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Hermeneutics Dr. Stephen R. Lewis PDF
Hermeneutics Dr. Stephen R. Lewis PDF
HERMENEUTICS
THE STUDY OF
THE INTERPRETATION
OF SCRIPTURES
INTERPRETATION
"Bridging the Gaps"
CLASS CALENDAR
INTRODUCTION TO HERMENEUTICS
Class Notes:
Lockhart's Axioms of Hermeneutics
Greek words for Hermeneutics
Definitions of Hermeneutics and Related Terms
Project: Suppose a friend of yours, a new believer, whom you recently led to the Lord, has
written to you about the Bible. He/she writes, "I'm reading the Bible as you
suggested I do, but frankly I'm having difficulty understanding it. I talk to one
person about problems in a passage I read, and he explains them one way. I talk to
another person and he explains them differently. And they both claim to be taught by
the Holy Spirit. How can I know which views are correct?"
Write a letter (of 250-500 words) answering his/her questions. Be sure to speak to
these issues: basic principles of interpretation, the place of the Holy Spirit in
interpretation, and qualifications of a Bible interpreter.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
Class Notes: Where's the Author Coming From? (Bridging the Cultural Gap) Hermeneutics and
the Historical-Cultural Context
Write a paper (of 250-500 words) on this question: Was Jesus' practice of
footwashing a "cultural" custom only for His time, or is it "trans-cultural" and to be
practiced today? Why or why not? How do we know which commands in the Bible
were culture-bound and which ones are trans-cultural?
WEEK 4 What Does the Text mean by That? (Bridging the Grammatical Gap)
Mid-Term Exam
WEEK 7 Why Did He Say It That Way? (Figuring out Figurative Language)
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
WEEK 8 When Is a Type a Type? (Testing the Types and Sensing the Symbols)
Project: Write a paper 500-1000 words answering the following questions (due at end of
week 9):
Is typology, even narrowly defined as Caird or Zuck would have it, a legitimate field
of inquiry at all? What biblical basis do we have for establishing such a category?
Class Notes: Psalms (Poetry), Parables, Allegories & O.T. Apocalyptic Literature
Project: Analyze two sermons you have heard where someone used Narrative portions of the
OT or NT and determine if the speaker “principlized” or “allegorized” the passage in
applying the people and/or circumstances to the congregation.
WEEK 11 Why Quote the Old Testament Like That? (Using the Old in the New)
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
WEEKS
12 & 13 How Does the Bible Apply to Today? (Bridging the Time Gap)
Project: By end of Week 13 read the Book of Jude and list as many interpretive questions as
you can, going through the book verse by verse. The more, the better. "Bombard"
the text with all kinds of questions (pertaining to meaning not the application of the
text). Try to list from Jude several questions in each of the categories of:
backgrounds (historical/cultural), terms (grammatical/syntactical), structures, and
forms (genre/rhetorical).
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
SPECIFIC AIMS
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
READING
1. Read the course textbooks, Basic Bible Interpretation by Roy B. Zuck, and Rightly
Divided: Readings in Biblical Hermeneutics edited by Roy b. Zuck according to
the schedule in the Class Calendar. Fulfillment of this requirement will be demonstrated by
successfully completing projects from assigned readings. (10 % of class grade)
2. For collateral reading, choose 300 pages from one or more of the following (or a book
approved by the instructor): (20 % of class grade)
The fulfillment of this requirement (Due by end of Sessions as listed in the class calendar)
will be demonstrated by a reading report consisting of:
EXERCISES as listed in calendar (5% each for a total of 20% of class grade)
COURSE PROJECTS as listed in the course calendar (10% each for a total of 40% of class
grade)
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
Lewis' Looney Grading Gear for Appropriately Assessing the Wondrous Works of Grace
Evangelical School of Theology Students in Their Prestigious Papers and Pompous Projects
8- It'll do . . . almost.
C
(Acceptable) 8 It'll do.
8+ Not bad.
9- Sorta good.
B
(Good) 9 Good job.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
INTRODUCTION
TO
HERMENEUTICS
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
AXIOM 1
THE BIBLE IS A BOOK WRITTEN BY PEOPLE
TO BE UNDERSTOOD BY PEOPLE.
COROLLARIES
1. Each Biblical writing was written by someone to specific hearers or readers
in a specific historical-geographical situation for a specific purpose.
2. Each Biblical writing was couched in the cultural setting of the times in
which it was written.
4. Each Biblical writing was accepted or understood in the light of its context.
5. Each Biblical writing took on the nature of a specific literary form (genre).
6. Each Biblical writing was understood in account with the basic principles of
logic and communication.
* * * * * * * * * * * *
AXIOM 2
THE BIBLE IS A DIVINE BOOK
COROLLARIES
1. The Bible contains MYSTERY
Its obscure and secondary passages are to be interpreted in light of clear and
primary passages.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
EXERCISE
1. The true object of speech is the impartation of thought.
______________________________
2. The true object of interpretation is to apprehend the exact thought of the author.
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
8. Any writing is liable to modification in copying, translating, and the gradual change
of a living tongue.
______________________________
______________________________
10. The function of a word depends on its association with other words.
______________________________
11. A correct definition of a word substituted for the word itself will not modify the
meaning of the text.
______________________________
12. One of two contradicting statements must be false, unless corresponding terms have
different meanings or applications.
______________________________
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
13. Truth must accord with truth; and statements of truth apparently discrepant can be
harmonized if the facts are known.
______________________________
14. An assertion of truth necessarily excludes that to which it is essentially opposed and
no more.
______________________________
15. Every communication of thought, human and divine, given in the language of men,
is subject to the ordinary rules of interpretation.
______________________________
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
The English word "hermeneutics" comes from the Greek verb "hermeneuo" and noun
"hermeneia." These words are ultimately sourced back to Hermes the Greek
mythological god who brought the messages of the gods to the mortals. He was
responsible for communicating what was beyond human understanding into a form that
human intelligence could grasp. He was also known as the god of science, inventions,
speech, writing, literature and eloquence. He was the messenger or interpreter of the gods,
and particularly of his father Zeus.
Thus the verb came to refer to bringing someone to understanding of something in his
language (thus, explanation) or in another language (thus, translation). The English word
"interpret" is used at times to mean "explain" and at other times "translate." In its nineteen
usages (both nouns and verbs) in the New Testament, it is more frequently used in the latter
sense, as the following illustrates.
I. "Explanation"
II. "Translation"
A. Nouns
1. "hermeneia"
2. "diermeneutes"
B. Verbs
1. "hermineuo"
2. "diermeneuo"
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
3. "methermeneuo"
From these usages (and similar usages in Classical Greek, e.g. Plato, Aristotle, Xenophon,
Plutarch, and others, and in the early church fathers) it is clear that the Greek verb means
"to interpret" in either the sense of explaining or in the sense of translating. Thus
interpretation involves making something that is unclear or unknown into something that is
clear and intelligible.
In Classical Greek the verb also at times meant "to say" or "to express ones' thoughts in
words," but this is close to the meaning "to explain." For more on the usage of the related
words in Classical Greek, the Septuagint, and the New Testament see Theological
Dictionary of the New Testament, s.v. "ermeneuo et al.," by Johannes Behm, 2
:661-66.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
DEFINITIONS OF HERMENEUTICS
AND RELATED TERMS
I. HERMENEUTICS
The science (principles) and art (task) by which the meaning of the biblical text is
determined [It is a science because it is guided by rules within a system; and it is an
art because the application of the rules is by skill, and not by mechanical imitation].
But being aware of how you reach your interpretation you are in a better position to
weigh the merits of your interpretation.
The communication of the meaning of the text (the Bible) along with its relevance to
present-day hearers. It starts with a given passage and investigates it using the
process of historical/cultural, grammatical, rhetorical analysis.
In Webster's Dictionary the terms exegesis and exposition are very similar in
meaning. The former is "an explanation or critical interpretation of a text," and the
latter is "a setting forth of the meaning or purpose" of a writing. However, at
EAST and in other biblical circles a more technical distinction is often made between
these two terms. The primary concern in exegesis is an understanding of the text,
whereas the primary concern of exposition is the communication of the meaning of
the text.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
Exegesis is thus a means to an end, a step toward the end result of exposition.
Exegesis is more technical and is basic to exposition, which is more practical. In
the privacy of his study, the exegete seeks to comprehend the exact meaning of the
details of the Bible passage being studied. But in the pulpit or classroom the
expositor, having built his material on an exegetical base, seeks to communicate the
content. One is to the other as the foundation is to the building.
Chafer Theological Seminary seeks to train students in the proper methods and
procedures of ascertaining the meaning of the biblical text in the original languages.
We seek to help students ascertain the overall purpose of the Bible books, how
those purposes are developed, and how problem passages are to be understood and
communicated in the light of those purposes.
III. HOMILETICS
The science (principles) and art (task) by which the meaning and relevance of the
biblical text are communicated in a preaching situation. The task, as it relates to the
content of the text, is to be a minister of the Word of God and he must minister it
accurately.
IV. PEDAGOGY
The science (principles) and art (task) by which the meaning and relevance of the
biblical text are communicated in a teaching situation.
V. AUTHORIAL INTENT
A. The Concept
"Surely the meaning resides in what the author intended by the passage as
opposed to what the readers may take it to mean to them." (Norman Geisler,
"The Relation of Purpose and Meaning in Interpreting
Scripture." p. 1)
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
N.B.: There are only two sources of meaning for the text of Scripture (i.e.,
the signal): (1) The source, or (2) the receiver. Discovering the meaning the
source encoded into the signal is exegesis; anything else inevitable comes
from the mind of the receiver, which is by definition eisegesis. To use the
words of Hodge and Warfield, the exegete is after what the author "intended
to affirm." It is nothing short of disastrous for the authority of Scripture to
say, "The author may not have intended this, but I think the text means this
anyway." All meaning that is not the author's meaning unavoidably comes
from the interpreter and has only the interpreter's authority behind it.
Preaching such meaning is not exposition.
"If individual speakers or writers are not sovereign over the use of their own
words, and if meaning is not a return to how they intended their own words
to be regarded, then we are in a most difficult situation." (Walter Kaiser,
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
A. Literal affirms that the meanings to be interpreted are textually based. This
premise sets the framework for the system. All the other premises are
derived from and developed within the scope of what literal affirms. (p. 31)
D. Literary affirms that these textually based meanings are in part determined
within the context of textual design considered in the composition as a whole.
The textual composition incorporates such literary characteristics as coherent
unity and prominence. In addition, the textual design incorporates the
conventional norms of the literary genre. (p. 43)
A viable interpretation must consider all these premises. Note that these
premises do not guarantee accurate interpretation; rather, they guard us
against thoughtless errors and unrelated presuppositions. The question of the
validity of an interpretation is judged on its merits according to the weight of
the evidence. So again, as we have stated, the work of hermeneutics has two
primary aspects. One is a theory of interpretation, which is associated with
the task of viable interpretation (how do I know?); the other is a theory of
validation, which is concerned with the task of valid interpretation (how do I
know that I know?).
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
"The task of interpreters of the Bible is to find out the meaning of a statement (command,
question) for the author and for the first hearers or readers, and thereupon to transmit that
meaning to modern readers" (A. Berkeley Mickelsen, Interpreting the Bible [Grand
Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1963], p. 5).
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
INTERPRETATION
Adapted from Methodical Bible Study by Robert A. Traina
The first aspect of interpretation is that of discovering the basic meaning of the
particulars (words, phrases, structure etc.) of a passage.
The next aspect of interpretation is to tempt to find the reasons underlying the
particulars.
A. The general reasons why Biblical statements are made - wherein they are true
and necessary.
N.B.: Both of these types of questions are not pertinent in the case of every Biblical
component, and at times they are undiscoverable. But an awareness of them and
their use whenever possible is supremely important for incisive interpretation.
A statement always implicates more than it says explicitly, for it is the outgrowth of
certain presuppositions and in turn becomes the presupposition for other ideas.
I. Interpretive Questions
1. Primary questions
2. Subordinate questions
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
1. Subjective Determinants
2. Objective Determinants
1. Should be methodical
2. Should be self-conscious
3. Should be thorough
Determine the subject [what is the author talking about] and complement(s)
[what is he saying about what he is talking about].
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
UNIT ONE:
THE HISTORICAL
WORLD
OF BIBLE
INTERPRETATION
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
B. It is a "Directional" signal.
C. It is an "Informational" signal.
I. GREEK ALLEGORIZATION
B. Also the allegorizing enabled the philosophers (e.g., the Stoics) to promote
their own ideas while claiming to be faithful to the writings of the past.
He believed that Greek philosophy borrowed from the Old Testament and
that those teachings could be uncovered only by allegorizing.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
Philo stated that the allegorical interpretation should be used for the
following cases (Bernard Ramm, Protestant Interpretation, Grand
Rapids: Baker, 1970, p.27-28):
6. If an expression is varied.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
He quoted from the Old Testament profusely, and saw the Old Testament as a
preparation for Christ.
In his seven letters to Rome he alluded to the Old Testament frequently, he was
Christocentric, and he avoided allegorizing.
In writing to the Philippians he quoted the Old and New Testaments frequently.
IV. BARNABAS
The Epistle of Barnabas has 119 Old Testament quotations and extensive
allegorizing.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
APOLOGISTS
During this time allegorizing became apologetic in nature. Problem of relationship of Old
Testament with New Testament began early. They confused typology with allegorizing,
and Church authority became a tool for opposing heresies. All three men of this period
utilized a mixture of both allegory and literal.
B. In his Dialogue with Trypho he opposed Marcion who said the Old
Testament is not for today. Justin said the Old Testament is relevant to
Christians by means of allegorizing. He wrote, for example, that Leah
represents the Jews, Rachel is the church, and Jacob is Christ who serves
both. When Aaron and Hur held up Moses's hands, that represented the
Cross.
A. He said the Scriptures are the property of the church. The answer to heresy
is the "rule of faith," that is, the teachings of orthodoxy held by the church.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
ALEXANDRIAN AND
ANTIOCHENE FATHERS
All used strong allegorizing as their defense against Celsus and Porphyry.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
d. Jesus said to pluck out your eye if it offends you, but He did
not say which eye.
D. Observations
A. Observations
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
interpretation.
5. They believed in typology as the basis of unity between the O.T. and
the N.T.
B. Dorotheus
By his teaching he prepared the way for the founding of the School at
Antioch of Syria.
1. In the last of his five books, "On Allegory and History Against
Origen," he asked, If Adam were not really Adam how did death
enter the human race?
2. His works contain about 7,000 quotations from the Old Testament
and about 11,000 from the New.
G. Theodoret (386-458)
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
C. His translation of the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate) points to his interest in
the original text.
In his Commonitorium in 434 he wrote that the Scriptures receive their final
exposition in the ancient church. "The line of the interpretation of the prophets and
apostles must be directed according to the norm of the ecclesiastical and Catholic
sense. This "norm" included the decisions of the church councils and the
interpretations given by the Fathers. His hermeneutical authority was, "what has
everywhere, always, by all been believed." Thus the three tests were ecumenicity,
antiquity, and common sense.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
E. Some examples of his allegorizing are these: In the Fall the fig leaves are
hypocrisy, the covering of skin is mortality, and the four rivers are Four
cardinal virtues. Noah's drunkenness represents Christ in His suffering and
death. The teeth of the Shulamite in Song of Solomon 4:2 are the church
"tearing men away from heresy."
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
What is said of Christ often applies also to His body, the church.
2. "The twofold division of the body of the Lord, or the mixed church"
The church may contain hypocrites as well as true believers, as seen in the
good and bad fish in the net (Matthew 13:47-48).
Some passages relate to grace and some to law, some to the spirit and some
to the letter, some to works and some to faith.
Some passages relate to the part (species) and some to the whole (genus).
Believing Israelites, for example, are a species (a part) of the genus, the
church, which is spiritual Israel.
5. "Times"
6. "Recapitulation"
Some passages, such as Isaiah 14, which speak of the devil relate more
aptly to his body, that is, his followers.
A. A monk from Scythia (modern Romania), Cassian taught that the Bible has a
fourfold meaning: historical (letter), allegorical, tropological (morally), and
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
B. He developed the four-line ditty that became famous throughout the Middle
Ages:
VII. JUNILIUS
A. He wrote Rules for the Divine Law around AD 550 in which he said
that faith and reason are not opposites. Faith is suprarational but not
irrational.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
To those of this period there was a desire for a deeper meaning in Scripture which they
believed accompanied a deeper spiritual life.
Allegorizing had a strong hold on theologians for 800 years. It lead lay people further
away from any uniform interpretation of the Scriptures.
A. Gregory I (also called Gregory the Great) became the first pope of the
Roman Catholic Church in AD 590, based his interpretations on the Church
Fathers.
C. In the Book of Job, Gregory saw the three friends are heretics, Job's seven
sons are the twelve apostles, the 7,000 sheep are innocent thoughts, the
3,000 camels are rich and vain notions, the 500 pair of oxen are virtues, and
the 500 donkeys are lustful inclinations.
His commentaries are compilations from the works of Ambrose, Basil, and
Augustine, and are allegorical. For example, in the parable of the prodigal son, the
son is worldly philosophy, the father is Christ, and the father's house is the church.
In York, England, Alcuin followed the allegorizing of early Middle Ages. In his
commentary on John, he, like Bede, compiled the comments of others including
Augustine and Ambrose.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
Solomon Rashi, a Jewish literalist of the Middle Ages, had a great influence on
Jewish Christian interpretations by his emphasis on Hebrew grammar and syntax.
He wrote commentaries on all the Old Testament except Job and Chronicles.
Three writers at the Abbey of St. Victor in Paris followed Solomon Rashi in his
interest in the historical and literal. They were Hugo of St. Victorine (1097-1141),
Richard of St. Victorine (d. 1173), and Andrew of St. Victorine (d. 1175). The last
two were pupils of Hugo. Hugo said, "Subtract the letter and what is left?"
Andrew disagreed with Jerome who said that the first part of Jeremiah 1:5 refers to
Jeremiah but that the last part of that verse refers to Paul. Andrew said, "What
bearing does this have on Paul?" Richard, however, did give more attention than the
others to the mystical meaning of the Bible.
The Victorines insisted that the mystical or spiritual sense could not be truly
known until the Bible had been literally interpreted . . . This emphasis on
the literal carried over into an emphasis on syntax, grammar, and meaning,
True interpretation of the Bible was exegesis, not eisegesis. (Ramm,
Protestant Interpretation, p.51)
A. His exposition on Revelation suggests that the time from creation to Christ
was the age of God the Father, the second age (from Christ to 1260) was
the age of God the Son, and the third age (to begin in 1260) would be the
age of the Holy Spirit.
A. This Archbishop of Canterbury is the one who made chapter divisions in the
Bible (the Vulgate).
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
Aquinas, best known for his major work, Summa Theologia, was greatly
influenced by Aristotle. He was the architect of the theology which became the
basis for the theology of the Roman Catholic church. He held that the literal
meaning is basic, but that other senses are built on it. Since the Bible has a divine
author as well as human authors, he argued, it has a spiritual sense. "The literal
sense is that which the author intends, but God being the Author, we may expect to
find in the Scripture a wealth of meaning." "The things signified by the words (the
literal sense) may also signify other things (the spiritual sense)."
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
THE REFORMATION
I. MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)
D. His emphasis on the literal led to his stress on the original languages. "We
shall not long preserve the Gospel without the languages. The languages
are the sheath in which this sword of the Spirit is contained" (Luther's
Works, 4:114-15). And yet the Bible interpreter, Luther said, must be
more than a philologist. He must be illumined by the Holy Spirit.
Furthermore, the grammatical-historical approach is not an end in itself; it is
to lead us to Christ.
F. Every devout Christian can understand the Bible. "There is not on earth a
book more lucidly written than the Holy Scripture" (Exposition of the 37th
Psalm). By this emphasis he was opposing the dependence of the common
people on the Roman Catholic Church.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
Best known for his translation of the New Testament into English, he too stressed
the literal meaning. "Scripture has but one sense, which is the literal sense," he
said.
VI. ANABAPTISTS
B. The three founders were Conrad Grebel, Feliz Manz, and Georg Blaurock.
Other well known leaders were Balthasar Hubmaier, Michael Satcler,
Melchior Hoffman, Pilgrim Marpeck, and Menno Simons.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
B. The Council also affirmed that accurate interpretation was possible only by
the Church, the giver and protector of the Bible, not by individuals. "No
one--relying on his own skill shall--in matters of faith and words pertaining
to the edification of Christian doctrine--wresting the sacred Scriptures to his
own senses, presume to interpret it contrary to that sense which the holy
Mother Church ... hath held and doth hold; or even contrary to the
unanimous consent of the Fathers."
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
POST-REFORMATION (1550-1800)
The Hermeneutical methods were often poor during this time, for exegesis became the
hand maid of dogmatics, and often degenerated into mere proof-texting. Therefore, the two
hundred years of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were noted for several influential
movements and activities.
Turretin taught theology at Geneva and, like Calvin, taught that the
Scriptures are inerrant and authoritative and stressed the importance of the
original text. These points are included in his work Institutio
Theologiae Elenctiacae (1614). In his discussion of Scripture in this
work he discussed four major aspects of Scripture: its necessity, authority,
perfection, and perspicuity.
4. The interpreter should use the natural light of reason (in this he
followed his father who followed Aquinas on the place of reason)
and should allow nothing contradictory in the Scriptures.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
that "the Bible must be rigidly explained according to its own language, and,
in this explanation, it must neither be bribed by any external authority of the
Church, nor by our own feeling, nor by a sportive and allegorizing fancy--
which had frequently been the case with the mystics--nor, finally by any
philosophical system whatever." Ernesti argued that grammatical exegesis
has priority over dogmatic exegesis and that literal interpretation was
preferred over allegorical exegesis (Ramm, p.59)
A. Arminianism
Jacobus Arminius lived from 1560 to 1609, and in 1610 his followers set
forth their views in a treatise called the "Remonstrance."
B. Mysticism
Mysticism grew under the influence of the writings of Jakob Boehrie (1635-
1705). They tended to read the scriptures as a means of promoting the
mystical experience. (e.g., they saw the Song of Songs as merely the love
relationship between God and the Mystic resulting in spiritual delights told
in terms of physical delights.)
C. Pietism
D Wesleyanism
"Great strides were made in determining the original text of the Bible" (Mickelsen,
p. 43).
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
He has been called the first textual critic of the Old Testament.
Bengel is known as "the father of modern textual criticism." He was the first
scholar to recognize families of manuscripts. In 1742 he wrote a verse-by-
verse commentary on the New Testament, called Gnomon Novi-
Testamenti, which emphasized the philological and also the spiritual and
devotional.
IV. RATIONALISM
Those in this group believe that whatever is not in harmony with educated mentality
is to rejected. This movement stressed that the human intellect can decide what is
true and false. The Bible, then, is true if it corresponds to man's reason, and what
does not correspond can be ignored. This led to radical criticism of the scriptures
and laid the basis for liberal theology.
This Dutch Jewish philosopher taught that the human reason is free from
theology. Theology (revelation) and philosophy (reason) have their separate
spheres. He denied the miracles in the Bible, and yet he set forth several
rules for interpreting the Bible, including the need for knowing Hebrew and
Greek and the background of each Bible book. And yet reason was the all-
embracing criterion for judging an interpretation: "The norm of biblical
exegesis can only be the light of reason common to all" (Tractatus
Theologico-Politicus, 1670).
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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Those of this time were greatly influenced by the writings of both Darwin and
Hegel. They viewed the Bible as no more than a record of the evolutionary
development of Israel and the church rather than God's revelation of Himself to
man. The Bible to them was far from being divine, was trampled in the dust of the
nineteenth century religious "rationalism."
A. Subjectivism
B. Historical Criticism
2. F. C. Baur (1792-1860)
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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C. Exegetical Commentators
In the nineteenth century many men wrote commentaries on the Bible that
are still considered classics. These writers include J. A. Alexander, Henry
Alford, Albert G. Barnes, Franz-Delilezsch, John Eadie, Charles Ellicott, F.
Godet, Ernst Hengstenberg, Charles Hodge, Robert Jamieson, Carl F.
Keil, J. P. Lance, J. B. Lightfoot, H. B. Sweete, Richard C. Trench, B. F.
Westcott, and Theodore Zahn.
Several strands of biblical interpretation have been present in the twentieth century.
Liberalism has continued much of the rationalistic and higher critical approach of the
nineteenth century. Orthodoxy has taken a literal as well as a devotional approach
to the Bible. Neoorthodoxy has said the Bible becomes the Word of God in
existential encounters. Bultmannism has taken a mythological approach to the
Bible.
A. Liberalism
Liberalism was strong in the nineteenth century and continued so into the
twentieth century. It regards the Bible as a human book, not given by
divine inspiration, and it teaches that supernatural elements in the Bible can
be explained rationally. Liberal leaders include Nels Fere, Harry Emerson
Fosdick, W. H. Norton, L. Harold DeWolf, and others.
B. Orthodoxy
C. Neo-orthodoxy
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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D. Bultmannism
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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UNIT TWO:
THE WORLD
BEHIND
THE TEXT
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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WHAT IS LITERAL,
HISTORICAL-GRAMMATICAL
RHETORICAL INTERPRETATION?
The Golden Rule of Interpretation
Interpretation should adhere to the literal sense, that is, the single literary meaning
which each passage carries with proper attention to the historical, grammatical, and
rhetorical meaning of the text. The initial quest is always for what God's penman
meant by what he wrote. The discipline of interpretation excludes all attempts to go
behind the text, just as it excludes all reading into passages of meanings which
cannot be read out of them and all pursuit of ideas sparked off in us by the test
which do not arise as part of the author's own expressed flow of thought. Symbols
and figures of speech must be recognized for what they are, and arbitrary
allegorizing (as distinct from the drawing out of typology which was demonstrably
in the writer's mind) must be avoided.
The process of determining the time in which a writing took place, by analyzing the
total cultural environment of the times, and the factors and circumstances involved
in the writing such as the author, readers, date, place, occasion, and purpose, and
how those factors influence the meaning of the text.
The process of determining the literary quality of a writing, by analyzing its genre
(kind of composition), structure (how the material is organized), and figures of
(colorful expressions for literary effect), and how those factors influence the
meaning of the text.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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I. HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION
A. Cultural Environment
1. Phrases
2. Clauses
3. Sentences
A. Literary Genre
B. Structural Analysis
C. Figures of Speech
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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The context in which a given Scripture passage is written influences how that
passage is to be understood. "Context" includes (a) the verse(s) immediately before
and after a passage, (b) the book in which the verses occur, (c) the dispensation in
which it was written, (d) the message of the entire Bible, and (e) the historical-
cultural environment of that time when it was written. The historical-cultural
context sets the broad backdrop in which the Bible events occurred and Bible
writings took place, and thus influences the other narrower "contexts" of a given
text.
Webster defines "culture" (in the sense in which we are using it) as "the integrated
pattern of human behavior that includes thought, speech, action, and artifacts," and
as "the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or
social group." Thus culture includes what people think (and believe), say, do, and
make.
Knowing the cultural contexts in which the Scriptures were written will enable us
(a) to understand the Scriptures better, and then (b) to communicate the Scriptures
more accurately to others. Apart from a proper understanding of the cultural
contexts, we may be led into eisegesis, or a reading into the Scriptures our
twentieth-century Western ideas and concepts, that is, transposing our culture into
the culture of the Scriptures.
The four categories of culture--thoughts (and beliefs), speech, action, and artifacts--
may be further divided into fourteen areas. From these fourteen it can be seen that
the four categories overlap. What one thinks influences what he does, and what he
does or makes relates to what he believes, etc.
The following are some examples of Bible passages whose interpretations are
affected by a knowledge of some aspects of the cultural context.
1. Why was Daniel offered the third position in the government and not
the second (Daniel 5:7,16)?
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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4. Why was Edom at such odds against Judah throughout its history?
B. Religious
1. Why did Moses give the strange command, "Do not cook a young
goat in its mother's milk" in Exodus 23:19; 34:36; and Deuteronomy
14:21? [It was a part of the Cannanite ritual - Uggaritic findings]
2. Why did God bring on Egypt the specific ten plagues, i.e., why
those plagues rather than others? [They were against the gods of
Egypt specifically]
3. Why did Elijah have his contest with the 450 Baal prophets on
Mount Carmel? [Baal was the god of lightning and fire]
6. Why did the Herodians, Sadducees, and a scribe ask the questions
they asked of Jesus in Mark 12:13-28? [Related to the religious
office of each group - each question was directed to each office]
C. Economic
1. In Job 22:6 why did Eliphaz accuse Job of taking "pledges of your
brothers without cause? [False accusation that Job held the debtor's
collateral]
2. Why did Boaz's closest relative give his sandal to Boaz (Ruth 4:8)?
[Releases the right to walk on that land when the deal was sealed -
Nuzi Tablets JBL 1937, p. 53-56]
D. Legal
E. Agricultural
1. What is so unusual about Samuel calling on the Lord for rain at the
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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3. Why did Amos call the women of Bethel "cows of Bashan" in Amos
4:1? [Bashan area in NE Israel was very fertile and the cows do not
have to struggle to eat but instead become fat and lazy = wealthy
women]
4. Why did the Lord say to Job in Job 39:1a, "Do you know the time
the mountain goats give birth?" [No one knew when these goats
gave birth]
5. Why did Jesus call the mustard seed the smallest seed in Matthew
13:31-32? Was this a botanical error? [In one year it could grow 15-
30 feet. Of those that were planted in that area it was the smallest
known of that day (the orchid seed is smaller)]
6. In Luke 13:32 did Jesus call Herod a fox because He meant Herod
was sly and cunning?
F. Architectural
1. How could Rahab have her house on the wall (Joshua 2:15)
2. How could four men let a paralytic man down through a roof as in
Mark 2:1-12?
G. Clothing
H. Dietary
2. How could John at the Last Supper be leaning on Jesus (John 13:1-
3)?
3. Why did James say to anoint a sick person with oil (James 5:14)?
I. Literary
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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2. Why did Luke substitute Greek terms for Hebrew terms, such as
"Skull" for "Golgotha" (23:33), and "Simon the Zealot" instead of
"Simon the Canaanite" (6:15)?
J. Geographical
3. Why did Jesus suggest in Luke 12:54 that clouds out of the west
bring rain? [Clouds from the west would mean rain]
4. Why did the message to the Laodicean church in Revelation 3:16 say
that "You are lukewarm and neither hot nor cold?" [Hot water from
Hieropolis' hot springs was channeled by pipes to Laodicia and by
the time it reached them it was "lukewarm."]
K. Military
2. Why did Paul say in II Corinthians 2:14 that Christ "leads us in His
triumph in Christ"?
L. Familial
1. Why did the man in Luke 9:59 say he wanted to go bury his father?
[Wanted to wait until his father died to receive his inheritance first]
2. Why did Job say, "Why did the knees receive me?" (Job 3:12)?
[Newborn children were placed on the knees of the father to show
that it was his child]
M. Interpersonal (Social)
1. Why did people in Bible times sometimes throw dust on their heads
(e.g., Job 2:12; Lamentations 2:10; Ezekiel 27:30; Revelation 18:1
2. Why did God say in Malachi 1:2-3, "I have loved Jacob, but I have
hated Esau"?
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
transferable and what is not? The two main tasks come down to 1) determine
meaning of text to immediate context hearers; and 2) what it means to us now in our
context.
b. The passage has no The situation and the principle are not
relevance at all for repeatable.
women today.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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Lexicology is a study of how word meanings are determined. At least four factors
influence the meaning of a word: etymology, usage, synonyms and antonyms, and
context.
c. Colossians 1:11
d. Colossians 1:11
e. Colossians 2:14
f. Isaiah 7:14
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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6. For other examples of how Greek words have changed and how
they have taken on new meanings in the New Testament, see Terry,
Biblical Hermeneutics, pp. 120-28, and Fisher, How to Interpret the
New Testament, pp. 102-8.
1. Importance of Usage
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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a. Usage by the same writer in the same book. Ask, How does
he use this word elsewhere in this book? For example, does
the word "prophets" in Ephesians 2:20 refer to Old
Testament prophets or New Testament prophets?
(1) O.T.
(2) N.T.
Classical Greek
Papyrus
LXX
Josephus and Philo
1. Synonyms
Seeing how a word differs from its synonyms can help narrow
down the meaning of a given word.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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2. Antonyms
Seeing how a word differs from its exact or near opposite can help
determine its meaning.
How does context differ from usage? Usage pertains to a use of a word or
phrase by an author or author in varied contexts, whereas context refers to
the material which precedes and follows the word or phrase.
Often the sentence in which the word is used clarifies the meaning.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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Look up these verses and beside each verse write the letter
for the definition that best describes the meaning of the word
"salvation" or "saved" in that verse.
Definitions
2. Physical health.
Verses
Exodus 14:13
Luke 1:71
John 3:17
Acts 15:11
Acts 16:30
Acts 27:20
Romans 5:9
Romans 13:11
Philippians 1:19
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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d. "In the last days" (and "the last hour") is often assumed to
refer to the same period of time. But note how its usage in
its immediate contexts determine its meaning:
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verses 6,7,8,14.
Galatians 5:4, "you have fallen from grace," may seem to teach that a
Christian can lose his salvation. But this would contradict the entire
tenor of Scripture, which is inspired by God "who cannot lie." The
same is true of Philippians 2:12 which may at first glance seem to
suggest that a person can attain salvation by works.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
can be saved after he has died. This would contradict the plain
teaching of Titus 3:5, etc. (b) A complex, ingenious, or devious
interpretation should not be given preference over the simple and
more natural explanation. For example, how should Matthew 16:28
be interpreted? (c) The Old Testament sheds light on the New
Testament (e.g., Cain, Balaam, and Korah in Jude 11) and vice
versa.
A. The Bible was originally written in three languages. The Old Testament was
written primarily in Hebrew, with Aramaic (a closely related language)
being used to write parts of Daniel, Ezra, and a verse in Jeremiah. The New
Testament was written entirely in Greek.
1. Commentaries
3. Concordance Studies
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
Three principles are useful in helping you choose words on which you will
want to do major word studies.
In the various tools which you will be using to do word Studies, the target
word can be written in three different ways.
2. The Greek word may be transliterated. That is, the Greek word is
written using letters of the English alphabet.
3. The Greek word is written using the letters of the Greek alphabet.
a. Contextual form
b. Lexical form
D. UNDERSTANDING CONCORDANCES
1. Translation Differences
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
Hermeneutics Instructor
On the other hand, the opposite situation may also occur. That is,
more than one word in the original languages can be translated by
the same English word. For example, in the KJV alone, the English
verb "dwell" is used to translate 31 different Hebrew, Aramaic, and
Greek words!
STEP 1: Locate the other verses in which this same Hebrew / Aramaic /
Greek word is used.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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STEP 3: Determine the category which best fits the word in the verse you
are studying.
Briefly list the possible meanings of the word and the preferred
meaning for it in the verse you studying. Then explain how that
meaning affects the interpretation of your passage.
* * * * * * * *
b. Find the listing of the verse you are studying and note the
number next to it on the right side of the column. This
number refers to the specific Greek, Hebrew, or Aramaic
word which is used. If you wish, you can turn to the back
index to find out what the original word actually is.
c. Mark the other verses in the list in Strong's which have this
number next to them. (If it is a verb, you may also need to
look under other spellings of the verb: keep, kept, keepeth.)
These are the verses you will want to look up as you do your
concordance study.
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b. Locate the listing of the verse you are studying. Note that
Young's already lists words in groups according to which
Hebrew / Aramaic / Greek word is used. That is, the has
already gathered into one list the verses which use the
original language word you are studying.
c. These are the verses you will want to look up as you do your
concordance study.
a. This two volume set gives you clear directions for use.
Briefly, you look up the verse in Volume 1. This is a KJV
Bible with a code number written over most of the words.
You then look up that number in Volume 2, which is a
concordance. There you will find a handy list of every New
Testament verse which uses that Greek word.
b. These are the verses you will want to look up for your word
study.
1. Lexicons
a. A lexicon is a dictionary.
b. The most useful one for New Testament studies is: Walter
Bauer. A Greek English Lexicon of the N e w
Testament and other Early Christian Literature. 5th
ed. Trans. by W. F. Arndt. F. W. Gingrich, and F. W.
Danker 2nd English ed. Chicago: University of Chicago,
1979.
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d. To use it, look up the Greek word in Strong's and then find
this word in the lexicon. Or, use the numbering system in
The Word Study New Testament to quickly find the exact
page on which the Greek word is located.
The necessity for studying important words will become more obvious as you
spend more time working through various passages and learn that many of the key
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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A. This first section will deal with how to do brief overview studies of words
using some of the languages tools that are available to you.
1. First, identify the Hebrew or Greek words you wish to study that lie
behind the English translation you are using. This can be done
through Young's or Strong's Concordances, the Word Study New
Testament (WSNT), or you may use a Hebrew or Greek Interlinear.
[If you have taken Hebrew or Greek classes, then look up as many
of the important words as you have time for in the "lexicons" (a
fancy word for dictionary; specifically BDB {Brown, Driver, and
Briggs} or BAGD {Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich, and Danker}). Cf.
Fee, New Testament Exegesis, 83-93 and especially "How to Use
Bauer," 87-89 for a very helpful explanation and example of how to
do short word studies.]
3. Look up the references and see how the word is used in various
contexts. List out those occurrences that use the word in basically
the same way. Try to specify as clearly as possible how ;the word is
used in this passage. Use your English concordances to find
English synonyms for the Greek word used in this text--i.e. other
ways in which this term could be translated.
B. For a very critical word or two, you might want to do a moderate length,
full-dress word study (8-10 hours worth of study).
To do this on your own you might include all or most of the following.
1. Etymology.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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(Often this is not too significant, but this area may need to be
researched if it is a particularly rare word. Although few words in
the NT are truly singular terms [technical term: hapax legomena],
such concerns are more common in the OT. Useful sources might
include BDB, L&S, BAGD.)
3. The Septuagint (i.e. LXX) allows us to see how the Greeks around
250-150 BC used various terms as they translated the OT. (Source:
Hatch and Redpath [H&R], although a knowledge of both Greek
and Hebrew is helpful to use this too.) Write down the Hebrew
words most often translated by the Greek word under study, along
with any illustrations from non-metaphorical examples. Try to
identify any differences from how the word was used in the classical
language (i.e., are there any new or omitted categories of meaning?).
5. NT: How often and where are the majority of these occurrences
found? Can you form various categories of usage's (especially
separating literal and metaphorical usage's, if appropriate).
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Lastly, you should check a good commentary to see how they have
understood the word.
N.B.: your ability use such tools and perform such in depth study
depends upon the skills you have developed and the time you have
available for study. One can obviously go into great depth if one
wishes and spend several years doing an authoritative word study.
The result of a series of such studies--in the form of scholarly
articles, doctoral dissertations, and books--is found in works such
as Kittel and NIDNTT. Even the busy Christian worker should to a
study like this on an important word from time to time. It will build
a background of understanding in one's mind as well as develop
"biblical theology" in one's mind.
C. After you have done what your skill and / or time allows concerning your
inductive study, you might wish to read the articles for other key word in
NIDNTT, Kittel. Theological Wordbook of the OT (TWOT),
Theological Dictionary of the OT (TDOT, Botterwick & Winggren, though
this work has yet to be completed in the English language). Should you feel
lost in such works, you may want to simply consult Vine's Expository
Dictionary which does on occasion include selected OT words in the more
recent editions. While the work is old and has been surpassed due to some
questionable methodology, it will still add much to your work. Be honest
with your own abilities and try to build upon them. At the same time, it will
be helpful to your own growth to challenge your knowledge by working in
texts that will push you.
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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A. Morphology
Morphology refers to the way words are "inflected," that is, formed or put
together (e.g., with something at the beginning of the word-a prefix, or at
the end of the word--a suffix, or in the middle). Adding an "s" at the end of
the noun "fuse" makes it plural, but adding "re" at the beginning of "fuse"
makes it the verb "refuse," or changing the "e" at the end to "al" makes it a
noun "refusal." "He" means that the pronoun is in the nominative case, but
"him" is in the accusative case. "Eat" is a verb in the present tense but when
the "e" is transferred to the end, it becomes "ate" and is in the past tense. In
Greek and Hebrew the meanings of words are changed similarly by
inflections at the beginning, middle, or end. Thus morphology is an
important part of the grammatical approach to interpretation, which seeks to
give attention to every detail of the Scriptures because of their verbal
inspiration.
B. Parts of Speech
b. Pronouns
They are substitutes for nouns
and refer to persons or things Case, Number, Gender
named or understood.
c. Adjectives
They describe nouns.
To agree with the nouns they
modify in case, number, and
d. Prepositions gender.
They point to means (through
or by), position (in, out, over,
under, etc.), origin (from),
possession (of), etc. and are
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be helpful in interpretation.
a. In Job 21:2-3a the verbs "listen" and "bear" (with me) are in
the plural and the pronoun "you" is in the plural, and so Job
is addressing the three friends. But in Job 21:3b "you" is
singular and so he is speaking to Zophar.
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The word "syntax" comes from the Greek "syntassein," which means "to place in
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A. Phrases
B. Clauses
Purpose: "We pray for you ... so that you may walk. . .
worthy" (Colossians 1:10).
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Temporal).
_________________________
2. "If you have been raised up with Christ, keep seeking (Colossians
3:1).
_________________________
3. "Do not lie to one another, since you laid aside the old self"
(Colossians 3:9).
_________________________
4. "I say this in order that no one may delude you" (Colossians 2:4).
_________________________
5. "When you were dead ... He made you alive" (Colossians 2:13).
_________________________
6. "Let your speech always be with grace ... so that you may know
(Colossians 4:6).
_________________________
7. "Epaphras (is) always laboring earnestly for you in his prayers that
you may stand perfect" (Colossians 4:12).
_________________________
C. Sentences
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_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
7. "In them you also once walked, when you were living in
them" (Colossians 3:7).
_______________________
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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For example:
In Hebrew the normal word order is verb, subject, object. Thus if the
subject or the object comes first, that is emphasized. For example, in Isaiah
1:14 the order is object, verb, subject, thus stressing the object: "Your new
moon festivals and your appointed feasts I (literally, my soul) hate."
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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5. Decide which one of several possible meanings best fits the thought
of the passage.
1. Analyze the sentence and its elements, noting its parts of speech, the
kind of sentence it is, the kinds of clauses it has, and the word order.
2. Discover the meaning of each key word (see the five points above
under "A") and how they contribute to the meaning of the sentence.
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UNIT THREE:
THE WORLD
IN THE TEXT
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Chafer Theological Seminary Dr. Stephen R. Lewis
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Some of the definitions Webster's Dictionary gives of the word "rhetoric" are these:
"a type or mode of language or speech," "style of language," and "the verbal
elements employed in or characteristic of discourse relating to a particular subject."
"Rhetorical interpretation" thus refers to the process of determining how the style
(particular verbal elements or ways of expression) and form (organizational
structure) of a writing influence how it is to be understood. Thus it may be defined
in this way: "Rhetorical Interpretation is the process of determining the literary
quality of a writing by, analyzing its genre (kind of composition), structure (how
the material is organized), and figures of speech (colorful expressions for literary
effort), and how those factors influence the meaning of the text."
The word "genre" is a French word from the Latin "genus" and thus means
a literary type.
"We do this with all kinds of literature. We distinguish between lyric poetry
and legal briefs, between newspaper accounts of current events and epic
poems. We distinguish between the style of historical narratives and
sermons ... " (Sproul, Knowing Scripture, p. 49).
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1. Legal Literature
2. Historical Theological
3. Narratives
a. Tragedy
b. Epic
d. Heroic -
e. Satirical
f. Polemic
4. Poetry
5. Wisdom
6. Gospels
8. Apocalyptic
9. Prophetic
"Structure" is "the network of relations among the parts of an object or a unit" (S.
Bar-Efrat, "Some Observations on the Analysis of Structure in Biblical Narrative,"
Vetus Testamentum 30 [1980]: 155). "Structural analysis" of the Bible, then, is
the effort to analyze the relationships that exist in the network of structural elements
in self-contained portions (both large and small) of Scripture.
When ever you have two of anything [terms, phrases, clauses, prepositions,
connectives, sentences, paragraphs, chapters, etc.] you have structure.
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-relationships
-arrangement
B. Kinds of Structure
a. Verbs
b. Subject / object
c. Modifiers
d. Dependent and independent clauses
e. Phrases - especially prepositional
f. Connectives
C. Spheres of Structure
D. Principles of Structure
1. Recognition that the paragraph is the basic unit of study and thought -
not verse or chapter
-Characteristics:
a. Brief
b. Personal
c. Memorable
d. Unique to one paragraph
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1. Comparison
2. Contrast
3. Repetition
4. Continuity
5. Continuation
6. Climax
7. Cruciality
8. Interchange
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The movement from the general to the particular, and from the
particular to the general.
11. Instrumentation
The setting forth of the means to an end as well as the end itself.
Instrumentation thus involves the factor of purpose. The law is
related to the preceding law, in that, means often have a causal
relation to their purpose.
14. Summarization
15. Interrogation
16. Harmony
17. Proportion
18. Illustration
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e. Stairstep: Second line repeats the first line and then adds
something else to the thought (Psalm 29:1)
A
B
A'
B'
A Hearts
B Ears
C Eyes
X
C' Eyes
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B' Ears
A' Hearts
G. Plot Motifs:
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1. Always use the literal sense unless there is some good reason for departure.
Example: Revelation 7:1-8.
2. Use the figurative sense when the passage is stated to be figurative. Example:
Zechariah 12:6.
3. Use the figurative sense if the literal involves an impossibility. Examples: Jeremiah
1:18; Revelation 1:1-6.
4. Use the figurative sense if the literal commands immoral action. Example: John
6:53.
5. Use the figurative sense if the expression fits into one of the classes of the figures of
speech. Example: Zechariah 12:2.
6. Use the figurative sense if the literal is contrary to the context and scope of the
passage. Examples: Matthew 5:42; Zechariah 13:1; Revelation 20:1 (chain).
7. Use the figurative sense if the literal is contrary to the general character and style of
the book.
8. Use the figurative sense if the literal is contrary to the plan and purpose of the
author.
9. Use the figurative sense if the literal involves a contradiction with a parallel passage.
10. Use the figurative sense if the literal involves a contradiction in doctrine.
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Luke 10:3, "I send you out as lambs in the midst of wolves."
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The substituting of a part for the whole or a whole for the part.
(Metonymy deals with related nouns; synecdoche deals with related
ideas).
Psalm 139:2, "Thou dost know when I sit down and when I rise
up."
5. Personification
Isaiah 55:12, "the trees of the field will clap their hands."
6. Anthropomorphism
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7. Anthropopathism
8. Zoomorphism
9. Apostrophe
10. Euphemism
1. Ellipsis
II Timothy 4:18, "The Lord will save me (and bring me) to His
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heavenly kingdom."
2. Zeugma
The joining of two nouns to one verb when logically only one of the
nouns goes with the verb.
I Corinthians 3:2, "I gave you milk to drink, and not solid food."
3. Aposiopesis
Exodus 32:32, "But now, if Thou wilt forgive their sin--and if not"
Ephesians 3:1, "For this reason I Paul, the prisoner of Christ Jesus
for the sake of you Gentiles--if indeed you have heard
4. Rhetorical Questions
I Corinthians 10:22, "We are not stronger than He, are we?"
1. Hyperbole
Job 19:3, "These ten times you have insulted me. of (See "ten times"
also in Genesis 31:7,41; Numbers 14:22; Nehemiah 4:12; Daniel
1:20.)
2. Litotes
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John 6:37, “The one who comes to me I will by no means cast out.”
I Thessalonians 2:14-15, "the Jews who both killed the Lord Jesus
and the prophets ... are not pleasing to God."
Revelation 3:5, “He who overcomes . . .I will not blot them out his
name from the Book of Life.”
3. Irony
4. Pleonasm
Job 42:5, "I have heard of Thee by the hearing of the ear."
1. Oxymoron
2. Paradox
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Matthew 13:12, "Whoever does not have, even what he has shall
taken away from him."
1. Paronomasia
2. 0nomatopoeia
The use of a word which by its very sound suggests its meaning.
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INTERPRETING TYPES
DEFINITIONS OF A TYPE
Wick Broomall: "A type is a shadow cast on the pages of Old Testament history by a truth
whose full embodiment or anti type is found in the New Testament revelation"
(Baker's Dictionary of Theology, p. 533).
Sylvester Burnham: "A type is a person, object, or fact, really existing in some past time,
which, because of a divine intent based upon some actual resemblance to some
other person, object, or fact, showed what was to be, in some respect, the nature or
the character of this second person, object, or fact" (The Elements of Biblical
Hermeneutics, p. 4).
Donald K. Campbell: "A type is an Old Testament institution, event, person, object, or
ceremony which has reality and purpose in Biblical history, but which also by
divine design foreshadows something yet to be revealed" ("The Interpretation of
Types," Bibliotheca Sacra 112 (July-September 1955]: 250).
Lewis Sperry Chafer: "'A type is a divinely purposed anticipation which illustrates its"
(Systematic Theology, 1: xxx).
Charles T. Fritsch: "A type is an institution, historical event or person, ordained by God,
which effectively prefigures some truth connected with Christianity" ("Biblical
Typology" Bibliotheca Sacra 104 [April-June 1947]: 214).
Carl Harwood: "A type is a person or thing in the Bible which in the foreknowledge of God
was designed to represent or prefigure some person, thing, or event that should
appear in the future" (Handbook of Bible Types and Symbols, p. 7).
Aaron Kinne: "Types are representations of absent objects by sensible signs and tokens"
(An Explanation of the Principle Types of the Holy Scriptures, p. 11).
Bernard Ramm: Typology is "the interpretation of the Old Testament based on the
fundamental theological unity of the two Testaments whereby something in the Old
shadows, prefigures, adumbrates something in the New" (Protestant Biblical
Interpretation, p. 223).
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John H. Stek: "Types are historical realities (persons, events, or institutions) which by
rod's appointment embody, and therefore exhibit, the same truths, principles, and
relationships as the corresponding New Testament realities" ("Biblical Typology
Yesterday and Today," Calvin Theological Journal 5 [1970]: 138).
1. The type and the antitype 1. The illustration and the truth 1. There is no natural corresp.
have a natural correspondence have a natural correspondence Instead, a forced or hidden
or resemblance. or resemblance. meaning is sought behind the
text.
2. The type has a historical 2. The illustration/truth 2. The Old Testament historical
reality. (The type/antitype relationship depends on the reality is ignored or denied.
relationship depends on the historical reality of the illus.. The literal meaning is unim-
literal meaning.) portant.
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TYPE
An Old Testament person, event, or thing having historical reality and designed by God to
prefigure (foreshadow) in a preparatory way a real person, event, or thing so designated in
the New Testament and that corresponds to and fulfills the type.
ILLUSTRATION
A biblical person, event, or thing having historical reality, that pictures (is analogous to)
some corresponding spiritual truth in a natural and unforced way and is not explicitly
designated in the New Testament as a type.
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1. Seek first for the literal meaning embodied within the typical item (p. 418).
2. Find out what was the original intention of the author (p. 419).
3. Allow the literal sense to be the safeguard against falling into extremes (p. 420).
4. Affirm the type and the antitype as specific, concrete, historical realities that men
encountered and to which men responded (p. 422).
5. Discover the essential meaning of the type in its own particular realm (p. 423).
6. Endeavor to crystallize the main point historically; then carry it over by transferring
it into the main point typically (p. 425).
7. Note only the real point of resemblance between type and antitype (p. 427).
8. Emphasize the one [major] idea embodied in the type and antitype (p. 429).
9. Recognize the points of difference and contrast between the type and the antitype (p.
431).
10. Ascertain the purpose and function for which the Old Testament items were given in
order to decipher the typical elements (p. 433).
11. Guard against making a thing that is in itself evil as a picture of what is good and
pure (p. 435).
13. Examine types in the light thrown back on them from the fuller revelation of the
New Testament (p. 438).
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1. Type A mark from a blow (John Heb. 8:5, "make all things
(Gr. typos) 20:25), a figure (Acts 7:43), an according to the pattern (typos)
(used 14 times) example (1 Cor. 10:6, 11; 2 which was shown you on the
Thess. 3:9; 1 Tim. 4:12; 1 Pet. mountain."
5:3), a standard (Rom. 6:17), a
pattern (Acts 23:25; Phil. 3:17;
1 Thess. 1:7; Titus 2:7; Heb.
8:5), an analogy (Rom. 5:14).
2. Antitype A repelling blow, a reflecting, a Heb. 9:24, "a holy place ... a
(Gr. antitypos) thing formed after a pattern, a mere copy (antitypa) of the true
(used 2 times) counterpart, a correspondence (I one."
Pet. 3:21, "corresponding
(antitypos] to that").
All these terms suggest the idea of correspondence or resemblance. But the mere use of the
word "typos" does not automatically identify an "official type." "Typos" is used in a
nontechnical sense more often than in a technical sense.)
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NOTE: If the Greek word "typo" ("types") in I Corinthians 10:6 and the
word "typikos" ("typically") in I Corinthians 10: 11 are to be taken as
designated "official types," then the four events in I Corinthians 10: 1-4 are
types: crossing the Red Sea (the believer's deliverance from sin), the cloud
(God's guidance for believers), the manna (Christ as the believer's
sustenance), the smitten rock (Christ the believer's spiritual refreshing).
Others, however, take these two Greek words in a non technical sense to
refer to those four events as "examples" (as the NIV translates both verses),
in which case they are analogous illustrations, not official types.
While many of these passages do not use the word "type" or a related
synonym, they do seem to meet the six criteria for a type.
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The Passover is the first of Israel's seven feasts. Perhaps the other six are also types,
based on Colossians 2:16-17, "a festival ... or a Sabbath day... which are a shadow of
what is to come; but the substance belongs to Christ." If they are types, then they are as
follows:
b. Unleavened Bread 1st month, days 15-21 Believer's holy walk I Cor. 5:7-8
d. Pentecost 3rd month, 6th day Holy Spirit's coming Joel 2:28;
Acts 2:1-47
f. Day of Atonement 7th month, 10th day Israel's national Heb. 9:19-28;
conversion by the Zech. 12:10;
shed blood of Christ Rom. 11:26-27
The sacrifices are indicated as types in Hebrews 9:9-10. These include the following:
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LEVITICUS 2:1
"The meal offering: (1) fine flour speaks of the evenness and balance of the character of
Christ, of that perfection in which no quality was in excess, none lacking; (2) fire, of His
testing by suffering, even unto death; (3) frankincense, of the fragrance of His life before
God (see Exodus 30:34, note); (4) absence of leaven, of His character as, 'the Truth' (John
14:6, cp. Exodus 12:8, marg.); (5) absence of honey-His was not that mere natural
sweetness which may exist quite apart from grace; (6) oil mingled, of Christ as born of the
Holy Spirit (Matthew 1:18-23); (7) oil upon, of Christ as baptized with the Spirit (John
1:32; 6:27); (8) the oven, of the unseen sufferings of Christ-His inner agonies (Matthew
27:45-46; Hebrews 2:18); (9) the pan, of His more evident sufferings (Matthew 27:27-31);
and (10) salt, of the pungency of the truth of God-that which arrests the action of leaven."
SAMSON
a. "Samson's nativity was foretold by an angel of God: so was the conception and
nativity of Jesus Christ foretold by an angel. Samson was sanctified from the
womb: so was Christ much more.
b. Samson in respect of his great strength, as some conceive, was a type of Christ.
c. He conquered a stout lion in the desert, hand to hand, as it were: so Christ overcame
the roaring lion, the devil, in the wilderness, and made him fly.
d. He slew many of God's enemies by his death: so Jesus Christ by death overcame
sin, Satan, hell, and the grave."
--Benjamin Keach, Preaching from the Types and Metaphors of the Bible, p. 977.
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_____ 3. The inn in the parable of the good Samaritan is a type of the church which
should be full of Christians who will nourish newborn Christians.
_____ 4. Solomon in the glory of his kingdom was a type of Christ in His glory.
_____ 5. David eating the tabernacle showbread was a type of Christ eating grain on
the Sabbath.
_____ 6. The water in the laver in the tabernacle is a type of the Word ministered by
the Holy Spirit.
_____ 7. Jonah being expelled from the fish's stomach is a type of the resurrection of
Christ.
_____ 8. The brass serpent being lifted up in the wilderness is a type of Christ being
crucified.
_____ 9. Jacob's pillow of stone is a type of Christ going from the Temple to the
Cross.
_____ 10. The wicks on the tabernacle lampstand are a type of the Christian's old sin
nature which constantly needs trimming.
_____ 11. Abraham's servant finding a bride for Isaac is a type of the Holy Spirit
finding a bride (the church) for Christ.
_____ 13. Moses praying with his arms held up is a type of Christ being crucified on
the cross.
_____ 15. The priest trimming the wicks on the lampstand is a type of Christ dealing
with our sins.
_____ 17. The clothes of Esau which Jacob wore when he deceived his father Isaac are
a type of the church dressed in the righteousness of Christ.
_____ 18. The fine flour in the I meal offering is a type of the evenness and balance of
Christ's character.
_____ 19. The cooking of the fine flour in the meal offering is a type of Christ being
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tested by suffering.
_____ 20. Samson meeting the lion is a type of Christ meeting Paul on the Damascus
Road.
_____ 21. The acacia wood in the tabernacle is a type of the humanity of Christ.
_____ 22. The altar of incense in the tabernacle is a type of Christ's intercessory work.
_____ 23. The rams' skins dyed red (and placed over the tabernacle) were a type of
Peter and Paul after they were saved.
_____ 24. The Passover feast was a type of Christ as our sacrifice.
_____ 25. Isaac being sacrificed by Abraham is a type of Christ being sacrificed for us.
_____ 26. The bells and pomegranates on the hem of Aaron's robe are a type of the
proclamation of the gospel.
_____ 27. The divided hoof in some animals (Leviticus 11:3) is a type of the Christian
whose spiritual walk is divided.
_____ 28. The manna in the wilderness is a type of Christ sustaining the believer
spiritually.
_____ 30. Enoch is a type of the church saints who will be raptured before the
tribulation.
_____ 31. The Feast of Pentecost is a type of the church being formed on the day of
Pentecost.
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INTERPRETING SYMBOLS
The word "symbol" comes from the Greek word "symbolle", "a throwing
together." A symbol is some object (real or imagined) or act which is assigned a
meaning for the purpose of depicting rather than stating the qualities of something
else.
Symbols and types are both representative of something else. A type represents
something to come, but a symbol has no time reference. It is usually something that
already exists, such as a lion as a symbol of Christ, or the bread and wine as
symbols of the Lord's Supper.
A. Remember that symbols have their base in reality that is, symbols are base
real objects such as a lion, a bear, a boiling pot, etc. When Christ is said to
be a lamb or a lion, He is not Himself literally a lamb or a lion, but those
kinds of animals do exist in reality so that a meaningful resemblance can be
drawn between the object and the referent. In prophecy, symbols are
sometimes in the realm of imagination rather than actually such as a beast
with seven heads and seven horns (Revelation 17:3), or a leopard with four
heads and four wings (Daniel 7:6), or woman in a basket (Zecheriah 5:5-
11). And yet those symbols are built on realities, such as heads, horns, a
leopard, wings, a woman, a basket, etc.
C. If the text does not give the meaning/resemblance, then check other
passages, check the nature of the symbol, and check with characteristics the
referent and the symbol have in common.
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Matthew 10:16 only their docile nature is indicated as the point of reference
to believers, whereas in Hosea 7:11 only their flighty nature is indicated as
the point of resemblance to Israel.
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MIRACULOUS SYMBOLS
Sword at the east of Eden (Gen. 3:24) Breach of fellowship between man and God
Burning bush (Exod. 3:2) God's holiness
Pillar of cloud (Exod. 13:21-22) God's presence and guidance
VISIONAL SYMBOLS
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MATERIAL SYMBOLS
SYMBOLIC ACTIONS
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, and John performed symbolic actions. For a discussion
of these see Mickelsen, Interpreting the Bible, pp. 276-77, and Terry,
Biblical Hermeneutics, pp. 369-79.
SYMBOLIC NUMBERS
Some numbers seem to suggest certain concepts because they are frequently used in
association with the concept (e.g., six is often associated with evil, Rev. 13:18;
Dan. 3:1; seven is often associated with perfection, Gen. 2:2-3; Rev. 1:12; 4:5; 5:1;
8:1; 15:1; 16:1; forty is often associated with testing as in Moses' forty years in
Midian, Israel's forty years in the wilderness, Jesus' forty days of temptation).
However, this kind of association is no basis for making the numbers mean
something other than their normal, literal meaning. Though the length of Jesus'
temptation is associated with the concept-of testing, He was tempted for forty literal
days. "It is true that the seven lampstands are symbolical of completeness, but this
does not imply that there are six or five lampstands. There are literally seven and
the symbolic significance is derivable from the literalness of the number" (Charles
Lee Feinberg, Premillennialism or Amillennialism? p. 21).
John T. Davis, Biblical Numerology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1968.
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John Van Puffelen, "How to Interpret Biblical Symbols," The Sunday School Times,
December 14, 1963, pp. 4-5.
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HEBREW POETRY
The most outstanding feature of Hebrew Poetry is its parallelism. "This term refers to the
practice of balancing one though or phrase by a corresponding thought or phrase containing
approximately the same number of words, or at least a correspondence in ideas" (G. Archer)
By this technique, the poetry is not only easy to memorize in Hebrew, but is easy to translate
into other languages. There are three basic types of parallelism: synonymous, antithetic and
synthetic. There are three other categories widely recognized: emblematic, climactic, and
formal.
Psalm 3:1 O Lord, how many are my foes! Many are risen against me!
Psalm 1:6 For the Lord knows the way of the righteous. But the way of the wicked
shall perish.
3. Synthetic: the second line takes up and develops further a thought in the first line.
Psalm 95:3 For the Lord is a Great God And a great king above all gods.
4. Emblematic: one line conveys the main point, the second line illuminates it by an
image.
Psalm 42:1 As a hart longs for flowing streams, So longs my soul for thee, Oh
God!
5. Climactic: the first line is an incomplete thought and the second line repeats the
first with the exception of the term which it changes to complete the thought.
Psalm 29:1 Ascribe to the Lord, O heavenly beings, Ascribe to the Lord glory and
strength.
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1. The Psalms stress the activity of the living God (cf. Ps. 42: 2) as the
God who creates, saves, reigns, elects, and reveals.
2. The Psalms stress the nature of the living God in affirming that God
is holy, righteous, loving and faithful, Spirit. and one.
B. Since the Bible is the unfolding of God's purposes throughout history, the
Psalms can be viewed as episodes in the outworking of that purpose.
1. The Psalms present for praise and contemplation the acts of God in
history, law, nature, and in the lives of people.
2. The historical conflict between good and evil pervades the Psalms, the
people of the Psalms being the good and the evil (the godly and the
godless), with the psalmist dramatizing the choice between good and
evil, and making his choice for God and good.
B. Note the clearly Messianic Psalms in each category, and be careful of forcing
Messianic implications into others.
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3. The fact that poetry is artistic means that as an object of beauty a poem
will display in fuller measure and with greater frequency the
components of artistic form, including pattern or design, unity,
theme, or centrality, balance, harmony, contrast, unified progression,
recurrence, and variation.
B. Give special attention to both the artistic structure and artistic language of the
Psalms.
A. The type of Psalm you are dealing with will have a major influence on how
you understand, interpret, and teach the Psalm.
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C. Where the historical context is not specifically stated, it is probably best not to
speculate.
VI. TRY TO GIVE A PICTURE OF THE PEOPLE WHO USED THESE PSALMS
A. The following picture of the Old Testament Hebrews emerges from the
Psalm:
4. They lived close to nature and mostly lived in the country rather than
the city.
VII. LOOK FOR THE CENTRAL IDEA OF THE PSALM (ITS MESSAGE)
A. Being emotional poems intended to be sung, the Psalms are (for the most
part) relatively brief, and so are self-contained units.
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A. What is a Parable?
Behind the Greek word "parabole" used in the gospels lies the Hebrew
word "masal." The LXX translates the Hebrew word "masal" as
"parabole" twenty-eight of the thirty-three times it occurs. D. A. Carson
would claim that to a Jew, "masal" could refer to many different types of
literature including proverbs, maxims, similies, allegories, fables,
comparisons, riddles, taunts, and stories embodying some truth. Jeremias
would agree with Carson on this. The Greek word "parabole" also has a
wide usage in the New Testament. It can refer to a prover (Luke 4:23),
profound or obscure saying (Matthew 13:35), symbol (Hebrews 9:9),
illustrative comparison with (Matthew 13:3-9) or without (Matthew 15:15)
the form of a story, or an illustrative story not involving the common contrast
between two people's response to God or their fellow man. "Parable" then
is a term that could refer to what we would call allegories. Their
interrelationship is especially evident when we not that in verse 2. Ezekiel 17
is called both a parable and an allegory. To clarify their relationship we need
to find what the essence of pure allegory is.
B. What is Allegory?
In the Old Testament, the Hebrew word for "allegory" is "hidah." It refers
to a riddle or enigmatic [hidden] saying that normally requires an explanation.
An important usage of it is in Numbers 12:8 in which speaking in allegory is
contrasted with speaking openly and clearly. An allegory then has a meaning
which is not obvious, but requires special insight or explanation. In the
New Testament, the Greek word for allegory (allegoreo) is only used one,
in Galatians 4:24. Paul uses this word to describe what he is doing in
Galatians 4:24-30. What Paul seems to be doing is using every person and
thing he mentions, to illustrate something else. For example, Hagar is an
illustration of the Mosaic covenant. Ryken would agree with the above; he
would just explain it differently. He would say that the essence of allegory is
when a detail in a passage is given a corresponding meaning other than its
obvious one.
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A. Didactive Parables
1. Nature and Development of the Kingdom (the sower, the tares, the
mustard seed, the leaven, the hidden treasure, the pearl of great price,
the fishing net)
2. Service and Rewards (workers in the vineyard, the talents, the
pounds, the servant's reward)
3. Prayer (the friend at midnight, the unjust judge)
4. Love for neighbor (the good Samaritan)
5. Humility (the Pharisee and the tax-gatherer)
6. Wealth (the unjust steward, the rich fool, the great supper)
B. Evangelistic Parables
1. God's love for the lost (the lost sheep, the lost coin, the lost son)
2. Gratitude of the redeemed (the two debtors)
1. Watchfulness for Christ's Return (the ten virgins, the two servants,
the watchful doorkeeper)
A. To teach, exhort, or warn the Lord's immediate hearers (e.g., the two
debtors)
B. To teach a specific spiritual truth (e.g., the good Samaritan, the unjust just,
the Pharisee and the tax-gatherer)
C. To teach a specific doctrinal truth (the wicked vinegrower)
D. To outline general conditions during a specific period (e.g., the sower and
the soils, the mustard seed, the leaven)
E. To outline a more extended period covering prolonged and varied situations
(e.g., the two sons, the wicked vinegrowers, the marriage of the king's son)
A. The Great Assurance (from contrasting parables) The mustard seed, the
leaven, the seed growing secretly, the sower)
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B. Now is the Day of Salvation (the new garment and new wine, the barren fig
tree, the lost sheep)
C. God's Mercy for Sinners (the lost sheep, the lost coin, the lost son, the two
debtors, the Pharisee and the tax-gatherer, the two sons, the workers in the
vineyard, the unjust judge, the friend at midnight)
D. The Imminence of Catastrophe (the barren fig tree, the talents, the
doorkeeper, the wicked vinegrowers, the two houses)
E. The Challenge of the Crisis (the unjust steward, the marriage of the king's
son, the ten virgins, the servant's reward, the two houses, the unfinished
tower and the king's war)
F. Realized Discipleship (the hidden treasure, the pearl of great price, the
unforgiving servant, the servant's reward)
G. The Consummation (the tares, the fishing net)
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The Doorkeeper Mark 13:34b Mark 13:34a Luke 12:36b Mark 13:35 Luke 12:38 Mark 13:36
Luke 12:36a
The Two Servants
The Talents Matt. 25: Matt. 25:15d Matt.25: Matt. 25:19 Matt. 25: Matt.25:24-28
14-15c 16-18 20-23
The Pounds -- Luke 19:12 Luke 19:14 Luke 19:15a -- Luke 19:27
The servant departs (or is away) and then returns to the master to report. The
reckoning received is unexpected
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Reward
--Adapted from John D. Crossan, "The
Servant Parables of Jesus," Semeia 1 (1974):
17-62.
CHAPTER VIII
CONCLUSION
The stated purpose of this dissertation was to derive and present systematically
principles of hermeneutics which might be employed in the interpretation of Old Testament
apocalyptic literature. It was immediately observed that this aim would necessitate two
secondary objectives: 1) a definition of apocalyptic literature, and 2) a determination of the
corpus of apocalyptic literature.
Due to the confusion among scholars as to what constitutes a proper definition of
apocalyptic literature, the present writer examined all known extant definitions in order to
determine whether they were accurate or whether they might possess some element
essential to a definition of this genre. It was concludes however, that the only valid source
for a definition of this literature type was the book which had given its name to this unique
genre: the Apocalypse of the New Testament. After investigating the basic characteristics
of this literary genre) the following definition of apocalyptic literature was stated:
apocalyptic literature is symbolic visionary prophetic literature, composed during
oppressive conditions, consisting of visions whose events are recorded exactly as they
were seen by the author and explained through a divine interpreter and whose theological
content is primarily eschatological.
On the basis of this definition, the prophetic books of the New Testament, Old
Testament, and extra-biblical "apocalypses" were examined to determine a true corpus of
apocalyptic literature. In the New Testament, only the book of the Revelation was found to
be apocalyptic. In the Old Testament, the apocalyptic passages were shown to include
Ezekiel 37:1-14, Ezekiel 40-48, Daniel's visions: In chapters two, seven, eights and ten
through twelve, and Zechariah 1:7 through 6:6. Extra-biblical apocalyptic literature was
discovered to consist of I Enoch 90, II Esdras, II Baruch., and A Description of New
Jerusalem.
Since the basic interest in this dissertation is a system of hermeneutics for the
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interpretation of Old Testament apocalyptic literature, the author examined the basic aspects
of this genre, and from these and derived the essential hermeneutics.
First, it was seen that Yahweh chose to employ a literary form which was prevalent
during the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. when Old Testament apocalyptic literature was
revealed. This literary form was the dream-vision of the Ancient Near East, which consists
of two basic sections: 1) the introduction of the vision, and 2) the vision and interpretation.
The essential characteristics of this literary form were basically the same gas those found in
the apocalyptic literature of the Old Testament. Arising from this literary form are several
hermeneutical principles condemning the Sitz in Leben of oppressing exilic conditions and
the Gattung: 1) the interpreter of Old Testament apocalyptic literature must be thoroughly
acquainted with the milieu of the sixth century B.C. 2) it is imperative that the interpreter
reconstruct, as far as possible, from an historical data available, the complete Sitz im Leben
of this historical period; 3) the milieu of the Old Testament apocalyptic literature
demonstrates that the interpretation of this genre is primarily futuristic; 4) apocalyptic
literature will often embody a reiteration and elaboration of promises of God concerning the
latter days; 5) apocalyptic literature is mare nationalistic than individualistic; 6) the exegete
of apocalyptic literature must thoroughly understand the purposes of these writings as
implied and stated within them; 7) the student of apocalyptic literature should seek to
become completely familiar with each of the three apocalyptists of the Old Testament; 8) the
interpreter should employ the historical facts of this milieu as guidelines both for
interpreting the passage and for checking his interpretation; 9) since the apocalyptists lived
in the exile and immediately afterwards, the amount of prophetic material to which they
might refer has been limited; 10) cultural customs and institutions of that day must be
thoroughly understood and employed in the interpretation of these passages; 13) the student
of Old Testament apocalyptic literature must be well-grounded in his understanding of Old
Testament archaeology as it relates to this period; 12) the interpreter must accept and apply
the literary Gattung of apocalyptic literature; 13) the exegete must believe in the
supernatural; 14) introductory formulae must be understood; 15) apocalyptic visions
employ the principle of repetition; 16) the interpreter must constantly look for the basic
motifs, especially of imagery; 17) apocalyptic literature is primarily prose, with poetic
rhapsodies; 18) all apocalyptic visions written in Hebrew are autobiographical; 19) divine
interpretation is to be sought and permitted to stand alone without additions, or without
seeking to interpret the interpretation; 20) questions and answers are common features of
the interpretive sections of apocalyptic visions; 21) some items need no interpretation; 22)
many divine interpretations are not self-evident; 23) divine interpretation tends to expand an
item or event in the vision; 24) divine interpretation places emphasis upon basic concepts
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rather than detail; 25) each item in a vision does not necessarily need to be interpreted; 26)
common sentence construction should be observed as well as vocabulary which is unique
to this literary genre. The specific hermeneutics which apply to symbolism and figurative
language were reserved for a separate chapter, even though symbolism is a basic motif of
apocalyptic literature in its literary form. Several principles for distinguishing between
literal and symbolic in apocalyptic visions were presented, followed by a brief discussion
of the fundamental traits of symbolism. The following hermeneutical principles were set
forth for interpreting symbols in apocalyptic literature: 1) the interpreter should distinguish
between the literal and the symbolic on the basis of the divine interpretation and context; 2)
the attributes of symbolism should be employed in interpreting symbols; 3) the interpreter
must apply the concept of literal interpretation with respect to the basic nature of the
symbol, and to the divine interpretation thereof; 4) symbolism must be interpreted within its
own context; 5) the basic nature and attributes of the symbol itself must be discerned as
clearly as possible; 6) the basic nature and characteristics of the object to which the symbol
refers must be expanded; 7) make every analogy or resemblance possible within the
context of the vision and its interpretation, but at the same time, continually remember that
the race can only be run, and not complete; 8) the points of comparison between the symbol
and the object symbolized should not be extended without valid justification; 9) one should
be able to substitute an equivalent literal communication for the symbol; 10) the
explanations of the divine interpreter should be followed closely; 11) the cultural milieu
should be employed in interpreting symbols; 12) comparison should be made with other
Biblical symbols; 13) symbols should be compared with the analogy of Scripture; 14)
symbols are not stereotyped; 15) identifications of symbols are not always specific persons
or events; 16) similarities do not mean equivalents; 17) correspondence between the symbol
and the object symbolized should be 18) the exegete must be consistent in his
interpretation; 19) observe the frequency and distribution of a symbol, but allow each
context to control the specific meaning; 20) foreign mythological and polytheistic rites are
not nee to interpret symbolic literature; 21) some symbols are similar to types; 22) the
interpreter may not employ subjectivity and speculation in interpretation; and 23) colors in
apocalyptic visions will be taken as literal, unless proven to be approximate, not symbolic.
Since every interpreter approaches Scripture with a theological persuasion, whether
consciously or unconsciously, it was necessary to establish some fundamental theological
hermeneutical principles. Such rules of interpretation include: 1) belief in the supernatural;
2) the exegete must keep dispensational distinctions clear in his interpretation of apocalyptic
visions; 3) the interpreter should have a working knowledge of the basic eschatological
framework and message of Old Testament apocalyptic literature; 4) the premillennial system
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is alone satisfactory to interpret the eschatological portions of this genre; 5) the eschatology
of apocalyptic literature is not something necessarily new; 6) apocalyptic eschatology has a
broader outlook than prophecy in general with regard to the scope of eschatology; 7)
apocalyptic visions concentrate on the future end times; 8) God is sovereign and dete-rmin-
istic in His execution of history; 9) a biblical dualism should form a mental background in
which the exegete interprets apocalyptic literature; 10) the emphasis of the prophecies of
apocalyptic literature is more nationalistic than individualistic; 11) a purpose of apocalyptic
literature is to reveal that all unfulfilled prophecy will be fulfilled; 12) a principle of an
hiatus in prophetic passages is sometimes true in apocalyptic visions; 13) double reference
is employed in this genre; 14) social ethics are not characteristic of apocalyptic, but they are
not altogether absent.
The last chapter of this dissertation treats the many general hermeneutics which
apply to Old Testament apocalyptic literature, and which do not fall into one of the previous
classifications or which apply to the literature in general. These principles consist of: 1) the
use of literal or normal interpretation, unless there is proof to the contrary; 2) the interpreter
should avoid any and all means of speculation in interpreting apocalyptic literature; 3) the
interpreter should seek to be consistent in his method and procedure of interpretation; 4) the
student of this genre should not approach it with any preconceived ideas as to the meaning
of the given passage; 5) truth does not constitute correctness in interpreting apocalyptic
literature; 6) the exegete must employ all principles of textual criticism, grammar, and
syntax in his interpretation of apocalyptic literature; 7) the context, both immediate and
remote, must be considered; 8) all mythological and paganistic influences should be omitted
in the interpretation of Old Testament apocalyptic literature; only those cultural institutions
from the milieu of Babylon and Persia. are permitted in the interpretation of this genre; 9)
extra-biblical apocalypses have very little to offer in the interpretation of Old Testament
apocalyptic Literature; 10) the student should never accept everything a commentator says
without first investigating the validity of the statement for himself; and he must examine
past interpretations in the light of recent scholarship; and 11) the interpreter should employ
past history from the revelation of the apocalyptic vision to the present day to help interpret
this genre, but he must not think that he is the first one who is able to interpret the literature
because of history, nor should he speculate some interpretation from his contemporary
political history or from what he thinks will occur in the future.
The writer is aware that this dissertation is only one step toward a better
understanding of Old Testament apocalyptic literature, and that it by no means exhausts the
subject. It is hoped that the reader will more thoroughly understand the nature and corpus
of apocalyptic literature, and that the hermeneutical principles contained herein will be a
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But first, the following ten principles should help you to avoid obvious errors in
interpretation whenever you seek to exegete these and other stories.
4. What people do in narratives is not necessarily a good example for us. Frequently, it
is just the opposite.
5. Most of the characters in Old Testament narratives are far from perfect and their
actions are, too.
6. We are not always told at the end of a narrative whether what happened was good or
bad. We are expected to be able to judge that on the basis of what God has taught us
directly and categorically elsewhere in the Scripture.
7. All narratives are selective and incomplete. Not all the relevant details are always
given (cf. John 21:25). What does appear in the narrative is everything that the
inspired author thought important for us to know.
8. Narratives are not written to answer all our theological questions. They have
particular, specific limited purposes and deal with certain issues, leaving others to be
dealt with elsewhere, in other ways.
9. Narratives may teach either explicitly (by clearly stating something) or implicitly (by
clearly implying something without actually stating it).
10. In the final analysis, God is the hero of all biblical narratives.
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2. Compare parallel passages, and fit all prophetic passages together in a unified
whole. An understanding of the Book of Revelation, for example, is aided by an
understanding of the Book of Daniel.
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A. The Facts
"A very conservative count lists 295 separate quotations: 224 direct citations
prefixed by an introductory formula; 7 additional cases where 'and'
connects a second quotation to the one previously identified as such; 19
passages where a paraphrase or summary rather that a definite citation
follows an introductory formula (e.g., Matt. 2:23); and 45 quotations where
the length (e.g., 1 Peter 3:10-12) or the specificity (e.g., Matt. 27:46)
makes it entirely clear that a reference to the OT is intended. Since many
quotations are fairly extended, these 295 actually occupy some 352 verses
of the NT. Two hundred and seventy-eight different verses of the OT are
cited (some of them several times): 94 from the Law, 99 from the Prophets,
and 85 from the Writings."
"As soon as allusions as well as direct quotations are included, the count
rises sharply. Toy lists 613 instances, Shires, 1,604, Dittmar, 1,640,
Heuhn yields a count of 4,105" (Roger Nicole, "The Old Testament in the
New Testament," in The Expositor's Bible Commentary, ed. Frank
E. Gaebelein [Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1979], 1: 617).
B. The Implications
1.
2.
3.
4.
A. Intentional Quotations
B. Allusions
1. Intentional
2. Unintentional
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A. Introductory Formulas
"That it might be fulfilled," "it is written," "the Scripture says," "have you
not read," etc., are the ways most direct quotations are introduced. The first
is used most often by Matthew, John, and Paul.
Other examples are Mark 1:2-3 (quoting Malachi 3:1 and Isaiah 40:3);
Romans 11:8 (quoting Isaiah 29:10 and Deut. 29:4); II Corinthians 6:16-18
(quoting Ezekiel 32:27; Leviticus 26:11-12; Isaiah 52:11-12; Ezekiel 20:34;
and II Samuel 7:14).
A. Does the apparent freedom in the way the New Testament writers cite the
Old Testament mitigate against the doctrine of verbal inspiration? Doesn't
the New Testament writer have to quote O.T. passage word for word to
keep with the doctrine of verbal inspiration?
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4. Different emphases.
5. To illustrate a point or to use for rhetorical device.
6. Paraphrase: Ephesians 6:2,3 variation of Exodus 20:12. 9 out of 10
commandments variations due to different audiences from Israel to
church.
7. New Testament writers did not have quotation markings in the Old
Testament.
For example, why would Paul in I Corinthians 9:9 quote Deuteronomy 25:4
(which refers to the "rights" of oxen) as if it related to the rights of humans?
Did he misunderstand the text? Or if he did not misunderstand it, did he
misconstrue it? Did he use a non literal hermeneutic?
3. In what sense can Matthew 2:15 ("Out of Egypt did I call My son")
be fulfilling of Hosea 11:1? The Matthew passage refers to Christ,
and the Hosea passage refers to Israel. But did Hosea also have
Christ in mind when he wrote Hosea 11:1? If so, how did he do so?
And if not, did what he wrote imply more than what he fully
understood?
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1. Acts 15:15-18 and Amos 9:11-12 ("with this the words of the
prophets agree") Accepting Gentiles into the church is in agreement
with God's program for the future of Israel (but Acts 15 doesn't
fulfill Amos 9).
2. Acts 2:16-21 and Joel 2:28-32 ("this is that") Hearing men speak
with unlearned foreign languages is in agreement with God's program
for the future of Israel at Christ's second coming (but Acts 2 doesn't
fulfill Joel 2).
1. Romans 10:8
2. Hebrews 13:6
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3. John 15:25 (Jesus was hated by His enemies) ("that the word may
be fulfilled") and Psalm 35:19; 69:4 (David was hated by his enemies)
4. John 17:12 (Jesus was betrayed by Judas) ("that the Scripture might
be fulfilled") and Psalm 41: 9 (David was betrayed by a close
friend)
5. Romans 9:25-26 (Gentiles who aren't God's people will become so)
("He says also in Hosea") and Hosea 2:23; 1:10 (Israel to be restored
to God)
In which of the above categories would you place these New Testament quotations of
the Old Testament?
B. Investigate the Old Testament context of the text to which the quotation or
allusion refers. Be sure not to read back into the Old Testament a meaning
for the original readers that is now known only by the New Testament
revelation.
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C. Note the differences, if any, between the Old Testament passage and its
New Testament quotation.
D. Determine how the New Testament passage is using the Old Testament
passage. Is it citing the Hebrew text or the Septuagint (LXX) or neither? Is
it paraphrasing or using synonyms? Does it include an introductory
formula? Which of the seven purposes seem to be used (accomplishing of a
prediction, confirming of a principle, illustrating or applying a principle,
summarizing a truth, merely utilizing the wording, acknowledging or citing,
or repeating and enlarging a situation)?
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UNIT FOUR:
THE WORLD
IN FRONT
OF THE TEXT
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APPLICATION
PRINCIPLES OF APPLICATION
The purpose of this session is to work through some of the more generalized
aspects of application when dealing with the texts of Scripture. I hope that it will
also help you to think beyond your own personal walk with God and to think
through how broadly the Scriptures apply to the world around us.
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Any given text is made up of both explicit and implicit sub-meanings which
all come together to make up the "whole" or the "horizon" of the text. In
other words, any given text has meanings and sub-meaning that belong to
its horizon (the sense of the whole), and other meaning that are excluded by
the sense of the text itself.
When one exegetes a text, he attempts to draw out both the explicit and the
implicit implications that are contained within the horizon of the perceived
meaning of the whole.
B. Every text has an "inner horizon" that is unchanging and which grounds and
controls the meaning and sub-meanings of the text, and by which we can
evaluate our inferences concerning possible meanings. (This is actually the
process whereby we validate our controlling purpose statements.)
C. At the same time, every text has a constantly changing "outer horizon" in
that its internal meaning is connected with an unlimited potential of other
situations and significances. More specifically, it is this "outer horizon" that
we look to when we attempt to apply the texts to specific situations today.
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A. Theological base
B. Cognitive base---where many teachers and speakers stop.
C. Specific actions
A. Personal
B. Relational --"My God-given Responsibility to Others."
C. Personal/Institutional--"Person as a part of an Institution."
D. Institutional--"Institutions to one another or others or to God."
E. International--Governments and Nations to one another or before God.
C. If you are teaching an application point review various possible areas of life
to which it could be applied (home, work, attitudes, church, personal
relations, family, kids, neighbors, to God, to sin, to Satan, etc.). Specifics
are not normative, they are to be suggestive.
Read: Ps 20:1-5.
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1. Have a receptive attitude toward the preaching and teaching of the Word. Ask the
Lord to give an openness to the Scriptures (cf. Acts 16:14, "The Lord opened
(Lydia's) heart to respond to the things spoken by Paul." and Ephesians 1:18, "I
pray that the eyes of your heart may be enlightened").
3. List areas of one's life where spiritual improvement is needed. Ask others to
suggest (lovingly!) areas where one's life may be improved. Then as the Word is
heard and studied, see if and how those passages relate to the area(s) of need.
5. Choose one course of action or attitudinal response from the several possibilities.
6. Make a firm decision to carry out the response. Make this decision a firm
commitment between the individual and the Lord. This will help motivate one
toward the doing.
7. Be personal. Use the first person singular pronouns ("I," "me," "my," "mine"), not
plural pronouns ("we," "us," "our"). Application that remains in the "we"
category is too general and impersonal.
8. Be specific.
Application that is stated in general terms (such as "I should be more like Jesus" or
"I should love my wife more") is inadequate and difficult to carry out. Try writing
a sentence beginning with the words "I will . . ." followed by one of the ninety
action verbs (or others) from the accompanying list. Henrichsen illustrates this
kind of specific action for applying meekness from the life of Moses:
I will memorize Numbers 12:3 and review it daily throughout the year.
I will write "meek" on a card and tape it to the mirror in the bathroom, so that daily I
will be reminded of my need to work on this. Each morning I will review
Numbers 12:3 and pray about its application in my life for that day.
I will share this need with my spouse and with [a friend]. who knows me well.
Once a month I will talk over my progress with them and ask for a frank evaluation.
9. Have a deadline for completing the application, and work toward it.
10. Review the progress. The day after the deadline for completing as action/response,
evaluate the progress made and if necessary write the dame, a revised or an entirely
different course of action for another date.
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11. Pray for the enabling of the Holy Spirit to incarnate God's truth in one's life.
Ninety Verbs That Help Lead Scriptural Applications into Specific Action
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OVERALL EVALUATIONS
I. GENERAL
A. The allegorical: Neglects the literal and in some cases ignores the literal.
II. SPECIFIC
B. And yet we have a rich heritage of extensive studies in the Scriptures over
many centuries.
5. How should we understand the relevance of the Bible for our own
souls today?
6. What is the role of the Holy Spirit and of faith in interpreting the
Scriptures?
3. Hammer Approach
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4. Scissors Approach
6. Snake Approach
7. Evangelical Orthodoxy
2. Is typology legitimate?
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A. Communication is one of the most delicate and difficult tasks to confront the
human mind.
II. DEFINITION
"para - phrase" - Greek - "to tell the same thing in different words" A
restatement of a text, passage, or work giving the meaning in another form.
III. PRINCIPLES
INVOLVES
C. Record all the feelings or impressions that come to your mind as you relive
this experience.
D. Combine the results into a first person account of the person(s) in this
experience.
E. Devise a modern or twentieth century parallel for the situation. - translate the
deep, underlying truth into a modern idiom
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Possibilities:
drama
monologue
dialogue
cartoons
poetry/free verse
folk song/musical form
story
T.V./radio newscast
you name it/you create it!
"Care should be taken, not that the listener may understand, but that he
must understand." Quintilian
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A strategy is a plan of study. It would include a goal and means of reaching that
goal. The goal of interpretation is the author's intended meaning. By so defining
the goal, we recognize the determining influence of the Author in originating the
message and expressing it through human authors. As such, meaning is determined
by the author's chosen expression in the text.
With that goal identified, Traina (Methodical Bible Study) discusses means
of reaching the goal. This includes attentive and directed observation of the
inspired text. The crucial link between gaining such an awareness of interpretation
are questions addressed to the textual data:
Such a mastering of the Bible is the focus of synthetic study. It is then followed
by analysis in detail of each part of the book in the questions. Synthesis answers
them from the perspective of considering all the author has written as a whole.
Analysis then answers the questions in particular in the framework of considering
the author's writing as a whole.
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After the data has been collected, the interpretation of the data
follows. In the interpretive synthesis, the broadest conception of
the author's intended meaning is the point of consideration. Clearly,
authors express more than one subject and have more than one
purpose. It is the one subject and purpose which unifies all other
elements. Varying sub-themes and sub-purposes support and
develop the unifying meaning. These are subsumed by the whole.
The link between what is seen in the text and the interpretation of
these observations in questions. The first questions unlock the
perspective from which the author speaks. It seeks to probe the
overall data of the text for clues to the author's single meaning in
the whole text.
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interpretive synthesis.
To frame the meaning of the book within the limits of the author's
intended expression.
The classroom strategy will not follow the student strategy exactly. The following
is the order in the classroom:
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This final formulation is the goal of this study. The increased time spent in
observation will improve the quality of this initial interpretive construction.
But one does not have unlimited time for observation. However, the more
thorough the observation, the better potential for the construction of
interpretation.
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A. Systematic Theology
B. Biblical Theology
This should be done with special attention given to the theological import of
the book. The book should be read through at one sitting several times.
Note how the purpose may help in ones quest for the theology of the book.
E. Identify other themes and attempt to categorize those which are dominant
and which regulate the lesser ones.
Note: The bulk of your work will be in areas D and E. This is how you get
at the theology of a particular author. Remember to use the terms that the
author uses. Do not be tied to terminology from an outside system.
Remember to place your emphasis where the author placed his emphasis.
Spend the most time with the themes that the author emphasized the most.
For example, when working on Matthew it is imperative that one spend
much of the paper dealing with Matthew's theology of the kingdom.
This process is not the same as one which is used to develop an argument of
the book. An argument is the literary development of the book which gets
across the purpose of the author. This process is to find the theology of the
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author which underlies all that he has written in the book. Not all of the
author's theological beliefs will necessarily be included in a particular book.
However, one must discover the theology which is there.
One must see the material as the author presents it. It may mean that the
biblical theologian must at times be more analytical than synthetic in the
approach to the biblical data. Neat, compartmentalized theological
statements are not nearly as useful as statements which truly reflect the intent
of the author. Be careful not to make it a study of 20th century theology
following the categories of western thought.
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SERMON STRUCTURES
Simple Deductive
INTRODUCTION
1.
2.
OR
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Simple Inductive
INTRODUCTION
2.
I. (The understood statement of the whole text, toward which the subpoints are
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building)
* * * * * * * * * * *
Cyclical Inductive
INTRODUCTION
1.
2.
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