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Tall Buildings - Past, Present and Future Developments: University of Beira Interior, Covilha, Portugal
Tall Buildings - Past, Present and Future Developments: University of Beira Interior, Covilha, Portugal
R. KOWALCZYK
University of Beira Interior, Covilha, Portugal
1. Introduction
Tall building, as an element of urban environment is rapidly gaining the importance.
It is more and more the dominant element of the city skyline and often becomes even
the symbol of the city. Also the impact of the tall building on the city is enormous. It
influences the environment of the whole neighbourhood in many aspects from problems
connected with transport till such small aspects as shadows. Therefore planning and
design of tall building in city environment is an interdisciplinary problem, which has to
be dealt with be a teams of specialists from various specializations.
–7–
Chairman
Ron Klemencic, Skilling Ward Magnusson Barkshire, Seatle, USA.
Vice Chairmen:
• Africa: Syd Parsons
• Australia: Henry J. Cowan Ph.D
• Europa: Ryszard Kowalczyk, Ph.D
• Middle East: Sabah Al Rayes Ph.D
• North America: Joseph P. Colaco, Ph.D
• Northern Asia: Prof. Fu-Dong Dai
• South America: Edison Musa
• Southern Asia: Kenneth Yeang, Ph.D
• Vice Chairman at Large: M. Ridzuan Salleh Ph.D
2.2. Need:
• the growing world population, generally urban, creating increase
• demand for tall buildings in areas experiencing urban growth
• the consequent requirement for economy in construction
• the frequent neglected of human factors in urban design at the
• expense of livability and the quality of life
• the need to revitalize urban areas experiencing decline through
• poverty or crime
• the new research required in the field and the necessity of
• establishing priorities
2.3. Activities:
• Publications
• Conferences and Congresses
• Database and Information Resources
• Identification and Implementation of needed research
–8–
building is considered tall. If in a town where there are only buildings let say two three
floors high suddenly a building is built with twelve stories and it looks tall therefore it
is considered as a tall. The definition is therefore relative, and depends from the aspects
taken into consideration. Talking about Civil Engineering aspects the building can be
considered as tall when the structural systems depend on tallness, that commonly means
that horizontal forces decide on structural system of the building.
• Tallness makes that many problems, which can be disregarded in “common
buildings” in tall buildings appear as very important ones which must be solved to
achieve a proper solution.
• Thornton [ “How Tall” Engineering News Record 1983]:
“I think everybody has the question do we really want 200-story buildings? I’m not sure
we do. I’m sure that engineers and architects could produce one and the construction
industry in the US could produce it with no problem. But the interesting thing about
working on 200-story building or long span structures is that you learn a lot about
exaggerated magnitudes of behavior. When you are working on 20, 30 or 40-story
building, there have been 100 of these built before. When you start talking about 200,
400, 500 - story buildings, everything gets exaggerated - differential column shortening,
drift, acceleration, dynamic behavior and as we study them in a tall building, we
wonder, why we didn’t think about them on a shorter building”.
• Present tall building is a result of close co-operation of a team of specialists of
various areas and only, if this co-operation is close from the very beginning a
successful solution is possible.
• Structural system and vertical transportation were usually the main factors limiting
the height of a building
• Taking into account present developments in technology, these two factors
constitute no real limitation to the height nowadays.
–9–
Although tall buildings are generally considered to be a product of the modern
industrialized world, inherent human desire to build skyward is nearly as old as human
civilization. It is recorded in the Bible in the story of the Tower of Babel “and they said:
go to, let us built a city and a tower whose top may reach onto heaven”. The builders
thought, that they could reach heaven with their construction and their audacity was
punished by God. This tale expresses clearly one of human aspirations: to reach heaven
by the extreme height of the structures, to reach sky and go far above our earthly realm
to a place that is higher, purer, with not obstructed view around.
The Egyptians started to built pyramids some 5000 years ago, and ziggurats in
Mesopotamia are almost as old. Also Mayan pyramids, Egyptians obelisks, Chinese
pagodas and Moslem minarets thought are not as tall but they create an vertical element
so much taller than anything around, a vertical marker against the horizon. Steeples of
churches in the Christian tradition, campaniles have played a similar role. This is
another attribute of very tall structures that they are place markers. Very tall structures
do not only mark a place, but they often become the symbol of a place as for instance
Eiffel Tower in Paris.
In the 20th century office buildings have become the dominant, tall objects in our
cities, representing often private wealthy corporations or individuals. Perhaps it is
difficult to accept the fact that those buildings have replaced traditional sacred or civic
structures as the symbols for new cities. The earliest skyscrapers were received by
public with great enthusiasm. Now in several places they have become too many, often
some of them being insensitive to their cities and environment or less than beautiful and
they provoked a well justified negative reaction. But in many places they continue to be
built with great enthusiasm, most notably in eastern Asia. They continue to be a great
architectural and structural undertaking which appears simple at the surface, but is
surprisingly difficult to be solved well.
The Council book “Architectural Design of Tall Buildings” [1] says following: “Tall
building should respond to the two primary criteria: first to the smaller circle of its
affected users and second to the larger urban environment. In regard to the first
criterion, the building itself must be ganged relative to its purpose, how its lives up to
its expectations. The second criterion must be evaluated in its functions an element in
the immediate urban setting. The degree to which tall buildings add or detract from the
quality of their surroundings is dramatic, affecting not only the immediate users but,
because of their size and scale the context of the entire city now and in the future”.
Ceasar Pelli the famous architect and designer of several tall buildings in his paper
“Cosmic Pillars” [2] makes following important comment: “A new skyscraper is a
member of an important class of buildings with well defined characteristics. It belongs
also to the place where it is built. It needs to respond in a creative and responsible
manner to the climate, surrounding buildings, architectural tradition and to the
character, history and ideas of the city and its people. Only than it will be noble and
worthy of respect and affection”. These are general principles which have to be taken
into consideration whenever a tall building is planned for the city. Unfortunately not
always was so.
–10–
Stating that the tall building is a significant element of the urban environment lets us
look at the different parts of the world and evaluate the tendencies for tall buildings.
In Europe there is some growing tendency to construct tall buildings in cities, but
with some limitation of the height, without any race for the records. Most of the tall
buildings are designed for large companies or banks. The reasons for building tall is to
accommodate in one building the offices of the company, to have some office space for
renting, which in some cities is still a good business, and utilize in most effective way
the urban space which is very expensive.
In the USA the tall building in great towns is just a common thing. The main reason
for going tall is high price of the lot in the city. In some cases there is still a desire for
regaining the world record in tallness.
Asia presently seems to be the spot, where tall building are considered as one of the
solutions to the rapidly growing population. Most of the very high buildings presently
designed aiming at the world records in height are situated in Asia.
Australia: No shortage of space in the country. However in cities many tall
buildings emphasising importance and prestige of large banks, enterprises, hotels.
Mixture of tall and small buildings in big towns
Central and South America: Tall buildings in cities of big towns. Prestigious
companies, banks, hotels, offices are often located in cities in tall buildings
Africa: Tall Buildings in some capital cities. Relatively many t.b. in cities of South
Africa such as Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban. Egypt, Cairo also several t.b. All of
moderate height.
Middle East: Many new T.B. particularly in Emirates. Interesting architectural
expression. Many of them very expensive. A survey of various Cities and their skyline
and tall buildings (many slides)
–11–
this presentation.
• The source of presented figures is either CTBUH slide collection or Internet:
www.skyscrapers.com.
–12–
even to stabilise the tallest building structures.
• Introduction of high strength concrete expanded even more the possibilities of
resisting horizontal loads by shear wall systems.
• Usually, a shear wall system for tall building groups shear walls around service
cores, elevator shafts and stairwells and forms a stiff box-type structure. (internal
core)
• Multiple shear walls throughout a tall building may be coupled to increase overall
building stiffness
• Shear walls in form of closed boxes provide also efficient solution against torsion.
–13–
Fig.2. Structural Systems
–14–
Fig.3. Layout of the building in frame structure and tube structure
–15–
The more the distribution is similar to that of a fully rigid box cantilevered at the
base, the more efficient the system will be. For the case of a solid wall tube, the
distribution of axial forces would be expected to be uniform over the windward and
leeward walls and linear over the sidewalls.
As the tubular walls are punched creating beam-column frame, shear frame
deformations are introduced due to shear and flexure in the tubular members as well as
rotations of the member joints. This reduces the effective stiffness of the system as a
cantilever. The extend to which the actual axial load distribution in the tube columns
departs from the ideal is termed the “shear lag effect”.
In behavioral terms, the forces in the columns toward the middle of the flange
frames lag behind those nearer the corner and are thus less than fully utilised. Limiting
the shear lag effect is essential for optimal development of the tubular system. A
reasonable objective is to strive toward at least 75% efficiency such that the cantilever
component in the overall system deflection under wind load dominates.
The idea of tube structures so efficiently applied in steel for John Hancock Building
was also applied by Khan for his concrete buildings for instance One Shell Plaza
building in Huston and others, in which framed tube structure was placed on the
perimeter of the building.
The framed tube system consists of the arrangement of closely spaced exterior
columns and deep spandrel beams rigidly connected together, with entire assemblage,
continuous along each façade and around building corners.
The system is a logical extension of the moment resisting frame, whereby the beam
and column stiffness are increased dramatically by reducing the clear span dimensions
and increasing the member depth. The monolithic nature of reinforced concrete is
ideally suited for such a system, involving fully continuous interconnections of the
frame members.
This solution was also applied in steel, when for framed tube welded beam-column
connections were utilised to develop rigidity and continuity of joints. (Examples:
concrete - One Shell Plaza 218m high, steel - World Trade Centre 417 m high)
–16–
Other structural solution: spatial arrangement of tubes - bundled tube system is
also credited to Fazlur Khan. This concept was born from the requirement of vertical
planning modulation and shear lag for very tall buildings. It allows to arrange wider
column spacing in the tubular walls, than would be possible with only the exterior
frame tube form, and this is advantage for interior space planning.
In general any closed form shape can be used to create the bundled form. SEARS
TOWER (Fig. 7) is an example of bundled tube structure.
The Trussed Tube concept was first applied by F. Khan for steel in John Hancock
building in Chicago already in 1965 year (starting of erection of the building).
The trussed tube concept can also be applied to reinforced concrete construction by
arranging diagonals in the facades of the building.
A diagonal pattern of windows perforation in an otherwise framed tube is filled in
between adjacent columns and girders (Onterie Center, Chicago, 171m high).
–17–
The principle of façade diagonalization can also be used for partial tubular concepts
for instance using diagonalized frames only in the corners of the building.
6.6.Hybrid Systems
Tall building have been traditionally designed to make use of a single type of lateral
load resisting system - initially simple moment resisting frames and than shear wall
systems and framed tubes.
Until the advent of economical, easy to use, high capacity computer hardware and
software, structural systems had to be amenable to hand calculations or computer
analysis using limited capacity machines. Nowadays computer capacity is not a issue,
and decisions on structural systems are made on the basis of their effects on the
appearance and functioning of the building and its constructability. This is not to
suggest that anything is acceptable - the engineer must still be aware of the pitfalls of
creating abrupt discontinuities in building stiffness, the long-term effects of differential
axial shortening and other side effects of using mixed systems and multiple materials.
Example: Overseas Union Bank Center in Singapore: braced steel frame was used
because it lightness, long spanning abilities, small member sizes, absence of creep
shortening, and, combined with concrete shear walls, for its very cost-efficient
contribution to lateral stiffness.
Another type of a hybrid system gaining popularity is the concrete-filled steel tube
column, where the erectability of a steel frame is maintained, but the cost-effective axial
load capacity of high strength concrete is used. Of course fire protection must be
considered. If the steel tube is considered as sacrificial in a fire, than internal
reinforcement must be sufficient. If concrete can be pumped into the column from the
base of each pour, than a number of stories can be concreted at one time and vibration
of the concrete is not necessary (Two Union Square, Seattle).
The trends of modern architecture sometimes force the structural engineer away
from convention in a search for a structure that will accommodate aesthetic and
functional demands while meeting structural requirements. The result may be a
structure, which on one face of the building is of a different type than the other faces.
First Bank Place, Minneapolis, is a structure with a number of quite different
elements forming its lateral load resisting frame. A braced steel core is connected via
outrigger beams to large high strength concrete perimeter columns, incorporating cast-
in steelwork to aid erection and connection. Although this system provides in-plane
stiffness, its lack of torsional stiffness required that additional measures be taken, which
resulted in one bay of vertical exterior bracing and a number of levels of perimeter
Vierendel “bandages”. Perhaps this solution can be a good example of structural art.
With the advent of high-strength concrete (above 50MPa) has come the era of the
“supercolumn” where the stiffness and damping capabilities of large concrete elements
are combined with the lightness and constructability of steel frames. High strength
concrete when includes silica fume and a high-range water reducer, exhibits
significantly lower creep and shrinkage and is therefore more readily accommodated in
a hybrid frame.
The Interfirst Plaza in Dallas uses supercolumns in conjunction with an almost
conventional steel frame.
Columbia Seafirst Centre in Seattle incorporates very large super columns
–18–
connected by steel diagonal members to a braced steel core Examples: in the book
“Structural Systems for Tall Building’s
The examples suggest that hybrid structures are likely to be the rule rather than the
exception for future tall buildings, whether to create acceptable dynamic characteristics
or accommodate the complex shapes demanded by modern architecture. Hybrid
structures are not something to be tackled by the novice engineer armed with a powerful
microcomputer and a structural analysis software package. A sound knowledge and
understanding of material behavior (such as ductility, damping, creep and shrinkage)
which is not included in analysis and design packages and mostly not codified is
essential and constructability must be a parallel consideration.
However, without hybrid structural systems many of our modern tall buildings may
never have been built in their present form.
–19–
• More attention is to be given in design to the interaction of building structural
systems and non structural components – like partitions and claddings. The
lateral load-resisting structural system of a tall building and the non structural
components of the building interact with each other in two basic ways, that are of
practical significance. Firstly deformations of the structural system due to lateral
loads can introduce distortion and possibly damage in the non-structural elements.
And secondly, the stiffness and energy absorption capacity of the non-structural
elements can affect the response of the structure to loading.
Besides the above mentioned aspects, from the analysis of the recent projects, both
already erected and others not built yet, some general trends can be derived for the
nearest future, which can affect the selection of structural systems:
• broad use of composite structures
• broad application of high-strength (HSC/HPC) concrete particularly for super-
• columns. (Examples: Increased height of concrete buildings recently erected 1960:
Lake Point Towers - 164m, 1976- Water Tower Plaza- 262), 1990: 311 South
Wacker Drive - 292m, 1992: Central Plaza H.K. – 374m, 1998: Petronas Towers -
472m
• application of outrigger systems to assure better interaction of internal core and
perimeter structure, broad application of tube systems
• use of active and passive damping systems
• use of better analytical tools and testing facilities (i.e. wind tunnels)
• use of mixed systems and mega-structures
After September 11, 2001 terrorist attack some new recommendations were
elaborated in order to increase the safety in tall buildings and possibilities of
evacuation.
The race for building the “world tallest” does not stop and moved rather to Far East.
Seven of the world’s tallest buildings were completed in the late ‘90s; eight of the top
10 are in Asia. Kuala Lumpur has passed the crown to Taipei in the end of 2004, and
Taipei, is likely to Shanghai or other city later this decade. Hong Kong, Seoul and
Tokyo are also in the race as well as Dubai.
–20–
corporations work overtime to show they are high-tech powerhouses.“ Height as a
manifestation of technology, is tied up with cultural aspirations” says Eric Howler, an
architect with KPF, which is designing Union Square, a 108-story building that will,
Howler says, be the world’s tallest when completed in 2007.”
In China KPF-designed Shanghai World Financial Center has restarted with
redesign that will top Taipei 101. Kohn says “but I guarantee it will be the tallest”.
SOM has started with the Burj project for Dubai which is planned to be 705m high.
There are also plans for a building in Seoul of the range above 530m.
This competition may raise the question: haw tall can buildings go? Craig Gibbons
[Popular Science, March 2003] director of the Hong Kong office of Arup, a global
structural engineering firm “we could build a kilometre-tall building right now, no
question about it. Two hundred, even 300 stories tall, is possible because we can take
advantage of lighter, high strength materials”.
The problem which Gibbson sees is “we’d need an advance in lift technology and in
cranes” .
Ron Klemencic says: “The limitations are more financial and practical, how to move
people up and down those great heights. Above 80 stories, the area you need to devote
to vertical lift, like elevators, versus rentable space, just is not viable.”
This however again is not a problem: Advances in material and elevators make tall
buildings more efficient. In Shanghai Jin Mao building are used high speed elevators
(9m/sec). There are double deck elevators, and recently Twin elevators were introduced
by Thyssen Krupp allowing operation of two cars in one shaft. This considerably
reduces the demand for elevator space in the building.
Efficient dumping devices became a common solution reducing dramatically
movement of buildings caused by typhoons and earthquakes. “Taipei 101 will feature
the world’s largest passive tuned mass damper, an 660-ton sphere around 5,5m in
diameter which will swing like a pendulum from 92nd floor in the view of restaurant-
goers”.
New Code regulations were introduced in some Asian countries even before
September 11:
• Composite structures are commonly used for tall buildings - this solution gives more
fire resistance
• Every 25 floors Hong Kong building must have a refugee floor-- empty and
designed to resist smoke accumulation. Many stairwells are pressurized.
• Atrium size is restricted
• Water tanks on the roofs of tall buildings are sometimes engineered to let the water
slosh about, doing double duty as wind dampers
• Dedicated firemen’s lifts are required in many Asian countries “In Hong Kong they
are required to reach any floor in the building in an extremely short period of time,
so they are profiled like a bullet to avoid drag, and travel as fast as 9m/s.
“The idea of super-tall towers, vastly higher than anything now built, has long
fascinated architects and urban planners. In 1956 Frank Lloyd Wright…. designed the
Illinois Tower, a mile high, 528 stories in all….. It was technically feasible, he said ,
but for the elevator problem.”
Later were many proposals as for instance Tokyo Sky City 1000m high, Sir Norman
–21–
Foster sketches for Millennium Towers in Tokyo and Shanghai both around 800 m.
Mir M.Ali architecture professor at the University of Illinois asks: “But who wants
live in a building 1 mile high?” A more realistic height for the 21 century, he believes is
around 150 stories and 600m.
Architects like Pelli have already designed such towers. Likewise SOM’s and
KPF’s. “Humanity has an obsession with building big” says Pelli, whose Two
International Finance Center will soon become Hong Kong’s tallest tower. “ Part of it is
the human element. That’s why a tall TV tower isn’t so important. When we see
humans in a building, and know there are eyes up there, that’s emotional connection.
Tall has power”
–22–
Lumpur is on hold. Expected construction end is 2006. Building was designed by
Skidmore Owings & Merrill office in Chicago and belongs to one of the tallest
reinforced concrete building in the world and also one of the most slender with an
overall aspect ratio of over 8 to 1. The innovative solution belt wall/core interacting
system was introduced, which is applicable to very tall buildings in low to moderate
wind climates and to buildings in the mid-height range in moderate to high wind
climates. The lateral load resisting system components are the concrete core walls and
coupling beams, the exterior beam/column frame, and the two story belt and outrigger
walls located at levels 28, 51 and 73.
–23–
Easier ways to stabilize the tower were certainly available but the plan by Atkins´
project architect Tom Wills-Wright had the winning aesthetic appeal.
The building is designed for a 50-year wind of 45m per second and 0,2g seismic
ground acceleration. Two tuned mass dampers, weighting about 2 tones each limit
vibrations in the tubular steel mast that projects 60 m above the building.
–24–
rather than through the floor structure.
• The variation in the diagrid geometry results in compression in the hoops at the top
of the building (where the columns are more steeply angled and lighter loaded) and
very significant tension forces at the middle and lover levels.
• The horizontal hoops turn the diagrid into a very stiff triangulated shell, providing
excellent stability for the tower and equilibrium for any asymmetric or horizontal
loading conditions.
• This means that the core is not needed to resist wind forces and can be designated as
an open-planned steel structure providing adaptable internal space
–25–
contains independent security systems. Fire- and smoke-resistant safety stairways and
corridors also provide security.
Structural system: Internal core 22,5m square comprises 16 box columns in four
lines, which are generally fully braced between floors. Composite floors are typically
13,5cm thick. Eight Mega-columns 2,4 x 3,0m (at the base) arranged at the perimeter of
the building 22,5 m apart. Outriggers connecting internal core with mega-columns
arranged at the bottom of each 8 floor segments. From just bellow level 26 down,
mega-columns slope with the building’s profile. Two 2x1,2m columns are added
toward the center of each façade, while each corner is supported by an additional 1,4m
square sloping box column. Corner columns are tied to the main frame with two-story-
deep belt trusses under levels: 9, 19, 27. All other sloping mega-columns are connected
to the core columns with double-story outriggers at these levels.
Main mega-columns are made of steel as thick as 80mm. Along with the core
elements, mega-columns are filled with 70 MPa reinforced concrete up to level 62.
Additional box columns below floor 26 are also filled.
To reduce building lateral accelerations and to satisfy the vibration and comfort
level requirement for the tower, a TMD system (Tuned Mass Damper) is designed and
installed at the top of the building. The TMD system is to employ a mass consisted of
built-up steel plate ball suspended by cable as simple pendulum from the 92 nd floor.
–26–
region, and the patterning systems embodied in Islamic architecture. The tower is
composed of three elements arranged around a central core. As the tower rises from the
flat desert base, setbacks occur at each element in an upward spiraling pattern,
decreasing the mass of the tower as it reaches toward the sky. At the top, the central
core emerges and is sculptured to form a finishing spire. A Y-shaped floor plan
maximizes views of the Persian Gulf.
8.3. Examples of Interesting Solutions for Tall Building Projects which were not
erected
8.3.1. 7, South Dearborn St. Chicago, USA, Height: 478 m
Archit. & Struct.: Skidmore Owings Merrill. Planned in 1999 as a new world’s tallest
building. The extremely narrow structure, would have occupied only about a quarter of
a city block. Designed as a mast-like tower, supporting 3 overhanging blocks of office
and residential floors at the middle and upper levels.
• Height to the roof top 478 m. - 108 stories; height to the top of telecommunication
antennae 610 m.
• Mixed use: parking on 11 floors, than the offices and above them residential space
on 40 high rise floors; telecommunication facilities on the top 13 floors.
• Six distinctive groups of floors are visible in the design.
• The structural design for the tower represents a major achievement in the
evolution of structural systems for super-tall buildings
• The unique structural system is termed “stayed mast” structure.
• The building is unusually slender of overall aspect ratio on nearly 8,5 : 1.
• The central spine “mast” of the system is composed of square (20 m on a side)
reinforced concrete core walls up to 1,2 m thick at the base.
• The core is linked and stabilised to the perimeter structure (“stays”) through multi-
story structural steel outrigger trusses (“spreaders) at two transitions points along
the tower shaft: at the parking/office and office/residential boundaries.
• The central core wall utilises high strength concrete up to 100MPa
• Foundations for the building are straight-shaft caissons socked 1.8 m into bedrock
and are designed to support a uniform load of 19MPa
• The top 137 m of the tower is composed of two telecommunication masts
specifically designed to broadcast digital television. The exterior perimeter of the
lowest 18 parking levels is composed of a continuous RC wall silo, which serves to
transfer a major portion of the overturning moment due to the wind to the perimeter.
• The upper residential and telecom. floors are cantilevered up to 9 m from the
central core walls allowing an uninterrupted panorama from these floors.
• The floor system for the upper cantilevered floors are tapered cast-in-situ
prestressed post-tensioned reinforced concrete beams and conventionally reinforced
one-way slabs.
• By cantilevering these floors, the core is essentially pre-compressed with gravity
–27–
loads, thus allowing the central core walls to withstand the full shear and
overturning moment due to wind above the lowest stay.
• The architectural design has been influenced by the structural solution in choosing
to express the cantilevered nature of the construction in the upper floors.
–28–