Introduction

https://gwec.net/global-figures/wind-energy-global-status/
Today wind power is the most competitively priced technology in many if not most markets worldwide. The emergence of
wind/solar hybrids, more sophisticated grid management and increasingly affordable storage begin to paint a picture of what
a fully commercial fossil-free power sector will look like.

More than 52GW of clean, emissions-free wind power was added in 2017, bringing total installations
to 539 GW globally.
Wind penetration levels continue to increase rapidly.
Denmark got 44% of its electricity from wind in 2017, and
Uruguay more than 30%.
In 2017, wind supplied 11.6% of the EU’s power, led by Denmark, Portugal and Ireland at 24% and
Spain and Germany just under 20%. Four US states get more than 30% of their electricity from wind,
as does the state of South Australia, and a number of states in Germany.

http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=174832

India Wind (Rs. 2.64/ unit) achieved through transparent bidding and facilitation
ndia has an estimated renewable energy potential of about 1096 GW from commercially
exploitable sources viz. Wind – 302 GW
The Government of India has set a target of 175 GW renewable power installed capacity by
the end of 2022. This includes 60 GW from wind power,
In order to meet the energy demand, India has total installed power generation capacity of
331.95 GW as on 31.10.2017 from all resources. With 60.98 GW installed renewable power
capacity, the renewable power has a share of about 18.37% to the total installed capacity.
he present wind power installed capacity in the country is around 32.75 GW. Now, in terms
of wind power installed capacity India is globally placed at
4thposition after China, USA and Germany.

Problem with wind interconnection

Wind energy is an indirect form of solar energy, as the

winds result from the fact that the Earth's equatorial
regions receive more solar radiation than the polar
regions, and this causes large-scale convection currents in
the atmosphere.

Although the wind is not a reliable source of power

from one day to the next (a fact which strongly influences
the way that the output from wind turbines is used, as is
discussed later), it is a much more reliable source of energy,
year by year. The annual energy in the wind at a given
location depends on the wind-velocity-duration distribution, which, in general, can be expressed mathematically
as
a Weibull function, which involves two parameters, i.e. a
shape parameter and a characteristic speed, see Reference
4. The Rayleigh distribution, which is a special case of the
Weibull distribution when the shape parameter is equal to
2, is a simple single-parameter function which is now
widely used to describe the wind (especially when detailed
site-specific long-term wind data is unavailable).

Iet wind power

SN SINGH 2009
(salman, 1993)
1.
Ackermann pg 464.
Ackerman 681
CHAP 9 Voltage Control for Wind Power Integration Areas [1]

10 Voltage fluctuation (%) 1

sinusoidal rectangular

0.1 0.1 1 10 Frequency (Hz) 100

10 Voltage fluctuation (%) 1

sinusoidal rectangular

0.1 0.1 1 10 Frequency (Hz) 100

Fixed speed WT

[2, p. 71]

In the early 1990s the standard installed wind turbines operated at fixed speed. That
means that regardless of the wind speed, the wind turbine’s rotor speed is fixed and
determined by the frequency of the supply grid, the gear ratio and the generator design

It is characteristic of fixed-speed wind turbines that they are equipped with an

induction generator (squirrel cage or wound rotor) that is directly connected to the
grid, with a soft-starter and a capacitor bank for reducing reactive power compensation.
They are designed to achieve maximum efficiency at one particular wind speed. In order
to increase power production, the generator of some fixed-speed wind turbines has two
winding sets: one is used at low wind speeds (typically 8 poles) and the other at medium
and high wind speeds (typically 4–6 poles).

[3, p. 54]

Switched power factor correction capacitors are used to improve the power factor of the induction generator
while an anti-parallel thyristor soft-start unit is used to energise the generator once its operating speed is
reached. The function of the soft-start unit is to build up the magnetic flux
slowly and so minimise transient currents during energisation of the generator. Also,
applying the network voltage slowly to the generator, once energised, brings the drive
train slowly to its operating rotational speed
An induction machine does not have a separate field circuit and so there is no
direct control over reactive power. There is a fixed relationship between real and
reactive power (Fig. 3.17). The operating locus in the generating region is shown
as the line A–B. Even at zero real power output, reactive power (MVAr import) is
required to energise the magnetic circuits of the machine. As the real power export
is increased, then additional reactive power is drawn from the network. The effect
of the power factor correction capacitors is to translate the operating curve vertically
downwards.

the wind
fluctuations are converted into mechanical fluctuations and consequently into electrical
power fluctuations. In the case of a weak grid, these can yield voltage fluctuations at the
point of connection. Because of these voltage fluctuations, the fixed-speed wind turbine
draws varying amounts of reactive power from the utility grid (unless there is a capacitor
bank), which increases both the voltage fluctuations and the line losses. Thus the main
drawbacks of this concept are that it does not support any speed control, it requires a
stiff grid and its mechanical construction must be able to tolerate high mechanical stress[2, p. 71]

the wind fluctuations are converted into mechanical fluctuations and consequently into electrical power
fluctuations. In the case of a weak grid, these can yield voltage fluctuations at the
point of connection. Because of these voltage fluctuations, the fixed-speed wind turbine
draws varying amounts of reactive power from the utility grid (unless there is a capacitor
bank), which increases both the voltage fluctuations and the line losses. Thus the main
drawbacks of this concept are that it does not support any speed control, it requires a
stiff grid and its mechanical construction must be able to tolerate high mechanical stress[3, p. 57]

variable speed wt (DFIG)

The DFIG consists of a WRIG with the stator windings directly
connected to the constant-frequency three-phase grid and with the rotor windings
mounted to a bidirectional back-to-back IGBT voltage source converter.
The term ‘doubly fed’ refers to the fact that the voltage on the stator is applied from
the grid and the voltage on the rotor is induced by the power converter. This system
allows a variable-speed operation over a large, but restricted, range. The converter
compensates the difference between the mechanical and electrical frequency by injecting
a rotor current with a variable frequency. Both during normal operation and faults the
behaviour of the generator is thus governed by the power converter and its controllers.
The power converter consists of two converters, the rotor-side converter and grid-side
converter, which are controlled independently of each other.[3, p. 68]

[2, p. 74]
In the various types of slip power recovery discussed above, speed during generation would
vary from synchronous speed to above synchronous (super-synchronous). This type of
operation was always accompanied by conversion of power coming out of the rotor. It is
also possible, however, to feed power into the rotor. This arrangement allows operation at
subsynchronous speeds, which is a feature of what we call true variable-speed operation. There
are various ways that this can be accomplished, but the essential characteristic of these
arrangements is that there is a rotor-side converter which is capable of interacting directly with
the AC of the rotor. Themost common arrangement in wind turbine applications is illustrated in
Figure 5.42.
In this arrangement there are two power PWM power converters, separated by a DC link.
These power converters are both bidirectional.

In super-synchronous operation, converter

PWM 1 operates as a rectifier and PWM 2 operates as an inverter; power flows out of the rotor as
well as out of the stator.

In subsynchronous operation, rotor power goes the other way; PWM 1

operates as an inverter and PWM 2 operates as a rectifier.

The complete WRIG generator/

converter system often goes under the name of ‘doubly fed induction generator (DFIG).’ The
term emphasizes the ability of this arrangement to transfer power into or out of the rotor, as well
as out of the stator.
In the simplest view of the DFIG, power transfer into or out of the rotor takes place with both
the voltage and the current in phase. Thus, the rotor load looks like either a resistor or a
‘negative resistor.’ In reality, however, the PWM converters have the capability of providing
current and voltage at different phase angles. This capability has many advantages. In
particular, it allows the power factor of the DFIG to be adjusted at will, and even to supply
reactive power to the network if so required.[4, p. 252]
 [5, p. 8]

MODES OF OPERATION OF DFIG

A DFIG system can deliver power to the grid through the stator and rotor, while
the rotor can also absorb power. This is dependent upon the rotational speed of
the generator.

If the generator operates in super-synchronous mode, power will be

delivered from the rotor through the converters to the network,
and if the generator
operates in sub synchronous mode then the rotor will absorb power from the network
through the converters.
These two modes of operation are illustrated in Figure 3.19, where ωs is the
synchronous speed and ωr is the rotor speed [2, p. 73]
Vsc in dfig

The rotor side VSC injects controlled, variable frequency (slip frequency) currents into the rotor of the
DFIG through its slip rings. The grid side converter
interfaces with the three-phase grid and supports power exchange between the
rotor of the DFIG and the grid through the DC link. The grid side converter can
also provide reactive power support within its ratings.

unctions of the two converters.

The rotor side converter directly controls the active and reactive power flow
from the stator of the DFIG to the grid. This is achieved by controlling the
magnitude, frequency, and phase angle of the three-phase currents injected into the
rotor by the duty ratio (PWM) control of the voltage source converter. The specific
control objectives of the rotor side converter are:
1. Maximum power extraction by controlling the torque/power such that the rotor
speed always tracks the optimum given by the tracking characteristic shown in
Fig. 3.1.
2. Control of reactive power (decoupled from active power control) exchange
between the induction generator and the grid. This can be used for voltage
regulation at the generator terminals.
3. More recently, supplementary control to provide frequency support to the grid
by changing the active power transfer during large disturbances, using the
inherent inertia of the wind turbine.
The grid side converter synthesizes at its AC terminals fixed frequency (grid
frequency) three-phase voltages at controlled magnitude and phase (with respect to
the grid voltage). The specific control objectives of the grid side converter are:
1. Regulate the DC link voltage by providing a path for the active power transfer
(positive or negative) between the rotor side converter and the grid.
2. Provide additional reactive power support to the grid similar to the operation of
a STATCOM within the constraints of its MVA rating, which is significantly
lower than the rating of the wind generator.[5, p. 58]

Liu, J. Real-Time Nonlinear Frequency-Dependent Electromagnetic Transient Power Transformer

Model Hardware Emulation, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alberta, 2016