cost of mechanical splicing, when integrated as part of
the original design, is less than 0.2 percent. Further, only
column steel was considered. According to the authors, References ACI 318-05 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, October, 2004. Mechanical vs. Lap Splices had beam steel been mechanically spliced and included in the comparison, the comparative costs would have Presidential Orders for Federal Building, Executive Order 12941. in Reinforced Concrete Construction FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency), Improving Building been equal. Performance Through Multi-Hazard Mitigation, ASCE-FEMA, August, 1995. Study Conducted by: Mechanical Butt Splices vs. Lap Splicing, study conducted by Cagley and ERICO Concrete Reinforcement Products Mechanical splicing does away with the tedious Associates, Rockville, MD.
calculations needed to determine proper lap lengths,
and their potential errors. Because mechanical splices do not overlap, less rebar is used, reducing materials For almost 100 years, construction practices in the building building occupied by a Federal agency. The government is costs. Mechanical splices also are fast to install with no of concrete structures have focused on the use of steel the largest renter of office space in the nation. specialized labor. Easier placement of the bars saves reinforcement to transfer tension and shear forces. Lap valuable crane time, and helps to keep labor costs to splicing has become the traditional method of connecting LAP SPLICING PROBLEMS a minimum while maintaining or accelerating project the steel reinforcing bars, largely due to a misconception schedules. that lap splicing is “no-cost” splicing. Over the years, many structural engineers, architects and specifiers have noted that lap splicing has few advantages Mechanical splices offer other economic benefits. While Lap splicing requires the overlapping of two parallel bars. and many disadvantages. ACI R21.3.2.3 states that lap not mandated by the new Federal safety standards, The overlap load transfer mechanism takes advantage of splices are not considered reliable under conditions of they clearly meet the continuity of load path objectives the bond between the steel and the concrete to transfer cyclic loading into the elastic range. Further, there is a sought in the new requirements. Trends toward tougher the load. The load in one bar is transferred to the question as to the effectiveness of laps with larger bars: buildings, increased geography impacted by seismic zone concrete, and then from the concrete to the ongoing #8, #9, #10 and #11. These are major structural elements mapping, and tenant desires for safer structures may bar. The bond is largely influenced by deformations in the frame of a reinforced concrete structure, and any also impact the potential value of a building. Inclusion (ribs) on the surface of the reinforcing bar. question regarding their efficacy is cause for concern. of mechanical splices today may predate future load path continuity requirements. Continuing research, more demanding designs in concrete Over the years, to counter these concerns, the required construction, new materials, hybrid concrete/structural lap lengths in the ACI 318 Building Code have become Clearly, mechanical splices offer numerous advantages. steel designs and other changes in the construction longer and longer. ACI 12.14.2.1 has prohibited the use The negligible short-term perceived economics of lap industry are calling for the use of alternatives to lap of lap splices in bar sizes #14 and #18. Laps are also splicing are far outweighed by the many structural and splicing. From the standpoint of function, laps perform prohibited on bar sizes in tension tie members (ACI economic benefits of mechanical splicing, including well on bar sizes #6 and #8 of 40KSI yield steel and 12.15.5) and within joints and locations of flexural continuity of reinforcing steel, and structural integrity. 3,000 lb. concrete, with a structure of 15 stories considered yielding (ACI 21.3.2.3). With many different types of mechanical splices on the a high-rise. Today, buildings taller than 15 stories are Fig. 1 market, designers can easily incorporate them into increasingly common. A “high-rise” of reinforced concrete Distribution of transverse forces in concrete future plans. in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia recently topped over 100 lap length stories, and at least a half dozen other 85-plus story buildings are under construction or planned.
The use of higher strength concrete, which is more
prone to splitting, also is on the increase. Compounding this problem, calculations within the ACI code results in shorter lap lengths with high strength concrete.
Recent presidential orders for Federal buildings in the U.S.
also are increasing the focus on structural seismic safety. bq
According to Executive Order 12941, signed in 1996, each
reliable and design-constrictive, with many “hidden” costs
(to be discussed later). As a result, usage of mechanical From the structural perspective, the most important splices – previously considered cost-prohibitive – is on benefit of using mechanical butt splices is to ensure the rise. load path continuity of the structural reinforcement independent of the condition or existence of the PLAN VIEW LAP SPLICES MECHANICAL SPLICES concrete. Additionally, mechanical butt splices reduce Additional rebar in Ideal balance of steel congestion of the reinforcing concrete by eliminating the lap zone and concrete 1 “Improving Building Performance Through Multi-hazard Mitigation” ASCE-FEMA, Aug. 1995. laps (See Fig. 3). As a result of load transfer, the steel bars may be either in ■ Only a limited number may be joined in one section. MECHANICAL SPLICE ADVANTAGES axial tension or axial compression. Figure 1 shows the distribution of tensile stresses in the concrete normal to ■ Additional transverse reinforcement is necessary for Mechanical butt splices are mechanical connections Laps double the steel/concrete ratio and create problems the axis of the bars. The overlap transfer method larger bar sizes. In the area of overlap connections between two pieces of reinforcing steel that enable the while placing the bar and during concrete consolidation. generates additional forces in the concrete which tend (lap zone), a double number of bars are present which bars to behave in a manner similar to continuous lengths Elimination of laps also frees space for post tensioning to push the bars apart, so concrete cover must be strong increases rebar congestion and can restrict the flow of reinforcing steel bars. Mechanical splices join rebar operations. enough to overcome this “bursting” force. Bursting force and proper distribution of larger aggregates, causing end-to-end, providing many of the advantages of a can cause spalling of the concrete cover and splice failure. difficulties in the efficient vibration of the concrete. continuous piece of rebar. Years ago, arc welding was From the design perspective, mechanical butt splices can Because of bursting force for larger size reinforcing bars, This “strainer effect” is one of the major causes for the only method of achieving continuity. Today, a myriad be relied upon to improve steel-to-concrete ratios, which additional transverse reinforcement is required by most forming rock pockets and contributes to poor quality of mechanical splices are available to ensure that a precise, assists in delivering a consistent ratio under 8%. When design codes. concrete. While the ACI Code stipulates a steel to reliable connection can be quickly and easily made. using laps, working with small diameter reinforcing bars concrete ratio under 8%, it is difficult to follow this may require the use of larger column dimensions to To design a correctly engineered lap splice, certain regulation and achieve a balanced design because Fig. 3 accommodate a greater quantity of bars. Using mechanical parameters must be considered (ACI 12.2). These include: of the additional rebar in the lap zone (See Fig. 2). butt splices allows the option of using larger diameter Lap splices double the rebar in a smaller column, while minimizing congestion. number of bars leading to ■ Grade of steel: the higher the yield stress the greater Because lap splices develop their strength from concrete Reduced column size results in a more efficient optimum rebar congestion which can the lap length. cover, deterioration of concrete will inevitably lead to restrict the flow of larger use of floor space – an extremely beneficial economic aggregates splice failure. One disadvantage of lap splices is that and design consideration (See Figure 4). ■ Surface condition of the bar: epoxy-coated bars they offer poor cyclic performance in the inelastic range. require up to 50% longer laps than black bars. In snowbelt and coastal regions, corrosion of rebar can Efforts to evaluate the comparative costs of using lap lead to delamination and spalling of the concrete cover. splicing and mechanical butt splicing in concrete ■ Size of the bars: the larger the bar the longer the lap. Without proper cover the lap splice becomes ineffective construction show that the reputation of butt splices and the load path broken. for adding substantial cost to a construction budget is ■ Grade of concrete: the lower the concrete strength Mechanical couplers unfounded. A recent study conducted by Cagley & the longer the lap required. Loss of load path continuity can be tragic. A classic reduce rebar congestion Associates of two structures showed that the additional and improves concrete example is the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in consolidation ■ Location of the splice: efficiency is dependent on Oklahoma City, which was destroyed by bomb in 1995. Fig. 4 bar location, position in the structural member, This building was well designed and built to standard edge conditions and spacing. requirements. Rebar were properly placed, concrete of LAP SPLICES correct strength, etc., but a catastrophic failure of the Beam Column Reinforcing ■ Design load: the lap length required for bars in structure resulted from the removal of one column. In a Reinforcing tension is much longer than for the same size bars reinforced concrete structure, there was no requirement Lap Bar in compression. A lap design for compression load for making bottom bars continuous from span to span. will not perform as a full tension splice. In the event If support is removed, the girder fails. The progressive Mechanical butt splices are more reliable than lap splices of unanticipated forces to a structure, lap splices collapse occurred due to lack of continuity of reinforcing because they do not depend on concrete for load transfer. may fail. steel: the lapped splices failed. According to FEMA Further, mechanical butt splices are stronger than lap investigators, “65% to 85% of the collapse might have splices: ACI requirements for mechanical splices are at PLAN VIEW As a result, some rules must be followed for the design been avoided if continuity of reinforcement had been least 25% higher than typical design strengths for lap and execution of lap splices: maintained.” 1 Continuous reinforcement can be achieved splices. Mechanical butt splices provide superior strength either through the use of one continuous length of during load transfer. Superior cyclic performance and MECHANICAL SPLICES ■ Lap splices must be located at point of minimum stress. rebar or through mechanical butt splicing. greater structural integrity during manmade, seismic or Mechanical Coupler other natural events are other advantages of mechanical Beam Fig. 2 Reinforcing Lap splices, then, can be considered structurally less butt splices. Column Reinforcing
reliable and design-constrictive, with many “hidden” costs
(to be discussed later). As a result, usage of mechanical From the structural perspective, the most important splices – previously considered cost-prohibitive – is on benefit of using mechanical butt splices is to ensure the rise. load path continuity of the structural reinforcement independent of the condition or existence of the PLAN VIEW LAP SPLICES MECHANICAL SPLICES concrete. Additionally, mechanical butt splices reduce Additional rebar in Ideal balance of steel congestion of the reinforcing concrete by eliminating the lap zone and concrete 1 “Improving Building Performance Through Multi-hazard Mitigation” ASCE-FEMA, Aug. 1995. laps (See Fig. 3). cost of mechanical splicing, when integrated as part of the original design, is less than 0.2 percent. Further, only column steel was considered. According to the authors, References ACI 318-05 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, October, 2004. Mechanical vs. Lap Splices had beam steel been mechanically spliced and included in the comparison, the comparative costs would have Presidential Orders for Federal Building, Executive Order 12941. in Reinforced Concrete Construction FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency), Improving Building been equal. Performance Through Multi-Hazard Mitigation, ASCE-FEMA, August, 1995. Study Conducted by: Mechanical Butt Splices vs. Lap Splicing, study conducted by Cagley and ERICO Concrete Reinforcement Products Mechanical splicing does away with the tedious Associates, Rockville, MD.
calculations needed to determine proper lap lengths,
and their potential errors. Because mechanical splices do not overlap, less rebar is used, reducing materials For almost 100 years, construction practices in the building building occupied by a Federal agency. The government is costs. Mechanical splices also are fast to install with no of concrete structures have focused on the use of steel the largest renter of office space in the nation. specialized labor. Easier placement of the bars saves reinforcement to transfer tension and shear forces. Lap valuable crane time, and helps to keep labor costs to splicing has become the traditional method of connecting LAP SPLICING PROBLEMS a minimum while maintaining or accelerating project the steel reinforcing bars, largely due to a misconception schedules. that lap splicing is “no-cost” splicing. Over the years, many structural engineers, architects and specifiers have noted that lap splicing has few advantages Mechanical splices offer other economic benefits. While Lap splicing requires the overlapping of two parallel bars. and many disadvantages. ACI R21.3.2.3 states that lap not mandated by the new Federal safety standards, The overlap load transfer mechanism takes advantage of splices are not considered reliable under conditions of they clearly meet the continuity of load path objectives the bond between the steel and the concrete to transfer cyclic loading into the elastic range. Further, there is a sought in the new requirements. Trends toward tougher the load. The load in one bar is transferred to the question as to the effectiveness of laps with larger bars: buildings, increased geography impacted by seismic zone concrete, and then from the concrete to the ongoing #8, #9, #10 and #11. These are major structural elements mapping, and tenant desires for safer structures may bar. The bond is largely influenced by deformations in the frame of a reinforced concrete structure, and any also impact the potential value of a building. Inclusion (ribs) on the surface of the reinforcing bar. question regarding their efficacy is cause for concern. of mechanical splices today may predate future load path continuity requirements. Continuing research, more demanding designs in concrete Over the years, to counter these concerns, the required construction, new materials, hybrid concrete/structural lap lengths in the ACI 318 Building Code have become Clearly, mechanical splices offer numerous advantages. steel designs and other changes in the construction longer and longer. ACI 12.14.2.1 has prohibited the use The negligible short-term perceived economics of lap industry are calling for the use of alternatives to lap of lap splices in bar sizes #14 and #18. Laps are also splicing are far outweighed by the many structural and splicing. From the standpoint of function, laps perform prohibited on bar sizes in tension tie members (ACI economic benefits of mechanical splicing, including well on bar sizes #6 and #8 of 40KSI yield steel and 12.15.5) and within joints and locations of flexural continuity of reinforcing steel, and structural integrity. 3,000 lb. concrete, with a structure of 15 stories considered yielding (ACI 21.3.2.3). With many different types of mechanical splices on the a high-rise. Today, buildings taller than 15 stories are Fig. 1 market, designers can easily incorporate them into increasingly common. A “high-rise” of reinforced concrete Distribution of transverse forces in concrete future plans. in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia recently topped over 100 lap length stories, and at least a half dozen other 85-plus story buildings are under construction or planned.
The use of higher strength concrete, which is more
prone to splitting, also is on the increase. Compounding this problem, calculations within the ACI code results in shorter lap lengths with high strength concrete.
Recent presidential orders for Federal buildings in the U.S.
also are increasing the focus on structural seismic safety. bq
According to Executive Order 12941, signed in 1996, each