Professional Documents
Culture Documents
tinue to hold meaning and importance for them [11]. Clinical • distractibility;
practice shows that anxiety may also decrease as patients ac- • helplessness and a sense of loss of control over one’s own
cept and come to terms with their medical situation, despite feelings;
disease progression. • symptoms of autonomic arousal: rapid or forceful heart-
In the United States (US), 1-year prevalence for all anxiety beat, sweating, unpleasant tightness in stomach, short-
disorders among adults in the general population exceeds ness of breath, dizziness;
16% [12], and in the United Kingdom (UK) reported prevalence • vegetative disturbances: loss of appetite, decreased sexual
is between 3% and 16% [13]. Anxiety occurs to varying degrees interest;
in patients with cancer. Our limited understanding of anxiety • parasympathetically-mediated symptoms: abdominal dis-
in cancer care is illustrated by the wide range of prevalence tress, nausea, diarrhoea.
estimates of abnormal anxiety in cancer patient populations
[5]. Estimated current prevalence of anxiety disorders in Pathological anxiety can be identified because it tends to
oncology is within a range 15–28% [14], with variations being be out of proportion to the level of threat; it persists or dete-
due to differences in research methodology. In large studies riorates when no intervention is administered, the intensity
using standardised psychiatric interviews and applying re- of symptoms is unacceptable regardless of the intensity of
search diagnostic criteria, estimates of abnormal anxiety in the threat (these include panic attacks, severe physical symp-
cancer populations ranged from 10% to 30% [4]. Some toms, abnormal beliefs such as thoughts of sudden death),
researchers have found that up to 44% of patients with cancer and the patients experience a disruption of their usual or
reported some anxiety, and 23% reported significant levels of desirable functioning [3,4]. However, such criteria are difficult
anxiety [5,15]. Variation in reported prevalence is due largely to apply to cancer patients given that cancer is always associ-
to limitations in research methodology: differing study popu- ated with some form of threat: the threat of loss, death, body
lations (single versus mixed cancer diagnosis, differing tu- functions, roles, body image, etc. In addition, while the dura-
mour sites, early- versus late-stage disease, outpatient tion of symptoms is important in identifying abnormal anxi-
versus inpatient; etc.), varying diagnostic criteria and assess- ety, the natural history of anxiety in oncology is uncertain.
ment instruments and studies failing to separate anxiety Disruption of functioning is also common in cancer patients
from depression, etc. and is frequently associated with anxiety (i.e. intrusive and
Some researchers suggest that anxiety disorders are also unpleasant thoughts regarding recurrence, disability or death
prevalent in medically ill patients in general [16]. However, can disrupt the ability to concentrate, decision-making, sleep
rates of anxiety disorders among primary care outpatients patterns, etc.) [4].
have ranged from 7% to 15% [17], and among general medical Massie and Shakin [20] have categorised anxiety in cancer
inpatients rates of 20% have been reported [18]. In both cases, patients into three groups: reactive anxiety, pre-existing anx-
reported rates seem to be lower than those reported in cancer iety disorders and anxiety related to medical illness.
patients. However, populations studied have varied widely in Reactive anxiety: Adjustment disorders are emotional reac-
disease severity and prognosis [16]. tions to an identifiable stressor, in this case the disease, with
In cancer patients symptoms of anxiety often coexist with a degree of psychopathology that is less severe than diagnos-
depression and mixed states, and are perhaps more common able mental disorders such as generalised anxiety. The pa-
than anxiety alone [1,19]. tient experiences significant distress that is in excess of
what would be expected from exposure to the stressor and
2.2. Clinical presentation and pathological anxiety a significant impairment in functioning.
of symptoms over 5 years. Those who had a low income, more Anxiety related to medical illness uncontrolled pain, meta-
advanced illness at diagnosis (stage P2), aggressive lym- bolic causes, medication side effects, withdrawal states and
phoma, having received chemotherapy and greater impact of hormone-producing tumours may result in increased anxiety
cancer at the initial survey had more PTSD symptoms at fol- levels in the cancer patient. Patients with severe pain are usu-
low-up. Cancer survivors with PTSD may relive the cancer ally anxious, and anxiety in turn can potentiate the pain sen-
experience in nightmares or flashbacks and by continuously sation. Consequently, it is important to treat anxiety in order
thinking about it; they may avoid places, events and people to adequately manage pain [24]. Anxiety may be the first sign
associated with the cancer experience, and may tend to be con- of a change in metabolic state. Sepsis accompanied by chills
tinuously overexcited, fearful, irritable and unable to sleep. and fever is often associated with anxiety. Delirium may
cause symptoms of anxiety, restlessness and increased agita-
tion. Certain drugs used in cancer, such as corticosteroids, are
Mr K was a war veteran who underwent a bone mar- frequently a cause of anxiety symptoms such as restlessness
row transplantation for leukaemia. During hospital iso- and agitation. Akathisia is a side effect of several neuroleptic
lation, Mr K started re-experiencing the time when he drugs that are frequently used for control of emesis. With-
was imprisoned and placed in a cell, isolated for a pro- drawal states from alcohol, narcotic analgesics and sedative
longed period of time, during the war. In the hospital hypnotics are often overlooked as causes of anxiety [20]. This
he had recurrent and intrusive images and thoughts is an especially important issue in head and neck cancer pa-
about the war episode, frightening dreams of the event, tients who often have histories of heavy alcohol and tobacco
and flashback episodes that gave him a sense of reliving consumption that place them at increased risk for withdrawal
the traumatic event. Other symptoms he exhibited in- states. Hormone-secreting tumours such as thyroid and para-
cluded hypervigilance, insomnia, difficulty concentrat- thyroid tumours may be associated with anxiety symptoms.
ing and avoidance of conversations related to the war
episode when he was imprisoned. Benzodiazepines were 2.3. Variables associated with anxiety in the cancer
administered. In addition, he was trained in different vi- setting
deo games that provided him with cognitive distraction.
In the evenings, when other patients were asleep and Cancer is usually an emotionally stressful event in the lives of
visitors had left the hospital, Mr K had to be walked in patients. In addition to physical discomfort, patients typically
a wheelchair, the appropriate protective measures hav- face dysfunction, alterations in appearance, changes in fam-
ing been taken, up and down the hallways of the hospi- ily and social roles, disruption of work activities and other
tal floor to alleviate his sense of being ‘locked up’. complex situations. Various factors have been associated
with anxiety in cancer patients. Among them are:
2.4. Screening and assessment roles, regulate emotional distress and remain actively in-
volved in aspects of life that continue to hold meaning and
Optimal management of anxiety disorders requires a compre- importance to them [11]. The average patient receiving psy-
hensive assessment and an accurate diagnosis. The distinc- chosocial intervention for anxiety is less anxious than those
tion between normal fears and more severe fears that reach not receiving the intervention. The overall positive benefit
criteria for an anxiety disorder is not always clear in the can- for psychosocial interventions seems to be greater with those
cer setting. According to Nicholas [32], patients with normal who seem to need it most [39].
worry compared to those with more serious symptoms of Treatment of anxiety should be multimodal, including a
anxiety disorders have only some difficulty concentrating, combination of pharmacotherapy and different psychothera-
are able to ‘turn off thoughts’ most of the time, have occa- peutic interventions. Holland et al. [40], in a randomised
sional trouble falling asleep, and crying spells that seem to study, compared relaxation with alprazolam in the treatment
provide relief, and have few, if any, physical symptoms such of anxiety and distress in cancer patients. Findings demon-
as dry mouth, restlessness or racing heart. Worry comes strated both treatments to be equally effective for mild to
and goes in this group of patients. On the other hand, patients moderate degrees of anxiety or distress. Alprazolam was
with severe anxiety symptoms are unable to concentrate and more effective for greater levels of anxiety or distress, and
to ‘turn off thoughts’ most of the time, have sleep problems had a more rapid onset of the beneficial effect.
most nights as well as crying spells that interfere with daily Medication is only considered when patients experience
activities, experience constant worries and have few ways severe symptoms, when their anxiety does not respond to
of reducing anxiety. It is important to understand the extent psychological intervention and/or when there are no psycho-
to which anxiety interferes with daily living and quality of social services available or the patient refuses to use them.
life. Massie and Shakin [20] describe clear guidelines for the use
Psychometric instruments may be used to complement of pharmacotherapy to treat anxiety in the oncology setting.
the clinical interview when assessing anxiety. The scales The choice of benzodiazepine depends on the desired half-
most frequently used with cancer patients include: life, route of administration available, route of metabolism
and the presence or absence of active metabolites. They sug-
• hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS) [33], which is gest that drugs with shorter half-lives, multiple routes of
a 14-item scale measuring symptoms of clinical depres- administration and no active metabolites are preferable in
sion and anxiety; the medically ill patient, as well as the use of low-dose anti-
• brief symptom inventory (BSI) [34], which is an 18-item psychotic medications in patients with severe anxiety when
scale measuring somatisation, depression, anxiety and treatment with benzodiazepine has not been effective. Benzo-
general distress; diazepines are not indicated in patients with medical condi-
• profile of mood states (POMS) [35], which is a 65-item scale tions such as delirium, because they may exacerbate
measuring six mood states: anxiety, fatigue, confusion, confusion and disorientation. In any case, use of these agents
depression, anger, vigour; should be closely monitored and anxiety symptoms re-evalu-
• state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI) [36], which is a 40-item ated, medication being tapered off as symptoms subside [41].
measure that indicates the intensity of feelings of anxiety; Psychological approaches in the treatment of anxiety in-
STAI differentiates between state anxiety (a temporary clude combinations of cognitive behavioural therapy (for
condition experienced in specific situations) and trait anx- example, calming self-talk), insight-oriented and supportive
iety (a general tendency to perceive situations as psychotherapy, crisis intervention, support and self-help
threatening); groups, and relaxation-based interventions such as hypnosis,
• distress thermometer and problem list, which consists of a meditation, progressive relaxation, guided imagery and bio-
0–10 scale to measure distress that is accompanied by a feedback. All have been proven to be effective in reducing
problem list in which patients are asked to note the nature anxiety in the cancer patient [42–46].
and source of their distress (physical, social, psychological Different psycho-educational interventions are equally
or spiritual) [37]. useful. They have aimed at replacing the sense of helpless-
ness with a sense of control, and in the process, reducing psy-
Self-report screening instruments must be scored, evalu- chological distress [16]. For example, a booklet with disease-
ated and discussed with each patient, and are useful in pro- related information was provided to patients with Hodgkin’s
viding the oncology team with notions of how anxious the disease, and these patients experienced more reductions in
patient is. their levels of anxiety than those who did not receive the
booklet [47]. Psychoeducational interventions might be pro-
vided by the physician and/or nurse, through accurate medi-
2.5. Treatment of anxiety disorders cal information and support. Anxiety related to medical
procedures may be reduced by adequate preparation by a staff
Psychosocial adjustment to cancer is an ongoing process in member, such that the patient will most likely have more
which the patient tries to manage emotional distress, solve realistic expectations about the procedure.
specific cancer-related problems, and gain control over can- Regardless of the treatment modality employed to reduce
cer-related events [38]. The purpose of treatment for anxiety anxiety in the cancer setting, organic causes of symptoms
in cancer patients is to facilitate successful adjustment to must be discarded prior to initiation of the intervention,
the disease: i.e. to help them minimise disruptions to life and if detected, their correction should be a priority.
EJC SUPPLEMENTS 1 1 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 2 1 6 –2 2 4 221
2.6. Sleep disorders standing of the possible link between cancer-related fatigue
and sleep disturbances suggests that interventions targeting
Sleep disorders are a common symptom of anxiety, one of the sleep disorders and daytime sleepiness could provide promis-
most prominent concerns of cancer patients [48], and one of ing potential treatments for cancer-related fatigue. Targeted
the main reasons for consultation in oncology [49]. In the gen- treatment of either symptom may possibly affect the other,
eral population, people with insomnia report more medical given the emerging data suggesting that sleep disturbance is
problems than those without insomnia [50]. Altered sleep common in patients with cancer and that it may be both a
usually has a profound adverse effect on emotional, cognitive cause and an effect of fatigue [58].
and physical functioning. The following risk factors have been described for sleep
Sleep consists of two phases: rapid eye movement (REM) disorders in cancer patients [61]:
sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep [51]. REM sleep is the active
or paradoxical phase of sleep in which the brain is active. It is • disease factors, including paraneoplastic syndromes with
also known as dream sleep. NREM sleep is the restful phase of increased steroid production, and symptoms associated with
sleep. Both phases alternate in a repeated pattern or cycle of tumour invasion (i.e. pain, fever, shortness of breath) [62];
NREM followed by REM, with each cycle lasting approximately • treatment-related factors, including symptoms associated
90 min. The sleep–wake cycle is dictated by an inherent bio- with surgery (i.e. pain, use of opioids and frequent moni-
logical clock or circadian rhythm. Disruptions in individual toring) [62];
sleep patterns can disrupt the circadian rhythm and impair • chemotherapy administration (i.e. exogenous
the sleep cycle [52]. corticosteroids);
• medications such as opioids, sedatives/hypnotics, ste-
2.7. Categories of sleep disorders roids, some antidepressants and dietary supplements [63];
• environmental factors (i.e. hospital routines and room-
The American Academy of Sleep Medicine [53] has defined mates, environmental noise) [64];
five categories of sleep disorders: • physical and/or psychological stressors [57];
• anxiety and depression [56];
• disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep: insomnias; • delirium.
• sleep-related breathing disorders: sleep apnoea;
• disorders of excessive somnolence: hypersomnias; In addition to considering the above risk factors, an ade-
• disorders of the sleep–wake cycle: circadian rhythm sleep quate assessment of sleep disorders should evaluate the usual
disorders; patterns of sleep, including usual bedtime, routine before retir-
• dysfunctions associated with sleep, sleep stages, or partial ing, length of time before onset of sleep and duration of sleep
arousals: parasomnias. (waking episodes during the night, ability to resume sleep and
usual time for awakening). Characteristics of disturbed sleep
(changes following diagnosis, treatment and/or hospitalisa-
2.8. Sleep disorders in cancer patients tion), perception of significant others as to quantity and qual-
ity of patients’ sleep, and family history of sleep disorders
Sleep disturbances occur in about 10–15% of the general pop- should be taken into account, together with emotional status,
ulation [54] and are often associated with situational stress, exercise and activity levels, diet and care-giver routines [53].
disease, ageing and drug treatment [55]. Between one third Some studies link sleep with natural killer cell activity [65]
and one half of cancer patients experience sleep disorders and conclude that sound sleep may be important for immune
[56]. These are usually associated with pain, hospitalisation, defence against tumour cells [66].
medication, recurring thoughts about the disease and can-
cer-related fears. Anxiety and depression have been found 2.9. Treatment of sleep disorders
to be highly correlated with insomnia [56]. Alterations in the
sleep–wake cycle can be early signs of delirium. Multiple psychological interventions – ranging from individ-
However, insomnia is often under-recognised and under- ual supportive psychotherapy to cognitive behavioural tech-
treated, partly because it has been seen as a normal and tran- niques (biofeedback, hypnosis, progressive muscle
sient reaction to cancer and cancer treatment, and partly be- relaxation) – have proven to be effective in the control of anx-
cause sleep disturbances are under-reported by patients [57]. iety and sleep disorders [67], and may be combined with phar-
Patients with cancer report insomnia, poor sleep quality and macological interventions. Several large randomised trials
short sleep duration [58]. Sleep disturbances can persist in and meta-analysis have demonstrated the efficacy of cogni-
time, with a significant number of cancer survivors reporting tive behavioural therapy for insomnia in patients without
them as one of the most pervasive problems they face. cancer [68,69] as well as in the cancer population [70–72].
Reports over the past 20 years have begun to shed light on Components of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
the putative relationship between cancer-related sleep disor- include:
ders and cancer-related fatigue. While most of the studies in
this area are correlative in nature, it is generally the case that • cognitive restructuring, such as restructuring negative
sleep disturbance is: (a) positively correlated with fatigue, (b) thoughts, beliefs and attitudes related to sleep, and pre-
more severe in fatigued than in non-fatigued patients and venting excessive monitoring or worrying about getting
(c) a significant predictor of fatigue [58–60]. Current under- enough sleep [68];
222 EJC SUPPLEMENTS 1 1 ( 20 1 3) 2 1 6–22 4
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