specified by the
following symbol
ASyC
where:

Sy = The elemental symbol (i.e. C, N, Cr) � defines the # of protons

A = The mass number � [# of protons] + [# of neutrons]

C = The net charge � [# of protons] – [# of electrons]

Example

Lets start with a neutral boron 10 atom � 10B

Since the atom is a boron atom the periodic table tells us that there are 5 protons in the
nucleus Z = 5.
The atom is neutral so that the number of electrons must balance the number of protons, 5
electrons.
The mass number is 10, so that the number of neutrons is A - Z = 10 - 5 = 5 neutrons.
Electronic configuration
In atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the electron configuration is the distribution
of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical structure) in atomic or molecular
orbitals. For example, the electron configuration of the neon atom is 1s2 2s2 2p6.
Electronic configurations describe each electron as moving independently in an orbital, in an
average field created by all other orbitals. Mathematically, configurations are described
by Slater determinants or configuration state functions.
According to the laws of quantum mechanics, for systems with only one electron, an energy
is associated with each electron configuration and, upon certain conditions, electrons are
able to move from one configuration to another by the emission or absorption of
a quantum of energy, in the form of a photon.
Knowledge of the electron configuration of different atoms is useful in understanding the
structure of the periodic table of elements. This is also useful for describing the chemical
bonds that hold atoms together. In bulk materials, this same idea helps explain the peculiar
properties of lasers and semiconductors.
Electron shells and the Bohr model
An early model of the atom was developed in 1913 by the Danish scientist Niels Bohr (1885–
1962). The Bohr model shows the atom as a central nucleus containing protons and
neutrons, with the electrons in circular electron shells at specific distances from the nucleus,
similar to planets orbiting around the sun. Each electron shell has a different energy level,
with those shells closest to the nucleus being lower in energy than those farther from the
nucleus. By convention, each shell is assigned a number and the symbol n—for example, the
electron shell closest to the nucleus is called 1n. In order to move between shells, an electron
must absorb or release an amount of energy corresponding exactly to the difference in
energy between the shells. For instance, if an electron absorbs energy from a photon, it may
become excited and move to a higher-energy shell; conversely, when an excited electron
drops back down to a lower-energy shell, it will release energy, often in the form of heat.

Bohr model of an atom, showing energy levels as concentric circles surrounding the nucleus.
Energy must be added to move an electron outward to a higher energy level, and energy is
released when an electron falls down from a higher energy level to a closer-in one.
Atoms, like other things governed by the laws of physics, tend to take on the lowest-energy,
most stable configuration they can. Thus, the electron shells of an atom are populated from
the inside out, with electrons filling up the low-energy shells closer to the nucleus before
they move into the higher-energy shells further out. The shell closest to the nucleus, 1n, can
hold two electrons, while the next shell, 2n, can hold eight, and the third shell, 3n, can hold
up to eighteen.
The number of electrons in the outermost shell of a particular atom determines its reactivity,
or tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms. This outermost shell is known as
the valence shell, and the electrons found in it are called valence electrons. In general, atoms
are most stable, least reactive, when their outermost electron shell is full. Most of the
elements important in biology need eight electrons in their outermost shell in order to be
stable, and this rule of thumb is known as the octet rule. Some atoms can be stable with an
octet even though their valence shell is the 3n shell, which can hold up to 18 electrons. We
will explore the reason for this when we discuss electron orbitals below.
Examples of some neutral atoms and their electron configurations are shown below. In this
table, you can see that helium has a full valence shell, with two electrons in its first and only,
1n, shell. Similarly, neon has a complete outer 2n shell containing eight electrons. These
electron configurations make helium and neon very stable. Although argon does not
technically have a full outer shell, since the 3n shell can hold up to eighteen electrons, it is
stable like neon and helium because it has eight electrons in the 3n shell and thus satisfies
the octet rule. In contrast, chlorine has only seven electrons in its outermost shell, while
sodium has just one. These patterns do not fill the outermost shell or satisfy the octet rule,
making chlorine and sodium reactive, eager to gain or lose electrons to reach a more stable
configuration.

Bohr diagrams of various elements

Image credit: OpenStax Biology
Electron configurations and the periodic table
Elements are placed in order on the periodic table based on their atomic number, how many
protons they have. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons will equal the number of
protons, so we can easily determine electron number from atomic number. In addition, the
position of an element in the periodic table—its column, or group, and row, or period—
provides useful information about how those electrons are arranged.
If we consider just the first three rows of the table, which include the major elements
important to life, each row corresponds to the filling of a different electron shell: helium and
hydrogen place their electrons in the 1n shell, while second-row elements like Li start filling
the 2n shell, and third-row elements like Na continue with the 3n shell. Similarly, an
element’s column number gives information about its number of valence electrons and
reactivity. In general, the number of valence electrons is the same within a column and
increases from left to right within a row. Group 1 elements have just one valence electron
and group 18 elements have eight, except for helium, which has only two electrons total.
Thus, group number is a good predictor of how reactive each element will be:
Helium (\text{He}HeH, e), neon (\text{Ne}NeN, e), and argon (\text{Ar}ArA, r), as group 18
elements, have outer electron shells that are full or satisfy the octet rule. This makes them
highly stable as single atoms. Because of their non-reactivity, they are called the inert
gases or noble gases.
Hydrogen (\text{H}HH), lithium (\text{Li}LiL, i), and sodium (\text{Na}NaN, a), as group 1
elements, have just one electron in their outermost shells. They are unstable as single atoms,
but can become stable by losing or sharing their one valence electron. If these elements fully
lose an electron—as \text{Li}LiL, i and \text{Na}NaN, a typically do—they become positively
charged ions: \text{Li}^+Li+L, i, start superscript, plus, end superscript and \text{Na}^+Na+N,
a, start superscript, plus, end superscript.
Fluorine (\text{F}FF) and chlorine (\text{Cl}ClC, l), as group 17 elements, have seven electrons
in their outermost shells. They tend to achieve a stable octet by taking an electron from other
atoms, becoming negatively charged ions: \text{F}^-F−F, start superscript, minus, end
superscript and \text{Cl}^-Cl−C, l, start superscript, minus, end superscript.
Carbon (\text{C}CC), as a group 14 element, has four electrons in its outer shell. Carbon
typically shares electrons to achieve a complete valence shell, forming bonds with multiple
other atoms.
Thus, the columns of the periodic table reflect the number of electrons found in each
element’s valence shell, which in turn determines how the element will react.
Subshells and orbitals
The Bohr model is useful to explain the reactivity and chemical bonding of many elements,
but it actually doesn’t give a very accurate description of how electrons are distributed in
space around the nucleus. Specifically, electrons don’t really circle the nucleus, but rather
spend most of their time in sometimes-complex-shaped regions of space around the nucleus,
known as electron orbitals. We can’t actually know where an electron is at any given moment
in time, but we can mathematically determine the volume of space in which it is most likely
to be found—say, the volume of
space in which it will spend 90%
of its time. This high-probability
region makes up an orbital, and
each orbital can hold up to two
electrons.
So, how do these mathematically
defined orbitals fit in with the
electron shells we saw in the
Bohr model? We can break each
electron shell down into one or
more subshells, which are simply sets of one or more orbitals. Subshells are designated by
the letters sss, ppp, ddd, and fff, and each letter indicates a different shape. For
instance, sss subshells have a single, spherical orbital, while ppp subshells contain three
dumbbell-shaped orbitals at right angles to each other. Most of organic chemistry—the
chemistry of carbon-containing compounds, which are central to biology—involves
interactions between electrons in sss and ppp subshells, so these are the most important
subshell types to be familiar with. However, atoms with many electrons may place some of
their electrons in ddd and fff subshells. Subshells ddd and fff have more complex shapes and
contain five and seven orbitals, respectively.
3D diagram of circular 1s and 2s orbitals and dumbbell-shaped 2p orbitals. There are three
2p orbitals, and they are at right angles to each other.
Image credit: modified from OpenStax Biology
The first electron shell, 1n, corresponds to a single 1s1s1, s orbital. The 1s1s1, s orbital is the
closest orbital to the nucleus, and it fills with electrons first, before any other orbital.
Hydrogen has just one electron, so it has a single spot in the 1s1s1, sorbital occupied. This
can be written out in a shorthand form called an electron configuration as 1s^ 11s11, s, start
superscript, 1, end superscript, where the superscripted 1 refers to the one electron in
the 1s1s1, s orbital. Helium has two electrons, so it can completely fill the1s1s1, s orbital with
its two electrons. This is written out as 1s^ 21s21, s, start superscript, 2, end superscript,
referring to the two electrons of helium in the 1s1s1, s orbital. On the periodic table,
hydrogen and helium are the only two elements in the first row, or period, which reflects
that they only have electrons in their first shell. Hydrogen and helium are the only two
elements that have electrons exclusively in the 1s1s1, s orbital in their neutral, non-charged,
state.
The second electron shell, 2n, contains another spherical sss orbital plus three dumbbell-
shaped ppp orbitals, each of which can hold two electrons. After the 1s1s1, s orbital is filled,
the second electron shell begins to fill, with electrons going first into the 2s2s2, s orbital and
then into the three ppp orbitals. Elements in the second row of the periodic table place their
electrons in the 2n shell as well as the 1n shell. For instance, lithium (\text{Li}LiL, i) has three
electrons: two fill the 1s1s1, sorbital, and the third is placed in the 2s2s2, s orbital, giving an
electron configuration of 1s^ 21s21, s, start superscript, 2, end superscript 2s^ 12s12, s, start
superscript, 1, end superscript. Neon (\text{Ne}NeN, e), on the other hand, has a total of ten
electrons: two are in its innermost 1s1s1, s orbital and eight fill the second shell—two each
in the 2s2s2, s and three ppp orbitals, 1s^ 21s21, s, start superscript, 2, end superscript 2s^
22s22, s, start superscript, 2, end superscript 2p^62p62, p, start superscript, 6, end
superscript. Because its 2n shell is filled, it is energetically stable as a single atom and will
rarely form chemical bonds with other atoms.
The third electron shell, 3n, also contains an sss orbital and three ppp orbitals, and the third-
row elements of the periodic table place their electrons in these orbitals, much as second-
row elements do for the 2n shell. The 3n shell also contains a ddd orbital, but this orbital is
considerably higher in energy than the 3s3s3, s and 3p3p3, p orbitals and does not begin to
fill until the fourth row of the periodic table. This is why third-row elements, such as argon,
can be stable with just eight valence electrons: their sss and ppp subshells are filled, even
though the entire 3n shell is not.
While electron shells and orbitals are closely related, orbitals provide a more accurate picture
of the electron configuration of an atom. That’s because orbitals actually specify the shape
and position of the regions of space that electrons occupy.
The periodic law
It was developed independently by Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer in 1869. Mendeleev
created the first periodic table and was shortly followed by Meyer. They both arranged the
elements by their mass and proposed that certain properties periodically reoccur. Meyer
formed his periodic law based on the atomic volume or molar volume, which is the atomic
mass divided by the density in solid form. Mendeleev's table is noteworthy because it exhibits
mostly accurate values for atomic mass and it also contains blank spaces for unknown
elements.
Introduction
In 1804 physicist John Dalton advanced the atomic theory of matter, helping scientists
determine the mass of the known elements. Around the same time, two chemists Sir
Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday developed electrochemistry which aided in the
discovery of new elements. By 1829, chemist Johann Wolfgang Doberiner observed that
certain elements with similar properties occur in group of three such as; chlorine, bromine,
iodine; calcium, strontium, and barium; sulfur, selenium, tellurium; iron, cobalt, manganese.
However, at the time of this discovery too few elements had been discovered and there was
confusion between molecular weight and atomic weights; therefore, chemists never really
understood the significance of Doberiner's triad.
In 1859 two physicists Robert Willhem Bunsen and Gustav Robert Kirchoff discovered
spectroscopy which allowed for discovery of many new elements. This gave scientists the
tools to reveal the relationships between elements. Thus in 1864, chemist John A. R Newland
arranged the elements in increasing of atomic weights. Explaining that a given set of
properties reoccurs every eight place, he named it the law of Octaves.
The Periodic Law
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer individually came up with their own periodic
law "when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, certain sets of
properties recur periodically." Meyer based his laws on the atomic volume (the atomic mass
of an element divided by the density of its solid form), this property is called Molar volume.
Atomic (molar) volume (cm3/mol)= molar mass (g/ mol)ρ (cm3/g)Atomic (molar) volume
(cm3/mol)= molar mass (g/ mol)ρ (cm3/g)
Mendeleev's Periodic Table
Mendeleev's periodic table is an arrangement of the elements that group similar elements
together. He left blank spaces for the undiscovered elements (atomic masses, element: 44,
scandium; 68, gallium; 72, germanium; & 100, technetium) so that certain elements can be
grouped together. However, Mendeleev had not predicted the noble gases, so no spots
were left for them.
Example
The alkali metals (Mendeleev's group I) have high molar volumes and they also have low
melting points which decrease in the order:

Li (174 oC) > Na (97.8 oC) > K (63.7 oC) > Rb (38.9 oC) > Cs (28.5 oC)
Atomic Number as the Basis for the Periodic Law
Assuming there were errors in atomic masses, Mendeleev placed certain elements not in
order of increasing atomic mass so that they could fit into the proper groups (similar
elements have similar properties) of his periodic table. An example of this was with argon
(atomic mass 39.9), which was put in front of potassium (atomic mass 39.1). Elements were
placed into groups that expressed similar chemical behavior.
In 1913 Henry G.J. Moseley did researched the X-Ray spectra of the elements and suggested
that the energies of electron orbitals depend on the nuclear charge and the nuclear charges
of atoms in the target, which is also known as anode, dictate the frequencies of emitted X-
Rays. Moseley was able to tie the X-Ray frequencies to numbers equal to the nuclear charges,
therefore showing the placement of the elements in Mendeleev's periodic table. The
equation he used:
ν=A(Z−b)2ν=A(Z−b)2
with
νν: X-Ray frequency
ZZ: Atomic Number
AA and bb: constants

Note
With Moseley's contribution the Periodic Law can be restated:
Similar properties recur periodically when elements are arranged according to increasing
atomic number."

Atomic numbers, not weights, determine the factor of chemical properties. As mentioned
before, argon weights more than potassium (39.9 vs. 39.1, respectively), yet argon is in front
of potassium. Thus, we can see that elements are arranged based on their atomic
number. The periodic law is found to help determine many patterns of many different
properties of elements; melting and boiling points, densities, electrical conductivity,
reactivity, acidic, basic, valance, polarity, and solubility.
The table below shows that elements increase from left to right accordingly to their atomic
number. The vertical columns have similar properties within their group for example Lithium
is similar to sodium, beryllium is similar to magnesium, and so on.

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

Eleme Li Be B C N O F Ne
nt

Atomic 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Numb
er
 Atomic 6.94 9.01 10.8 12.0 14.0 15.9 18.9 20.1
Mass 1 1 1 9 9 8

Eleme Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
nt

Atomic 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Numb
er

Atomic 22.9 24.3 26.9 20.0 30.9 32.0 35.4 39.9

Mass 9 1 8 9 7 7 5 5

So, elements in Group 1 (periodic table) have similar chemical properties, they are
called alkali metals. Elements in Group 2 have similar chemical properties, they are called
the alkaline earth metals.
Short form periodic table
The short form periodic table is a table where elements are arranged in 7 rows, periods,
with increasing atomic numbers from left to right. There are 18 vertical columns known as
groups. This table is based on Mendeleev's periodic table and the periodic law.
Long form Periodic Table
In the long form, each period correlates to the building up of electronic shell; the first two
groups (1-2) (s-block) and the last 6 groups (13-18) (p-block) make up the main-group
elements and the groups (3-12) in between the s and p blocks are called the transition
metals. Group 18 elements are called noble gases, and group 17 are called halogens. The f-
block elements, called inner transition metals, which are at the bottom of the periodic table
(periods 8 and 9); the 15 elements after barium (atomic number 56) are
called lanthanides and the 14 elements after radium (atomic number 88) are
called actinides.
Problems
1) The periodic law states that
similar properties recur periodically when elements are arranged according to increasing
atomic number
similar properties recur periodically when elements are arranged according to increasing
atomic weight
similar properties are everywhere on the periodic table
elements in the same period have same characteristics
2) Which element is most similar to Sodium
Potassium
Aluminum
Oxygen
Calcium
3) According to the periodic law, would argon be in front of potassium or after? Explain why.
4) Which element is most similar to Calcium?
Carbon
Oxygen
Strontium
Iodine
5) Who were the two chemists that came up with the periodic law?
John Dalton and Michael Faraday
Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer
Michael Faraday and Lothar Meyer
John Dalton and Dmitri Mendeleev
Answers
A
A
Argon would in front of potassium because the periodic law states that the periodic table
increases from left to right based on atomic number not atomic weights
C
B

The basic phase diagram

What is a phase?
At its simplest, a phase can be just another term for solid, liquid or gas.
If you have some ice floating in water, you have a solid phase present
and a liquid phase. If there is air above the mixture, then that is another
phase.
But the term can be used more generally than this. For example, oil
floating on water also consists of two phases - in this case, two liquid
phases. If the oil and water are contained in a bucket, then the solid
bucket is yet another phase. In fact, there might be more than one solid
phase if the handle is attached separately to the bucket rather than
moulded as a part of the bucket.
You can recognise the presence of the different phases because there is
an obvious boundary between them - a boundary between the solid ice
and the liquid water, for example, or the boundary between the two
liquids.

Phase diagrams
A phase diagram lets you work out exactly what phases are present at
any given temperature and pressure. In the cases we'll be looking at on
this page, the phases will simply be the solid, liquid or vapour (gas) states
of a pure substance.
This is the phase diagram for a typical pure substance.
These diagrams (including this one) are nearly always drawn highly
distorted in order to see what is going on more easily. There are usually
two major distortions. We'll discuss these when they become relevant.
If you look at the diagram, you will see that there are three lines, three
areas marked "solid", "liquid" and "vapour", and two special points
marked "C" and "T".
The three areas
These are easy! Suppose you have a pure substance at three different
sets of conditions of temperature and pressure corresponding to 1, 2
and 3 in the next diagram.
Under the set of conditions at 1 in the diagram, the substance would be
a solid because it falls into that area of the phase diagram. At 2, it would
be a liquid; and at 3, it would be a vapour (a gas).

Note: I'm using the terms vapour and gas as if they were
interchangeable. There are subtle differences between them
that I'm not ready to explain for a while yet. Be patient!

Moving from solid to liquid by changing the temperature:

Suppose you had a solid and increased the temperature while keeping
the pressure constant - as shown in the next diagram. As the
temperature increases to the point where it crosses the line, the solid
will turn to liquid. In other words, it melts.
If you repeated this at a higher fixed pressure, the melting temperature
would be higher because the line between the solid and liquid areas
slopes slightly forward.

Note: This is one of the cases where we distort these

diagrams to make them easier to discuss. This line is much
more vertical in practice than we normally draw it. There
 would be very little change in melting point at a higher
pressure. The diagram would be very difficult to follow if we
didn't exaggerate it a bit.

So what actually is this line separating the solid and liquid areas of the
diagram?
It simply shows the effect of pressure on melting point.
Anywhere on this line, there is an equilibrium between solid and liquid.
You can apply Le Chatelier's Principle to this equilibrium just as if it was
a chemical equilibrium. If you increase the pressure, the equilibrium will
move in such a way as to counter the change you have just made.

If it converted from liquid to solid, the pressure would tend to decrease

again because the solid takes up slightly less space for most substances.
That means that increasing the pressure on the equilibrium mixture of
solid and liquid at its original melting point will convert the mixture back
into the solid again. In other words, it will no longer melt at this
temperature.
To make it melt at this higher pressure, you will have to increase the
temperature a bit. Raising the pressure raises the melting point of most
solids. That's why the melting point line slopes forward for most
substances.
Moving from solid to liquid by changing the pressure:
You can also play around with this by looking at what happens if you
decrease the pressure on a solid at constant temperature.

Note: You have got to be a bit careful about this, because

exactly what happens if you decrease the pressure depends
 on exactly what your starting conditions are. We'll talk some
more about this when we look at the line separating the solid
region from the vapour region.

Moving from liquid to vapour:

In the same sort of way, you can do this either by changing the
temperature or the pressure.
The liquid will change to a vapour - it boils - when it crosses the boundary
line between the two areas. If it is temperature that you are varying, you
can easily read off the boiling temperature from the phase diagram. In
the diagram above, it is the temperature where the red arrow crosses
the boundary line.
So, again, what is the significance of this line separating the two areas?
Anywhere along this line, there will be an equilibrium between the liquid
and the vapour. The line is most easily seen as the effect of pressure on
the boiling point of the liquid.
As the pressure increases, so the boiling point increases.

Note: I don't want to make any very big deal over this, but
this line is actually exactly the same as the graph for the effect
of temperature on the saturated vapour pressure of the
liquid. Saturated vapour pressure is dealt with on a separate
page. A liquid will boil when its saturated vapour pressure is
equal to the external pressure.
Suppose you measured the saturated vapour pressure of a
liquid at 50°C, and it turned out to be 75 kPa. You could plot
that as one point on a vapour pressure curve, and then go on
to measure other saturated vapour pressures at different
temperatures and plot those as well.
Now, suppose that you had the liquid exposed to a total
external pressure of 75 kPa, and gradually increased the
temperature. The liquid would boil when its saturated vapour
pressure became equal to the external pressure - in this case
at 50°C. If you have the complete vapour pressure curve, you
could equally well find the boiling point corresponding to any
other external pressure.
That means that the plot of saturated vapour pressure
against temperature is exactly the same as the curve relating
boiling point and external pressure - they are just two ways
of looking at the same thing.
 If all you are interested in doing is interpreting one of these
phase diagrams, you probably don't have to worry too much
about this.

The critical point

You will have noticed that this liquid-vapour equilibrium curve has a top
limit that I have labelled as C in the phase diagram.
This is known as the critical point. The temperature and pressure
corresponding to this are known as the critical temperature and critical
pressure.
If you increase the pressure on a gas (vapour) at a temperature lower
than the critical temperature, you will eventually cross the liquid-vapour
equilibrium line and the vapour will condense to give a liquid.

This works fine as long as the gas is below the critical temperature.
What, though, if your temperature was above the critical temperature?
There wouldn't be any line to cross!
That is because, above the critical temperature, it is impossible to
condense a gas into a liquid just by increasing the pressure. All you get
is a highly compressed gas. The particles have too much energy for the
intermolecular attractions to hold them together as a liquid.
The critical temperature obviously varies from substance to substance
and depends on the strength of the attractions between the particles.
The stronger the intermolecular attractions, the higher the critical
temperature.

Note: This is now a good point for a quick comment about

the use of the words "gas" and "vapour". To a large extent
you just use the term which feels right. You don't usually talk
about "ethanol gas", although you would say "ethanol
vapour". Equally, you wouldn't talk about oxygen as being a
vapour - you always call it a gas.
There are various guide-lines that you can use if you want to.
For example, if the substance is commonly a liquid at or
around room temperature, you tend to call what comes away
from it a vapour. A slightly wider use would be to call it a
vapour if the substance is below its critical point, and a gas if
it is above it. Certainly it would be unusual to call anything a
vapour if it was above its critical point at room temperature -
oxygen or nitrogen or hydrogen, for example. These would all
be described as gases.
This is absolutely NOT something that is at all worth getting
worked up about!

Moving from solid to vapour:

There's just one more line to look at on the phase diagram. This is the
line in the bottom left-hand corner between the solid and vapour areas.
That line represents solid-vapour equilibrium. If the conditions of
temperature and pressure fell exactly on that line, there would be solid
and vapour in equilibrium with each other - the solid would be
subliming. (Sublimation is the change directly from solid to vapour or
vice versa without going through the liquid phase.)
Once again, you can cross that line by either increasing the temperature
of the solid, or decreasing the pressure.
The diagram shows the effect of increasing the temperature of a solid
at a (probably very low) constant pressure. The pressure obviously has
to be low enough that a liquid can't form - in other words, it has to
happen below the point labelled as T.

You could read the sublimation temperature off the diagram. It will be
the temperature at which the line is crossed.

The triple point

Point T on the diagram is called the triple point.
If you think about the three lines which meet at that point, they
represent conditions of:
solid-liquid equilibrium
liquid-vapour equilibrium
solid-vapour equilibrium
Where all three lines meet, you must have a unique combination of
temperature and pressure where all three phases are in equilibrium
together. That's why it is called a triple point.
If you controlled the conditions of temperature and pressure in order to
land on this point, you would see an equilibrium which involved the solid
melting and subliming, and the liquid in contact with it boiling to
produce a vapour - and all the reverse changes happening as well.
If you held the temperature and pressure at those values, and kept the
system closed so that nothing escaped, that's how it would stay. A
strange set of affairs!

Normal melting and boiling points

The normal melting and boiling points are those when the pressure is 1
atmosphere. These can be found from the phase diagram by drawing a
line across at 1 atmosphere pressure.

The phase diagram for water

There is only one difference between this and the phase diagram that
we've looked at up to now. The solid-liquid equilibrium line (the melting
point line) slopes backwards rather than forwards.
In the case of water, the melting point gets lower at higher pressures.
Why?

If you have this equilibrium and increase the pressure on it, according
to Le Chatelier's Principle the equilibrium will move to reduce the
pressure again. That means that it will move to the side with the smaller
volume. Liquid water is produced.
To make the liquid water freeze again at this higher pressure, you will
have to reduce the temperature. Higher pressures mean lower melting
(freezing) points.
Now lets put some numbers on the diagram to show the exact positions
of the critical point and triple point for water.
Notice that the triple point for water occurs at a very low pressure.
Notice also that the critical temperature is 374°C. It would be impossible
to convert water from a gas to a liquid by compressing it above this
temperature.
The normal melting and boiling points of water are found in exactly the
same way as we have already discussed - by seeing where the 1
atmosphere pressure line crosses the solid-liquid and then the liquid-
vapour equilibrium lines.

Note: Further up the page I mentioned two ways in which

these diagrams are distorted to make them easier to follow.
I have already pointed out that the solid-liquid equilibrium
line should really be much more vertical. This last diagram
illustrates the other major distortion - which is to the scales
of both pressure and temperature. Look, for example, at the
gaps between the various quoted pressure figures and then
imagine that you had to plot those on a bit of graph paper!
The temperature scale is equally haphazard.
Just one final example of using this diagram (because it appeals to me).
Imagine lowering the pressure on liquid water along the line in the
diagram below.

The phase diagram shows that the water would first freeze to form ice
as it crossed into the solid area. When the pressure fell low enough, the
ice would then sublime to give water vapour. In other words, the change
is from liquid to solid to vapour. I find that satisfyingly bizarre!

The phase diagram for carbon dioxide

 The only thing special about this phase diagram is the position of the
triple point which is well above atmospheric pressure. It is impossible to
get any liquid carbon dioxide at pressures less than 5.11 atmospheres.
That means that at 1 atmosphere pressure, carbon dioxide will sublime
at a temperature of -78°C.
This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is often known as "dry ice".
You can't get liquid carbon dioxide under normal conditions - only the
solid or the vapour.

Substances and chemical bonds

Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. The
ions are atoms that have gained one or more electrons (known as anions, which are
negatively charged) and atoms that have lost one or more electrons (known as cations, which
are positively charged). This transfer of electrons is known as electrovalence in contrast
to covalence. In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is
a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complex nature, e.g. molecular ions like
NH4+or SO42−. In simpler words, an ionic bond is the transfer of electrons from a metal to a
non-metal in order for both atoms to obtain a full valence shell.
It is important to recognize that clean ionic bonding – in which one atom or molecule
completely share an electron from another – cannot exist: all ionic compounds have some
degree of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. Thus, the term "ionic bonding" is given when
the ionic character is greater than the covalent character—that is, a bond in which a
large electronegativity difference exists between the two atoms, causing the bonding to be
more polar (ionic) than in covalent bonding where electrons are shared more equally. Bonds
with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds.
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, typically as a solid. Ionic
compounds generally have a high melting point, depending on the charge of the ions they
consist of. The higher the charges the stronger the cohesive forces and the higher the melting
point. They also tend to be soluble in water. Here, the opposite trend roughly holds: the
weaker the cohesive forces, the greater the solubility.
Ionic bonding can result from a redox reaction when atoms of an element (usually metal),
whose ionization energy is low, give some of their electrons to achieve a stable electron
configuration. In doing so, cations are formed. The atom of another element (usually
nonmetal), whose electron affinity is positive, then accepts the electron(s), again to attain a
stable electron configuration, and after accepting electron(s) the atom becomes an anion.
Typically, the stable electron configuration is one of the noble gases for elements in the s-
block and the p-block, and particular stable electron configurations for d-block and f-
block elements. The electrostatic attraction between the anions and cations leads to the
formation of a solid with a crystallographic lattice in which the ions are stacked in an
alternating fashion. In such a lattice, it is usually not possible to distinguish discrete molecular
units, so that the compounds formed are not molecular in nature. However, the ions
themselves can be complex and form molecular ions like the acetate anion or the ammonium
cation.
For example, common table salt is sodium chloride. When sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are
combined, the sodium atoms each lose an electron, forming cations (Na+), and the chlorine
atoms each gain an electron to form anions (Cl−). These ions are then attracted to each other
in a 1:1 ratio to form sodium chloride (NaCl).
Na + Cl → Na+ + Cl− → NaCl
However, to maintain charge neutrality, strict ratios between anions and cations are
observed so that ionic compounds, in general, obey the rules of stoichiometry despite not
being molecular compounds. For compounds that are transitional to the alloys and possess
mixed ionic and metallic bonding, this may not be the case anymore. Many sulfides, e.g., do
form non-stoichiometric compounds.
Many ionic compounds are referred to as salts as they can also be formed by the
neutralization reaction of an Arrhenius base like NaOH with an Arrhenius acid like HCl
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
The salt NaCl is then said to consist of the acid rest Cl− and the base rest Na+.

Representation of ionic bonding between lithium and fluorine to form lithium fluoride.
Lithium has a low ionization energy and readily gives up its lone valence electron to a fluorine
atom, which has a positive electron affinity and accepts the electron that was donated by
the lithium atom. The end-result is that lithium is isoelectronic with helium and fluorine is
isoelectronic with neon. Electrostatic interaction occurs between the two resulting ions, but
typically aggregation is not limited to two of them. Instead, aggregation into a whole lattice
held together by ionic bonding is the result.
The removal of electrons from the cation is endothermic, raising the system's overall energy.
There may also be energy changes associated with breaking of existing bonds or the addition
of more than one electron to form anions. However, the action of the anion's accepting the
cation's valence electrons and the subsequent attraction of the ions to each other releases
(lattice) energy and, thus, lowers the overall energy of the system.
Ionic bonding will occur only if the overall energy change for the reaction is favorable. In
general, the reaction is exothermic, but, e.g., the formation of mercuric oxide (HgO) is
endothermic. The charge of the resulting ions is a major factor in the strength of ionic
bonding, e.g. a salt C+A− is held together by electrostatic forces roughly four times weaker
than C2+A2− according to Coulombs law, where C and A represent a generic cation and anion
respectively. Of course the sizes of the ions and the particular packing of the lattice are
ignored in this simple argument.
Ionic crystals
In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound composed of ions held together
by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding. The compound is neutral overall, but consists
of positively charged ions called cations and negatively charged ions called anions. These can
be simple ions such as the sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) in sodium chloride,
or polyatomic species such as the ammonium (NH+
4) and carbonate (CO2−
3) ions in ammonium carbonate. Individual ions within an ionic compound usually have
multiple nearest neighbours, so are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part
of a continuous three-dimensional network, usually in a crystalline structure.
Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H+) are classified as acids, and those containing
basic ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−) are classified as bases. Ionic compounds without
these ions are also known as salts and can be formed by acid–base reactions. Ionic
compounds can also be produced from their constituent ions by evaporation of
their solvent, precipitation, freezing, a solid-state reaction, or the electron transfer reaction
of reactive metals with reactive non-metals, such as halogen gases.
Ionic compounds typically have high melting and boiling points, and are hard and brittle. As
solids they are almost always electrically insulating, but when melted or dissolved they
become highly conductive, because the ions are mobilized.
Acidity/basicity
Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H+) are classified as acids, and those
containing electropositive cations[56] and basic anions ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−)
are classified as bases. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed
by acid–base reactions.[57] If the compound is the result of a reaction between a strong
acid and a weak base, the result is an acidic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between
a strong base and a weak acid, the result is a basic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between
a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak
bases can produce ionic compounds with both the conjugate base ion and conjugate acid
ion, such as ammonium acetate.
Some ions are classed as amphoteric, being able to react with either an acid or a
base.[58] This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or
hydroxides of less-electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent
character), such as zinc oxide, aluminium hydroxide, aluminium oxide and lead(II) oxide.
Melting and boiling points
Electrostatic forces between particles are strongest when the charges are high, and the
distance between the nuclei of the ions is small. In such cases, the compounds generally have
very high melting and boiling points and a low vapour pressure.[60] Trends in melting points
can be even better explained when the structure and ionic size ratio is taken into
account.[61] Above their melting point ionic solids melt and become molten salts (although
some ionic compounds such as aluminium chloride and iron(III) chloride show molecule-like
structures in the liquid phase).[62] Inorganic compounds with simple ions typically have
small ions, and thus have high melting points, so are solids at room temperature. Some
substances with larger ions, however, have a melting point below or near room temperature
(often defined as up to 100 °C), and are termed ionic liquids.[63]Ions in ionic liquids often
have uneven charge distributions, or bulky substituents like hydrocarbon chains, which also
play a role in determining the strength of the interactions and propensity to melt.[64]
Even when the local structure and bonding of an ionic solid is disrupted sufficiently to melt
it, there are still strong long-range electrostatic forces of attraction holding the liquid
together and preventing ions boiling to form a gas phase.[65] This means that even room
temperature ionic liquids have low vapour pressures, and require substantially higher
temperatures to boil.[65] Boiling points exhibit similar trends to melting points in terms of
the size of ions and strength of other interactions.[65] When vapourized, the ions are still
not freed of one another. For example, in the vapour phase sodium chloride exists as
diatomic "molecules".
Brittleness
Most ionic compounds are very brittle. Once they reach the limit of their strength, they
cannot deform mealleably, because the strict alignment of positive and negative ions must
be maintained. Instead the material undergoes fracture via cleavage.[67] As the
temperature is elevated (usually close to the melting point) a ductile–brittle
transition occurs, and plastic flow becomes possible by the motion of dislocations.
Compressibility
The compressibility of an ionic compound is strongly determined by its structure, and in
particular the coordination number. For example, halides with the caesium chloride
structure (coordination number 8) are less compressible than those with the sodium chloride
structure (coordination number 6), and less again than those with a coordination number of
4.
Solubility
When ionic compounds dissolve, the individual ions dissociate and are solvated by the
solvent and dispersed throughout the resulting solution.[70] Because the ions are released
into solution when dissolved, and can conduct charge, soluble ionic compounds are the most
common class of strong electrolytes, and their solutions have a high electrical
conductivity.[71]

The aqueous solubility of a variety of ionic compounds as a function of temperature. Some

compounds exhibiting unusual solubility behaviour have been included.
The solubility is highest in polar solvents (such as water) or ionic liquids, but tends to be low
in nonpolar solvents (such as petrol/gasoline).[72] This is principally because the
resulting ion–dipole interactions are significantly stronger than ion-induced dipole
interactions, so the heat of solution is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid
ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled
out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the solvation energy exceeds the lattice energy, the
negative net enthalpy change of solution provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions
from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the entropy change
of solution is usually positive for most solid solutes like ionic compounds, which means that
their solubility increases when the temperature increases.[73] There are some unusual ionic
compounds such as cerium(III) sulfate, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra
order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature.
Electrical conductivity
Although ionic compounds contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not
typically conduct electricity to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to
conduct, the charged particles must be mobile rather than stationary in a crystal lattice. This
is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases
the ionic mobility and solid state ionic conductivity is observed. When the ionic compounds
are dissolved in a liquid or are melted into a liquid, they can conduct electricity because the
ions become completely mobile.[74] This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is
sometimes used as a defining characteristic of ionic compounds.
In some unusual ionic compounds: fast ion conductors, and ionic glasses,[52] one or more of
the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material
as a whole remains solid.[76] This is often highly temperature dependant, and may be the
result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration.[76] These materials are used
in all solid-state supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells, and in various kinds of chemical
sensors.
POOR CONDUCTORS OF HEAT AND ELECTRICITY
Colour
The colour of an ionic compound is often different to the colour of an aqueous
solution containing the constituent ions,[ or the hydrated form of the same compound.
The anions in compounds with bonds with the most ionic character tend to be colourless
(with an absorption band in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum). In compounds with less
ionic character, their colour deepens through yellow, orange, red and black (as the
absorption band shifts to longer wavelengths into the visible spectrum).
The absorption band of simple cations shift toward shorter wavelength when they are
involved in more covalent interactions.This occurs during hydration of metal ions, so
colourless anhydrous ionic compounds with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become
colourful in solution.
Ionization energy
The ionization energy (IE) is qualitatively defined as the amount of energy required to
remove the most loosely bound electron, the valence electron, of an isolated gaseous atom
to form a cation. It is quantitatively expressed in symbols as
X + energy → X+ + e−
where X is any atom or molecule capable of being ionized, X+ is that atom or molecule with
an electron removed, and e− is the removed electron. This is an endothermic process.
Generally, the closer the electrons are to the nucleus of the atom, the higher the atom's
ionization energy.
The units for ionization energy are different in physics and chemistry. In physics, the unit is
the amount of energy required to remove a single electron from a single atom or molecule:
expressed as an electron volt. In chemistry, the units are the amount of energy it takes for
all of the atoms in a mole of substance to lose one electron each: molar ionization energy
or enthalpy, expressed as kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol) or kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol).[1]
Comparison of IEs of atoms in the periodic table reveals two patterns:
IEs generally increase as one moves from left to right within a given period.
IEs generally decrease as one moves down a given group.
Electron affinity
In chemistry and atomic physics, the electron affinity of an atom or molecule is defined as
the amount of energy released or spent when an electron is added to a neutral atom or
molecule in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.[1]
X + e− → X− + energy
In solid state physics, the electron affinity for a surface is defined somewhat differently (see
below).
This property is measured for atoms and molecules in the gaseous state only, since in a solid
or liquid state their energy levels would be changed by contact with other atoms or
molecules. A list of the electron affinities was used by Robert S. Mulliken to develop
an electronegativity scale for atoms, equal to the average of the electron affinity
and ionization potential. Other theoretical concepts that use electron affinity include
electronic chemical potential and chemical hardness. Another example, a molecule or atom
that has a more positive value of electron affinity than another is often called an electron
acceptor and the less positive an electron donor. Together they may undergo charge-
transfer reactions.
lthough Eea varies greatly across the periodic table, some patterns emerge.
Generally, nonmetals have more positive Eea than metals. Atoms whose anions are more
stable than neutral atoms have a greater Eea. Chlorine most strongly attracts extra
electrons; mercury most weakly attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the
noble gases have not been conclusively measured, so they may or may not have slightly
negative values.
Eea generally increases across a period (row) in the periodic table. This is caused by the filling
of the valence shell of the atom; a Group 17 atom releases more energy than a Group 1 atom
on gaining an electron because it obtains a filled valence shell and therefore is more stable.
A trend of decreasing Eea going down the groups in the periodic table might be expected.
The additional electron will be entering an orbital farther away from the nucleus. Since this
electron is farther from the nucleus it is less attracted to the nucleus and would release less
energy when added. However, a clear counterexample to this trend can be found in Group
2, and inspecting the entire periodic table, it turns out that the proposed trend only applies
to Group 1 atoms.
Thus, electron affinity follows the left-right trend of electronegativity but not the up-down
trend.
Metallic bonds
Metallic bonding arises from the electrostatic attractive force between conduction
electrons (in the form of an electron cloud of delocalized electrons) and positively
charged metal ions. It may be described as the sharing of free electrons among a lattice of
positively charged ions (cations). Metallic bonding accounts for many physical properties of
metals, such as strength, ductility, thermal and electrical resistivity and
conductivity, opacity, and luster.
Metallic bonding is not the only type of chemical bonding a metal can exhibit, even as a pure
substance. For example, elemental gallium consists of covalently-bound pairs of atoms in
both liquid and solid state—these pairs form a crystal lattice with metallic bonding between
them. Another example of a metal–metal covalent bond is mercurous ion (Hg2+
2).

Metallic crystals
Metallic Properties
In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations). These ions are
surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are responsible for conductivity. The solid
produced is held together by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron
cloud. These interactions are called metallic bonds. Metallic bonding accounts for
many physical properties of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, thermal and
electrical conductivity, opacity, and luster.

Metallic Bonding
Loosely bound and mobile electrons surround the positive nuclei of metal atoms.
 Understood as the sharing of "free"
electrons among a lattice of positively
charged ions (cations), metallic bonding is
sometimes compared to the bonding of
molten salts; however, this simplistic view
holds true for very few metals. In a
quantum-mechanical view, the conducting
electrons spread their density equally over
all atoms that function as neutral (non-
charged) entities.
Atoms in metals are arranged like closely-
packed spheres, and two packing patterns are particularly common: body-centered cubic,
wherein each metal is surrounded by eight equivalent metals, and face-centered cubic, in
which the metals are surrounded by six neighboring atoms. Several metals adopt both
structures, depending on the temperature.
Metals in general have high electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity, and high
density. They typically are deformable (malleable) under stress, without cleaving. Some
metals (the alkali and alkaline earth metals) have low density, low hardness, and low melting
points. In terms of optical properties, metals are opaque, shiny, and lustrous.
Melting Point and Strength
The strength of a metal derives from the electrostatic attraction between the lattice of
positive ions and the "sea" of valence electrons in which they are immersed. The larger the
nuclear charge (atomic number) of the atomic nucleus, and the smaller the atom's size, the
greater this attraction. In general, the transition metals with their valence-level d electrons
are stronger and have higher melting points:
Fe, 1539°C
Re, 3180 °C
Os, 2727 °C
W, 3380°C.
The majority of metals have higher densities than the majority of nonmetals. Nonetheless,
there is wide variation in the densities of metals. Lithium (Li) is the least dense solid element,
and osmium (Os) is the densest. The metals of groups IA and IIA are referred to as the light
metals because they are exceptions to this generalization. The high density of most metals is
due to the tightly packed crystal lattice of the metallic structure.
Electrical Conductivity: Why Are Metals Good Conductors?
In order for a substance to conduct electricity, it must contain charged particles (charge
carriers) that are sufficiently mobile to move in response to an applied electric field. In the
case of ionic compounds in water solutions, the ions themselves serve this function. The
same thing holds true of ionic compounds when melted. Ionic solids contain the same charge
carriers, but because they are fixed in place, these solids are insulators.
In metals, the charge carriers are the electrons, and because they move freely through the
lattice, metals are highly conductive. The very low mass and inertia of the electrons allows
them to conduct high-frequency alternating currents, something that electrolytic solutions
cannot do.
Electrical conductivity, as well as the electrons' contribution to the heat capacity and heat
conductivity of metals, can be calculated from the free electron model, which does not take
the detailed structure of the ion lattice into account.
Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties of metals include malleability and ductility, meaning the capacity for
plastic deformation. Reversible elastic deformation in metals can be described by Hooke's
Law for restoring forces, in which the stress is linearly proportional to the strain. Applied
heat, or forces larger than the elastic limit, may cause an irreversible deformation of the
object, known as plastic deformation or plasticity.
Metallic solids are known and valued for these qualities, which derive from the non-
directional nature of the attractions between the atomic nuclei and the sea of electrons. The
bonding within ionic or covalent solids may be stronger, but it is also directional, making
these solids brittle and subject to fracture when struck with a hammer, for example. A metal,
by contrast, is more likely to be simply deformed or dented.
Although metals are black due to their ability to absorb all wavelengths equally, gold (Au) has
a distinctive color. According to the theory of special relativity, increased mass of inner-shell
electrons that have very high momentum causes orbitals to contract. Because outer
electrons are less affected, blue-light absorption is increased, resulting in
enhanced reflection of yellow and red light.
Malleability
Malleability is a substance's ability to deform under pressure (compressive stress). If
malleable, a material may be flattened into thin sheets by hammering or rolling. Malleable
materials can be flattened into metal leaf.
Malleability is a physical property of matter, usually metals. The property usually applies to
the family groups 1 to 12 on the modern periodic table of elements. It is the ability of
a solid to bend or be hammered into other shapes without breaking. Examples of malleable
metals are gold, iron, aluminum, copper, silver, and lead.
Gold and silver are highly malleable. When a piece of hot iron is hammered it takes the shape
of a sheet. The property is not seen in non-metals. Non-malleable metals may break apart
when struck by a hammer. Malleable metals usually bend and twist in various shapes.
Malleability and Ductility: The sea of electrons surrounding the protons act like a cushion, and
so when the metal is hammered on, for instance, the over all composition of the structure of
the metal is not harmed or changed. The protons may be rearranged but the sea of electrons
with adjust to the new formation of protons and keep the metal intact.
Covalent bond
A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the sharing
of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding
pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they
share electrons, is known as covalent bonding. For many molecules, the sharing of electrons
allows each atom to attain the equivalent of a full outer shell, corresponding to a stable
electronic configuration.
Covalent bonding includes many kinds of interactions, including σ-bonding, π-
bonding, metal-to-metal bonding, agostic interactions, bent bonds, and three-center two-
electron bonds. The term covalent bond dates from 1939.[4] The prefix co- means jointly,
associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc.; thus a "co-valent bond", in essence,
means that the atoms share "valence", such as is discussed in valence bond theory.
In the molecule H 2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent
bonding. Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent
bonding does not necessarily require that the two atoms be of the same elements, only that
they be of comparable electronegativity. Covalent bonding that entails sharing of electrons
over more than two atoms is said to be delocalized.

Covalent bonds are also affected by the electronegativity of the connected atoms which
determines the chemical polarity of the bond. Two atoms with equal electronegativity will
make nonpolar covalent bonds such as H–H. An unequal relationship creates a polar covalent
bond such as with H−Cl. However polarity also requires geometric asymmetry, or else dipoles
may cancel out resulting in a non-polar molecule.
Coordinate covalent bond
A coordinate covalent bond, also known as a dative bond or coordinate bond is a kind of 2-
center, 2-electron covalent bond in which the two electrons derive from the same atom. The
bonding of metal ions to ligands involves this kind of interaction.
Coordinate covalent bonding is pervasive. In all metal aquo complexes [M(H2O)n]x+, the
bonding between water and the metal cation is described as a coordinate covalent bond.
Metal-ligand interactions in most organometallic compounds and most coordination
compounds are described similarly.
The term dipolar bond is used in organic chemistry for compounds such as amine oxides for
which the electronic structure can be described in terms of the basic amine donating two
electrons to an oxygen atom.
R
3N → O
The arrow → indicates that both electrons in the bond originate from the amine moiety. In
a standard covalent bond each atom contributes one electron. Therefore, an alternative
description is that the amine gives away one electron to the oxygen atom, which is then used,
with the remaining unpaired electron on the nitrogen atom, to form a standard covalent
bond. The process of transferring the electron from nitrogen to oxygen creates formal
charges, so the electronic structure may also be depicted as
R
3N+
O−

Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride
This electronic structure has an electric dipole, hence the name di-polar bond. In reality, the
atoms carry fractional charges; the more electronegative atom of the two involved in the
bond will usually carry a fractional negative charge. One exception to this is carbon
monoxide. In this case, the carbon atom carries the fractional negative charge despite its
being less electronegative than oxygen.
An example of a dative covalent bond is provided by the interaction between a molecule
of ammonia, a Lewis base with a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom, and boron
trifluoride, a Lewis acid by virtue of the boron atom having an incomplete octet of electrons.
In forming the adduct, the boron atom attains an octet configuration.
The electronic structure of a coordination complex can be described in terms of the set
of ligands each donating a pair of electrons to a metal centre. For example,
in Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride, each ammonia ligand donates its lone pair of electrons to
the cobalt(III) ion. In this case, the bonds formed are described as coordinate bonds.
In all cases the bond is a covalent bond. The prefix dipolar, dative or coordinate merely serves
to indicate the origin of the electrons used in creating the bond.
Covalent crystals
Covalent Network Solids
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of pairs of electrons between
atoms. This sharing results in a stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between
those atoms. Covalent solids are a class of extended-lattice compounds in which each atom
is covalently bonded to its nearest neighbors. This means that the entire crystal is, in effect,
one giant molecule. The extraordinarily strong binding forces that join all adjacent atoms
account for the extreme hardness of these solids. They cannot be broken or abraded without
breaking a large number of covalent chemical bonds. Similarly, a covalent solid cannot "melt"
in the usual sense, since the entire crystal is one giant molecule. When heated to very
high temperatures, these solids usually decompose into their elements.
Another property of covalent network solids is poor electrical conductivity, since there are
no delocalized electrons. When molten, unlike ionic compounds, the substance is still unable
to conduct electricity, since the macromolecule consists of uncharged atoms rather
than ions. (This is also contrary to most forms of metallic bonds. )
A Case Study: Allotropes of Carbon
Graphite is an allotrope of carbon. In this allotrope, each atom of carbon forms three
covalent bonds, leaving one electron in each outer orbital delocalized, creating multiple
"free electrons" within each plane of carbon. This grants graphite electrical conductivity. Its
melting point is high, due to the large amount of energy required to rearrange the covalent
bonds. It is also quite hard because of the strong covalent bonding throughout the lattice.
However, because of the planar bonding arrangements between the carbon atoms, the
layers in graphite can be easily displaced, so the substance is malleable. This explains the use
of graphite in pencils, where the layers of carbon are "shedded" on paper (pencil "lead" is
typically a mixture of graphite and clay, and was invented for this use in 1795). Graphite is
generally insoluble in any solvent due to the difficulty of solvating a very large molecule.

Diamond and Graphite: Two Allotropes of Carbon

These two allotropes of carbon are covalent network solids which differ in the bonding
geometry of the carbon atoms. In diamond, the bonding occurs in the tetrahedral geometry,
while in graphite the carbons bond with each other in the trigonal planar arrangement. This
difference accounts for the drastically different appearance and properties of these two
forms of carbon.

Diamond is also an allotrope of carbon. Diamond is the hardest material known, defining the
upper end of the 1-10 scale known as Moh's hardness scale. Diamond cannot be melted;
above 1700 °C it is converted to graphite, the more stable form of carbon. The diamond unit
cell is face-centered cubic and contains eight carbon atoms.
Other Examples
Boron nitride (BN) is similar to carbon because it exists as a diamond-like cubic polymorph as
well as in a hexagonal form similar to graphite.
Hexagonal boron nitride
Hexagonal boron nitride, a two-dimensional material, is similar in structure to graphite.

Cubic boron nitride is the second-hardest material after diamond, and it is used in industrial
abrasives and cutting tools.

Difference between covalent crystalls and moleculas crystalls

Crystalline solids contain atoms or molecules in a lattice display. Covalent crystals, also
known as network solids, and molecular crystals represent two types of crystalline solids.
Each solid exhibits different properties but there is only one difference in their structure.
That one difference accounts for the different properties of the crystalline solids.
COVALENT BONDING
Covalent crystals exhibit covalent bonding; the principle that each atom on the lattice is
covalently bonded to every other atom. Covalent bonding means the atoms have a strong
attraction toward one another and are held in place by that attraction. Network solids means
the atoms form a network with each atom connected to four other atoms. This bonding in
effect creates one large molecule that is tightly packed together. This characteristic defines
covalent crystals and makes them structurally different from molecular crystals.
MOLECULAR BONDING
Molecular crystals contain either atoms or molecules, depending upon the type of crystal, at
each lattice site. They do not have covalent bonding; the attraction is weak between the
atoms or molecules. No chemical bonds exist as in covalent crystals; electrostatic forces
between the atoms or molecules hold the molecular crystal together. This difference causes
molecular crystals to be loosely held together and easily pulled apart.
EXAMPLES
Examples of covalent crystals include diamonds, quartz and silicon carbide. All of these
covalent crystals contain atoms that are tightly packed and difficult to separate. Their
structure varies widely from the atoms in molecular crystals such as water and carbon
dioxide which are easily separated.
MELTING POINT
The differences in structure between covalent crystals and molecular crystals cause the
melting points of each type of crystal to differ. Covalent crystals have high melting points
while molecular crystals have low melting points.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity, symbol χ, is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom to
attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself.[1] An atom's electronegativity is
affected by both its atomic number and the distance at which its valence electrons reside
from the charged nucleus. The higher the associated electronegativity number, the more an
element or compound attracts electrons towards it.
Caesium is the least electronegative element in the periodic table (=0.79), while fluorine is
most electronegative (=3.98). (Francium and caesium were originally both assigned 0.7;
caesium's value was later refined to 0.79, but no experimental data allows a similar
refinement for francium. However, francium's ionization energy is known to be slightly
higher than caesium's, in accordance with the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital, and
this in turn implies that francium is in fact more electronegative than caesium.
In general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period, and
decreases on descending a group. Hence, fluorine is the most electronegative of the
elements (not counting noble gases), whereas caesium is the least electronegative, at least
of those elements for which substantial data is available.This would lead one to believe
that caesium fluoride is the compound whose bonding features the most ionic character.
Intermolecular forces
In physical chemistry, the van der Waals forces, named after Dutch scientist Johannes
Diderik van der Waals, are distance dependent interactions between atoms. Unlike hydrogen
or covalent bonds, these attractions are not a result of any chemical electronic bond and so
this force is more susceptible to being perturbed. Being the weakest of the weak chemical
forces, with a strength between 0.4 and 4kJ/mol they may still support an integral structural
load when multitudes of such interactions are present. Such a force results from a transient
shift in electron density. Specifically, as the electrons are in orbit of the protons and neutrons
within an atom the electron density may tend to shift more greatly on a side. Thus, this
generates a transient charge to which a nearby atom can be either attracted or repelled.
When the interatomic distance of two atoms is greater than 0.6nm the force is not strong
enough to be observed. In the same vein, when the interatomic distance is below 0.4nm the
force becomes repulsive. If no other forces are present, the point at which the force becomes
repulsive rather than attractive as two atoms near one another is called the Van der Waals
contact distance. This results from the electron clouds of two atoms unfavorably coming into
contact.[1] It can be shown that van der Waals forces are of the same origin as the Casimir
effect, arising from quantum interactions with the zero-point field.[2] The resulting van der
Waals forces can be attractive or repulsive.[3]
The term includes:
force between permanent dipoles (Keesom force)
force between a permanent dipole and a corresponding induced dipole (Debye force)
force between instantaneously induced dipoles (London dispersion force).
It is also sometimes used loosely as a synonym for the totality of intermolecular
forces.[4] Van der Waals forces are relatively weak compared to covalent bonds, but play a
fundamental role in fields as diverse as supramolecular chemistry, structural
biology, polymer science, nanotechnology, surface science, and condensed matter physics.
Van der Waals forces define many properties of organic compounds and molecular solids,
including their solubility in polar and non-polar media.
In low molecular weight alcohols, the hydrogen-bonding properties of their polar hydroxyl
group dominate other weaker van der Waals interactions. In higher molecular weight
alcohols, the properties of the nonpolar hydrocarbon chain(s) dominate and define the
solubility. Van der Waals forces quickly vanish at longer distances between interacting
molecules.
Hydrogen bond
A hydrogen bond is the electrostatic attraction between two polar groups that occurs when
a hydrogen (H) atom covalently bound to a highly electronegative atom such
as nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), or fluorine (F) experiences the electrostatic field of another
highly electronegative atom nearby. It’s the strongest of the intermolecular forces.
Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules (intermolecular) or within different parts of
a single molecule (intramolecular).[4] Depending on geometry and environment, the
hydrogen bond free energy content is between 1 and 5 kcal/mol. This makes it stronger than
a van der Waals interaction, but weaker than covalent or ionic bonds. This type of bond can
occur in inorganic molecules such as water and in organic molecules like DNA and proteins.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 °C)
compared to the other group 16 hydrides that have much weaker hydrogen
bonds.[5] Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is partly responsible for
the secondary and tertiary structures of proteins and nucleic acids. It also plays an important
role in the structure of polymers, both synthetic and natural.
In 2011, an IUPAC Task Group recommended a modern evidence-based definition of
hydrogen bonding, which was published in the IUPAC journal Pure and Applied Chemistry.
This definition specifies:
The hydrogen bond is an attractive interaction between a hydrogen atom from a molecule
or a molecular fragment X–H in which X is more electronegative than H, and an atom or a
group of atoms in the same or a different molecule, in which there is evidence of bond
formation.
The most ubiquitous and perhaps simplest example of a hydrogen bond is found
between water molecules. In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them; the
simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often
used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case with liquid water,
more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of
electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water
molecule. This can repeat such that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other
molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two
hydrogen atoms). Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to
create an open hexagonal lattice. The density of ice is less than the density of water at the
same temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other
substances.
Liquid water's high boiling point is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule
can form, relative to its low molecular mass. Owing to the difficulty of breaking these bonds,
water has a very high boiling point, melting point, and viscosity compared to otherwise
similar liquids not conjoined by hydrogen bonds.
Chemical bonds and properties of substances
Comparison of Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
Because of the nature of ionic and covalent bonds, the materials produced by those bonds
tend to have quite different macroscopic properties. The atoms of covalent materials are
bound tightly to each other in stable molecules, but those molecules are generally not very
strongly attracted to other molecules in the material. On the other hand, the atoms (ions) in
ionic materials show strong attractions to other ions in their vicinity. This generally leads to
low melting points for covalent solids, and high melting points for ionic solids. For example,
the molecule carbon tetrachloride is a non-polar covalent molecule, CCl4. It's melting point
is -23°C. By contrast, the ionic solid NaCl has a melting point of 800°C.

Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

Crystalline solids (made of ions) Gases, liquids, or solids (made of molecules)

High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points
Conduct electricity when melted Poor electrical conductors in all phases
Many soluble in water but not in nonpolar Many soluble in nonpolar liquids but not in
liquid water

You can anticipate some things about bonds from the positions of the constituents in
the periodic table. Elements from opposite ends of the periodic table will generally form ionic
bonds. They will have large differences in electronegativity and will usually form positive and
negative ions. The elements with the largest electronegativities are in the upper right of the
periodic table, and the elements with the smallest electronegativities are on the bottom left.
If these extremes are combined, such as in RbF, the dissociation energy is large. As can be
seen from the illustration below, hydrogen is the exception to that rule, forming covalent
bonds.
Elements which are close together in electronegativity tend to form covalent bonds and can
exist as stable free molecules. Carbon dioxide is a common example.

General Properties of Covalent Compounds that Exhibit Hydrogen Bonding

• Lower Melting Points than ionic compounds, but higher than nonpolar or polar covalent
compounds – Intermolecular Forces aren’t as strong as interionic forces, but Hydrogen
bonding is stronger than other intermolecular forces • Cannot conduct electricity as solid,
liquid, or when dissolved – Still no ions • Will dissolve in liquids with similar molecular
polarity.
TIP
Classifying compounds as ionic or covalent
Compounds containing two elements (so called binary compounds) can either have ionic or
covalent bonding. If a compound is made from a metal and a non-metal, its bonding will be
ionic. If a compound is made from two non-metals, its bonding will be covalent.
Amount of substance
Atomic mass
Relative atomic mass (symbol: Ar) is a dimensionless (number only) physical quantity. In its
modern definition, it is the ratio of the average mass of atoms of an element in a given
sample to one unified atomic mass unit. The unified atomic mass unit, symbol u, is defined
being  1⁄12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.[2][3] The mass of atoms can vary (between
atoms of the same element), due to the presence of various isotopes of that element. Since
both values in the ratio are expressed in the same unit (u), the resulting value is
dimensionless; hence the value is relative.

Molecular weight
Molecular mass or molecular weight is the mass of a molecule. It is calculated as the sum of
the atomic weights of each constituent element multiplied by the number of atoms of that
element in the molecular formula.
Both atomic and molecular masses are usually obtained relative to the mass of
the isotope 12C (carbon 12), which by definition[1] is equal to 12. For example, the
molecular weight of methane, whose molecular formula is CH4, is calculated as follows:

Atomic mass Total mass

C 12.011 12.011

H 1.00794 4.03176

CH4 16.043

Formula weight: The mass in grams of a mole of a compound. Equals to the sum of the
masses of the atoms in the compound.
Molarity

There are two types of percent concentration: percent by mass and percent by volume.
PERCENT BY MASS
Percent by mass (m/m) is the mass of solute divided by the total mass of the solution,
multiplied by 100 %.
Percent by mass = mass of solutetotal mass of solution × 100 %
Example
What is the percent by mass of a solution that contains 26.5 g of glucose in 500 g of solution?
Solution
Percent by mass =
mass of glucosetotal mass of solution×100%=26.5g500g × 100 % = 5.30 %
PERCENT BY VOLUME
Percent by volume (v/v) is the volume of solute divided by the total volume of the solution,
multiplied by 100 %.
Percent by volume = volume of solutetotal volume of solution × 100 %
Example
How would you prepare 250 mL of 70 % (v/v) of rubbing alcohol
Solution
70 % = volume of rubbing alcoholtotal volume of solution×100% × 100 %
So
Volume of rubbing alcohol = volume of solution × 70 %100 % = 250 mL × 70100
= 175 mL
You would add enough water to 175 mL of rubbing alcohol to make a total of 250 mL of
solution.
Chemical formulas
molecular formula: a chemical formula that gives the total number of atoms of each element
in each molecule of a substance

Ions

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bPoxAdcYIHU

Formulas for Ionic Compounds

The atoms in molecules bond to one another through "sharing"of electrons. Ionic
compounds on the other had have atoms or molecules that bond to one another through
their mutual attraction between positive and negative charges:

Positively charged atoms or molecules are called "cations" and negatively charged atoms or
molecules are called "anions". Thus cations and anions attract one another. Conversely,
cations repel one another as do anions.
Electrostatic attraction is indiscriminate. That is a cation can attract more than one anion and
visa versa. The result is that cation-anions attractions form a large array that we call an ionic
compound or "salt". The bonds holding these ions together are called "ionic" bonds.
However, this array has a very specific composition completely dictated by the charges on
the cations and anions.
Composition of ionic compounds
The composition of ionic compounds is determined by the requirement that the compounds
must be electrically neutral. That is that the charges of the cations and anions must balance
or 'cancel" out one another. For example consider sodium cations (Na+) and Chlorine anions
(Cl-). Sodium has a positive 1 charge and chloride has a negative 1 charge. Thus one sodium
cation cancels one chloride anion resulting in the formula Na1Cl1 or NaCl. This formula is
called the "formula unit" since it represents only one unit of the vast NaCl array or lattice.
Below are other examples of simple ionic compounds made up of single atom (monatomic)
ions:
Polyatomic ions and compounds
The ionic compounds above were made up of monatomic ions. Molecules can also be ions -
polyatomic ions. Most polyatomic ions are anions with one notable exception - the
ammoniun cation (NH4+). The composition of salts with polyatomic ions is determined by
the same rule as with monatomic ions. A few example are given below:

Note that when there is two or more polyatomic ions in the formula the ion is enclosed with
parenthesis "()".
Lewis structures
Writing Lewis Structures by Trial and Error
The Lewis structure of a compound can be generated by trial and error. We start by writing
symbols that contain the correct number of valence electrons for the atoms in the molecule.
We then combine electrons to form covalent bonds until we come up with a Lewis structure
in which all of the elements (with the exception of the hydrogen atoms) have an octet of
valence electrons.
Example: Let's apply the trial and error approach to generating the Lewis structure of carbon
dioxide, CO2. We start by determining the number of valence electrons on each atom from
the electron configurations of the elements. Carbon has four valence electrons, and oxygen
has six.
C: [He] 2s2 2p2
O: [He] 2s2 2p4
We can symbolize this information as shown at the top of the figure below. We now combine
one electron from each atom to form covalent bonds between the atoms. When this is done,
each oxygen atom has a total of seven valence electrons and the carbon atom has a total of
six valence electrons. Because none of these atoms have an octet of valence electrons, we
combine another electron on each atom to form two more bonds. The result is a Lewis
structure in which each atom has an octet of valence electrons.

A Step-By-Step Approach To Writing Lewis Structures

The trial-and-error method for writing Lewis structures can be time consuming. For all but
the simplest molecules, the following step-by-step process is faster.
Step 1: Determine the total number of valence electrons.
Step 2: Write the skeleton structure of the molecule.
Step 3: Use two valence electrons to form each bond in the skeleton structure.
Step 4: Try to satisfy the octets of the atoms by distributing the remaining valence electrons
as nonbonding electrons.
The first step in this process involves calculating the number of valence electrons in the
molecule or ion. For a neutral molecule this is nothing more than the sum of the valence
electrons on each atom. If the molecule carries an electric charge, we add one electron for
each negative charge or subtract an electron for each positive charge.
Example: Let's determine the number of valence electrons in the chlorate (ClO3-) ion.
A chlorine atom (Group VIIA) has seven valence electrons and each oxygen atom (Group VIA)
has six valence electrons. Because the chlorate ion has a charge of -1, this ion contains one
more electron than a neutral ClO3 molecule. Thus, the ClO3- ion has a total of 26 valence
electrons.
ClO3-: 7 + 3(6) + 1 = 26
The second step in this process involves deciding which atoms in the molecule are connected
by covalent bonds. The formula of the compound often provides a hint as to the skeleton
structure. The formula for the chlorate ion, for example, suggests the following skeleton
structure.

The third step assumes that the skeleton structure of the molecule is held together by
covalent bonds. The valence electrons are therefore divided into two categories: bonding
electrons and nonbonding electrons. Because it takes two electrons to form a covalent bond,
we can calculate the number of nonbonding electrons in the molecule by subtracting two
electrons from the total number of valence electrons for each bond in the skeleton structure.
There are three covalent bonds in the most reasonable skeleton structure for the chlorate
ion. As a result, six of the 26 valence electrons must be used as bonding electrons. This leaves
20 nonbonding electrons in the valence shell.

26 valence electrons

- 6 bonding electrons

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20 nonbonding electrons

The nonbonding valence electrons are now used to satisfy the octets of the atoms in the
molecule. Each oxygen atom in the ClO3- ion already has two electrons the electrons in
the Cl-O covalent bond. Because each oxygen atom needs six nonbonding electrons to satisfy
its octet, it takes 18 nonbonding electrons to satisfy the three oxygen atoms. This leaves one
pair of nonbonding electrons, which can be used to fill the octet of the central atom.

Drawing Skeleton Structures

The most difficult part of the four-step process in the previous section is writing the skeleton
structure of the molecule. As a general rule, the less electronegative element is at the center
of the molecule.
Example: The formulas of thionyl chloride (SOCl2) and sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2) can be
translated into the following skeleton structures.

It is also useful to recognize that the formulas for complex molecules are often written in a
way that hints at the skeleton structure of the molecule.
Example: Dimethyl ether is often written as CH3OCH3, which translates into the following
skeleton structure.

Finally, it is useful to recognize that many compounds that are acids contain O-H bonds.
Example: The formula of acetic acid is often written as CH3CO2H, because this molecule
contains the following skeleton structure.

Molecules that Contain Too Many or Not Enough Electrons

Too Few Electrons
Occasionally we encounter a molecule that doesn't seem to have enough valence electrons.
If we can't get a satisfactory Lewis structure by sharing a single pair of electrons, it may be
possible to achieve this goal by sharing two or even three pairs of electrons.
Example: Consider formaldehyde (H2CO) which contains 12 valence electrons.
H2CO: 2(1) + 4 + 6 = 12
The formula of this molecule suggests the following skeleton structure.

There are three covalent bonds in this skeleton structure, which means that six valence
electrons must be used as bonding electrons. This leaves six nonbonding electrons. It is
impossible, however, to satisfy the octets of the atoms in this molecule with only six
nonbonding electrons. When the nonbonding electrons are used to satisfy the octet of the
oxygen atom, the carbon atom has a total of only six valence electrons.
We therefore assume that the carbon and oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons. There
are now four bonds in the skeleton structure, which leaves only four nonbonding electrons.
This is enough, however, to satisfy the octets of the carbon and oxygen atoms.

Every once in a while, we encounter a molecule for which it is impossible to write a

satisfactory Lewis structure.
Example: Consider boron trifluoride (BF3) which contains 24 valence electrons.
BF3: 3 + 3(7) = 24
There are three covalent bonds in the most reasonable skeleton structure for the molecule.
Because it takes six electrons to form the skeleton structure, there are 18 nonbonding
valence electrons. Each fluorine atom needs six nonbonding electrons to satisfy its octet.
Thus, all of the nonbonding electrons are consumed by the three fluorine atoms. As a result,
we run out of electrons while the boron atom has only six valence electrons.

The elements that form strong double or triple bonds are C, N, O, P, and S. Because neither
boron nor fluorine falls in this category, we have to stop with what appears to be an
unsatisfactory Lewis structure.
Too Many Electrons
It is also possible to encounter a molecule that seems to have too many valence electrons.
When that happens, we expand the valence shell of the central atom.
Example: Consider the Lewis structure for sulfur tetrafluoride (SF4) which contains 34
valence electrons.
SF4: 6 + 4(7) = 34
There are four covalent bonds in the skeleton structure for SF4. Because this requires using
eight valence electrons to form the covalent bonds that hold the molecule together, there
are 26 nonbonding valence electrons.
Each fluorine atom needs six nonbonding electrons to satisfy its octet. Because there are
four of these atoms, so we need 24 nonbonding electrons for this purpose. But there are 26
nonbonding electrons in this molecule. We have already satisfied the octets for all five atoms,
and we still have one more pair of valence electrons. We therefore expand the valence shell
of the sulfur atom to hold more than eight electrons.

This raises an interesting question: How does the sulfur atom in SF4 hold 10 electrons in its
valence shell? The electron configuration for a neutral sulfur atom seems to suggest that it
takes eight electrons to fill the 3s and 3p orbitals in the valence shell of this atom. But let's
look, once again, at the selection rules for atomic orbitals. According to these rules, the n =
3 shell of orbitals contains 3s, 3p, and 3dorbitals. Because the 3d orbitals on a neutral sulfur
atom are all empty, one of these orbitals can be used to hold the extra pair of electrons on
the sulfur atom in SF4.
S: [Ne] 3s2 3p4 3d0
Resonance Hybrids
Two Lewis structures can be written for sulfur dioxide.

The only difference between these Lewis structures is the identity of the oxygen atom to
which the double bond is formed. As a result, they must be equally satisfactory
representations of the molecule.
Interestingly enough, neither of these structures is correct. The two Lewis structures suggest
that one of the sulfur-oxygen bonds is stronger than the other. There is no difference
between the length of the two bonds in SO2, however, which suggests that the two sulfur-
oxygen bonds are equally strong.
When we can write more than one satisfactory Lewis structure, the molecule is an average,
or resonance hybrid, of these structures. The meaning of the term resonance can be best
understood by an analogy. In music, the notes in a chord are often said to resonate they
mix to give something that is more than the sum of its parts. In a similar sense, the two Lewis
structures for the SO2 molecule are in resonance. They mix to give a hybrid that is more than
the sum of its components. The fact that SO2 is a resonance hybrid of two Lewis structures
is indicated by writing a double-headed arrow between these Lewis structures, as shown in
the figure above.
Molecular Formula: The actual formula for a molecule.
Problem:
A compound is 75.46% carbon, 4.43% hydrogen, and 20.10% oxygen by mass. It has a
molecular weight of 318.31 g/mol. What is the molecular formula for this compound?
Strategy:
Find the empirical formula.
Get the mass of each element by assuming a certain overall mass for the sample (100 g is a
good mass to assume when working with percentages).
(.7546) (100 g) = 75.46 g C
(.0443) (100 g) = 4.43 g H
(.2010) (100 g) = 20.10 g O
Convert the mass of each element to moles.
(75.46 g C) (1 mol/ 12.00 g C) = 6.289 mol C
(4.43 g H) (1 mol/ 1.008 g H) = 4.39 mol H
(20.10 g O) (1 mol/ 16.00 g O) = 1.256 mol O
Find the ratio of the moles of each element.
(1.256 mol O)/ (1.256) = 1 mol O
(6.289 mol C)/ (1.256) = 5.007 mol C
(4.39 mol H)/ (1.256) = 3.50 mol H
Use the mole ratio to write the empirical fomula.
Multiplying the mole ratios by two to get whole number, the empirical formula becomes:
C10H7O2
Find the mass of the empirical unit.
10(12.00) + 7(1.008) + 2(16.00) = 159.06 g/mol
Figure out how many empirical units are in a molecular unit.
(318.31 g/mol) / (159.06 g/mol) = 2.001 empirical units per molecular unit
Write the molecular formula.

Since there are two empirical units in a molecular unit, the molecular formula is:
C20H14O4