Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Project PDF
Project PDF
icbs
http://projects.icbse.com/subject/chem
e.com/subject/chemistry
istry
Commercial Antacids
It is my foremost duty to express my deep regards & gratitude to my Chemistry teacher MRS.
GAURI MASHRU under whose guidance & supervision I am able to undertake this project. It is her
who has been my primary source of inspiration and who motivated, guided and encouraged me at
different stages to make this project.
I am also thankful for the help rendered by the lab assistant who made available the various
apparatus and chemicals needed for the experiments, else it would have been a difficult task to
perform this project successfully.
v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (i)
v ANTACIDS 1
v ACTION MECHANISM 1
v INDICATIONS 1
v HYPERACIDITY 3–4
v DRUG NAMES 5
ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE 6 -7
MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE 8–9
CALCIUM CARBONATE 10 – 13
SODIUM BICARBONATE 14 – 16
BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE 17 –18
v INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT 19 – 21
v BIBLOGRAPHY (ii)
ANTACIDS
An Antacid is any substance, generally a base o r basic salt, which neutralizes stomach acidity. They
are used to relieve acid indigestion, upset stomach, sour stomach, and heartburn.
ACTION MECHANISM
Antacids perform a neutralization reaction, i.e. they buffer gastric acid, raising the pH to reduce acidity
in the stomach. When gastric hydrochlori c acid reaches the nerves in the gastrointestinal mucosa,
they signal pain to the central nervous system. This happens when these nerves are exposed, as in
peptic ulcers. The gastric acid may also reach ulcers in the esophagus or the duodenum.
Other mechanisms may contribute, such as the effect of aluminium ions inhibiting smooth muscle cell
contraction and delaying gastric emptying.
INDICATIONS
Antacids are taken by mouth to relieve heartburn, the major symptom of gastro esophageal reflux
disease, or acid indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor
symptoms. Peptic ulcers may require H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors.
The utility of many combinations of antacids is not clear, although the combination of magnesium and
aluminium salts may prevent alteration of bowel habits.
SIDE EFFECTS
Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the milk-alkali
syndrome, which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the ―Sippy
regimen‖ of hourly ingestion of mil k and cream, the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10
days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease.
Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and
hypercalemia, mostly in men with pept ic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the
regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome
declined in men after effective treatments were developed for peptic ulcer disease. But during the past
15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supplements above the recommended range
of 1200 to 1500 mg daily, for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by
dehydration. Calcium has been added to over-the-counter products, which contributes to inadvertent
excessive intake.
The New England Journal of Medicine reported a typical case of a woman who arrived in the
emergency department vomiting and altered mental status, writhing in pain. She had consumed large
quantities of chewable antacid tablets containing calcium carbonate (Tums). She gradually
recovered.[1]
Compounds containing calcium may also increase calcium output in the urine, which might be
associated with kidney stones. [2] Calcium salts may cause constipation.
1. 1. Carbonate : Regular high doses may cause alkalosis, which in turn may result in altered excretion
of other drugs, and kidney stones. A chemical reaction between the carbonate and hydrochloric acid
may produce carbon dioxide gas. This causes gastric distension which may not be well tolerated.
Carbon dioxide formation can also lead to headaches and decreased muscle flexibility.
2. 2. Aluminum hydroxide : May lead to the formation of insoluble aluminium-phosphate-complexes,
with a risk for hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia. Although aluminium has a low gastrointestinal
absorption, accumulation may occur in the presence of renal insufficiency. Aluminium-containing drugs
may cause constipation.
3. 3. Magnesium hydroxide : Has laxative properties. Magnesium may accumulate in patients with
renal failure leading to hypermagnesemia, with cardiovascular and neurological complications. See
Milk of magnesia.
4. 4. Sodium : Increased intake of sodium may be deleterious for arterial hypertension, heart failure
and many renal diseases.
SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS
Fortunately, because acid reflux is such a common problem, antacids are among the medicines
available and free of side effects for most people. Side effects from antacids vary depending on
individual and other medications they may be taking at the time. Those who experience side effects
most commonly suffer from changes in bowel functions, such as diarrhea, constipation, or flatulence.
Although reactions to any drug may vary from person to person, generally those medications that
contain aluminum or calcium are the l ikeliest to cause constipation, those that contain magnesium are
the likeliest to cause diarrhea. Some p roducts combine these ingredients, which essentially cancels
them out, to forestall unpleasant side effects.
In general, people with kidney problems should probably not take antacids as this can sometimes
cause a condition known as alkalosis. In other people, side effects may occur if substances such as
salt, sugar, or aspirin, are added to a particular medication. As with all medications, always carefully
read the product label on the package and check with your doctor or pharmacist if you have any
question about potential drug interactions or side effects.
Some side effects, such as constipation and diarrhea, are fairly obvious. Other more serious side
effects, such as stomach or intestinal; bleeding, can be more difficult to recognize. In general, any
sign of blood in the stool or the presence of vomiting is a danger sign and should be brought to the
immediate attention of a physician.
If your symptoms persist for more than 10 days to two weeks while you are using the medication, you
should stop taking it and consult your doctor. Persistent symptoms may indicate that you have more a
serious problem than occasional acid reflux. Pregnant or nursing baby should always consult your
doctor before taking this medication. Generally, you should not give these medications to children
under the age of 12 unless under the advice and supervision of your doctor or the package label has
indicated that the product is safe for young children. Constant use of antacids leads to a condition
called acid rebound where the stomach begins to over secrete acid in order to make up for the
quantity that is being neutralized.
Hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia simply means increase of acidity in the stomach. The human stomach
secretes hydrochloric acid which is necessary for the digestion of food. When the stomach contains an
excessive amount of hydrochloric acid, then the condition is called as hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia.
Sometimes, hyperacidity is confused for a simple bellyache. This is because people with hyperacidity
usually generally get pains in their stomachs with similar symptoms as bellyaches. This confusion is
more rampant in children who cannot differentiate between different kinds of stomach ailments.
However, hyperacidity can be found out with the sour belching and aftertaste of the already eaten
food in the mouth.
The prime medical factors of hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia are as follows : (i) Stomach
Ulcers: Ulcers in the stomach are one of the prime causes of
hyperacidity. Once this is diagnosed, the treatment will be done by the surgical removal of the
stomach ulcers.
(ii) Acid Reflux Disease: Some people have a gastric disorder called as the acid reflux disease. In
this condition, the acids of the stomach, i.e. gastric acids or hydrochloric acid, get refluxed up to the
food pipe, which is biologically called as the esophagus. When this happens, it builds up the level of
acidity in the stomach.
(iii) Stomach Cancers: Stomach cancers can also cause hyperacidity as one of their symptoms. This
is a very rare case, but the mortality rate is quite high. Hence, a hyperacidity that lasts more than two
weeks must be immediately shown to the doctor and got checked for any cancer. A timely diagnosis
can enable complete treatment of the disease.
SYMPTOMS OF HYPERACIDITY
Hyperacidity symptoms are observed a couple of hours after eating, when the food has been digested
and still excess acids are left within the stomach. At this stage, the following symptoms are seen:-
1. 1. A typical feeling of restlessness
2. 2. Feeling of nausea (wanting to throw up) and actual vomiting
3. 3. Sour belching with an aftertaste of the already-eaten food
4. 4. Stiffness in the stomach, which is called as atonic dyspepsia
5. 5. Lack of desire for any other type of food
6. 6. Indigestion
7. 7. Constipation
INTERACTIONS
Altered pH or complex formation may alter the bioavailability of other drugs, such as tetracycline.
Urinary excretion of certain drugs may also be affected.
Reduced stomach acidity may result in an impaired ability to digest and absorb certain nutrients, such
as iron and the B vitamins. Since the low pH of the stomach normally kills ingested bacteria, antacids
increase the vulnerability to infection. It could also result in reduced bioavailability of some drugs. For
example, the bioavailability of ketoconazole (antifungal) is reduced at high intragastric pH (low acid
content).
11. Mylanta
DRUG NAMES
1. 1. Aluminium hydroxide
2. 2. Magnesium hydroxide
3. 3. Calcium carbonate
4. 4. Sodium bicarbonate
5. 5. Bismuth subsalicylate
6. 6. Histamine
7. 7. Cimetidine
8. 8. Ranitidine
9. 9. Omeprazole
10. Lansoprazole
1.ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE
Aluminium hydroxide , Al(OH)3, Alum, is the most stable form of aluminium in normal conditions. It
is found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite) and its three, much more rare,
polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite and nordstrandite. Closely related are aluminium oxide hydroxide,
AlO(OH), and aluminium oxide, Al2O3, differing only by loss of water. These compounds together are
the major components of the aluminium ore bauxite. Freshly precipitated aluminium hydroxide forms
gels, which is the basis for application of aluminium salts as flocculants in water purification. This gel
crystallizes with time. Aluminium hydroxide gels can be dehydrated (e.g., with the utility of water-
miscible non-aqueous solvents like ethanol) to form an amorphous aluminium hydroxide powder,
which is readily soluble in acids. Heat-dried aluminium hydroxide powder is known as activated
alumina and is used in gas purification, as a catalyst support and an abrasive.
PRODUCTION
Bauxites are heated in pressure vessels with sodium hydroxide solution at 150 –200 °C through which
aluminium is dissolved as aluminate (Bayer process). After separation of ferruginous residue (red
mud) by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled and seeded with fine grained
aluminium hydroxide. The aluminium hydroxide is further calcined to give alumina, which may be
smelted in the Hall-Héroult process in order to produce aluminium.
CHEMISTRY
Gibbsite has a typical metal hydroxide structure with hydrogen bonds. It is built up of double layers of
hydroxyl groups with aluminium ions occupying two-thirds of the octahedral holes between the two
layers.
PHARMACOLOGY
Pharmacologically, this compound is used as an antacid under names such as Alu-Cap, Aludrox or
Pepsamar. The hydroxide reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing its acidi ty. This decrease of
acidity of the contents of the stomach may in turn help to relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn
or dyspepsia. It can also cause constipation and is therefore often used with magnesium hydroxide or
magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects. This compound is also used to
control phosphate (phosphorus) levels in the blood of people suffering from kidney failure.
Aluminium hydroxide, alum, is included as an adjuvant in some vaccines (e.g., Alhydrogel, Anthrax
Vaccine), since it appears to contribute to induction of a good antibody (Th2) response. Its
pharmacological action is not known. However, it has little capacity to stimulate cellular (Th1) immune
responses, important for protection against many pathogens.
Because the brain lesions found in Alzheimer’s disease some times contain traces of aluminium, there
is concern that consumption of excess aluminium compounds may cause or contribute to the
development of this and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, multiple epidemiological studies
have found no connection between exposure to aluminium and neurological disorders.
In addition, elevated aluminium levels in blood, resulting from kidney dialysis with well water
containing high aluminium, may result in dementia that is similar to but probably different from that of
Alzheimer’s disease. However, this hypothesis is controversial.
In 2007, tests with mice of the anthrax vaccine using aluminium hydroxide adjuvant were reported as
resulting in adverse neuropathy symptoms.
2.MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE
Magnesium hydroxide is common component of antacids and laxatives; it interferes with the
absorption of folic acid and iron. Magnesium hydroxide has low solubility in water, with a Kspof
1.5×10−11; all of magnesium hydroxide that does dissolve does dissociate. Since the dissociation of
this small amount of dissolved magnesium hydroxide is complete, magnesium hydroxide is considered
a strong base.
HISTORY
In 1829, Sir James Murray used a fluid magnesia preparation of his own design to treat the Lord
Lieutenant of Ireland, the Marquis of Anglesey. This was so successful (advertised in Australia and
approved by the Royal College of Surgeons in 1838) that he was appointed resident physician to
Anglesey and two subsequent Lords Lieutenants, and knighted. His fluid magnesia product was
patented two years after his death in 1873.
The term milk of magnesia was first used for a white-colored, aqueous, mildly alkaline suspension of
magnesium hydroxide formulated at about 8%w/v by Charles Henry Phillips in 1880 and sold under
the brand name Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia for medicinal usage.
Although the name may at some point have been owned by GlaxoSmithKline, USPTO registrations
show ―Milk of Magnesia‖ to be registered to Bayer, and ―Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia‖ to Sterling Drug. In
the UK, the non- brand (generic) name of ―Milk of Magnesia‖ and ―Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia‖ is ―Cream
of Magnesia‖ (Magnesium Hydroxide Mixture, BP).
PREPARATION
Magnesium hydroxide can be precipitated by the metathesis reaction between magnesium salts and
sodium, potassium, or ammonium hydroxide:
USES
Suspensions of magnesium hydroxide in water (milk of magnesia) are used as an antacid to neutralize
stomach acid, and a laxative. The diarrhea caused by magnesium hydroxide carries away much of the
body’s supply of potassium, and failure to take extra potassium may lead to muscle cramps.
Magnesium hydroxide is also used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant. Milk of magnesia is useful
against canker sores (aphthous ulcer) when used topically.
Milk of magnesia is sold for medical use as chewable tablets, capsules, and as liquids having various
added flavors. It is used as an antacid, though more modern formulations combine the antimotility
effects of equal concentrations of aluminum hydroxide to avoid unwanted laxative effects.
Solid magnesium hydroxide has also smoke suppressing and fire retarding properties. This is due to
the endothermic decomposition it undergoes at 332 °C (630 °F) :
Mg(OH)2 → MgO + H2O
BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM
When the patient drinks the milk of magnesia, the suspension enters the stomach. Depending on how
much was taken, one of two possible outcomes will occur.
As an antacid, milk of magnesia is dosed at approximately 0.5 –1.5g in adults and works by simple
neutralization, where the hydroxide ions from the Mg(OH) 2 combine with acidic H+ ions produced in
the form of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach to produce water.
Only a small amount of the magnesium from milk of magnesia is usually absorbed from a person’s
intestine (unless the person is deficient in magnesium). However, magnesium is mainly excreted by
the kidneys so longterm, daily consumption of milk of magnesia by someone suffering from renal
failure could lead in theory to hypermagnesemia.
3.CALCIUM CARBONATE
Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CaCO 3. It is a common
substance found in rock in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine
organisms, snails, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural
lime, and is usually the principal cause of hard water. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium
supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
it releases carbon dioxide on heating (to above 840 °C in the case of CaCO3), to form calcium oxide,
commonly called quicklime, with reaction enthalpy 178 kJ / mole:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Calcium carbonate will react with water that is saturated with carbon dioxide to form the soluble
calcium bicarbonate.
This reaction is important in the erosion of carbonate rocks, forming caverns, and leads to hard water
in many regions.
PREPARATION
The vast majority of calcium carbonate used in industry is extracted by mining or quarrying. Pure
calcium carbonate (e.g. for food or pharmaceutical use), can be produced from a pure quarried source
(usually marble).
Alternatively, calcium oxide is prepared by calcining crude calcium carbonate. Water is added to give
calcium hydroxide, and carbon dioxide is passed through this solution to precipitate the desired
calcium carbonate, referred to in the industry as precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC):
In tropic settings, the waters are warm and clear. Consequently, you will see many more coral in this
environment than you would towards the poles where the waters are cold. Calcium carbonate
contributors such as corals, algae, and microorganisms are typically found in shallow water
environments because as filter feeders they require sunlight to produce calcium carbonate.
USES
Industrial applications
The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry, either as a building material in its
own right (e.g. marble) or limestone aggregate for roadbuilding or as an ingredient of cement or as
the starting material for the preparation of builder’s lime by burning in a kiln.
Calcium carbonate is also used in the purification of iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. Calcium
carbonate is calcined in situ to give calcium oxide, which forms a slag with various impurities present,
and separates from the purified iron.
Calcium carbonate is widely used as an extender in paints, in particular matte emulsion paint where
typically 30% by weight of the paint is either chalk or marble.
Calcium carbonate is also widely used as a filler in plastics. Some typical examples include around 15
to 20% loading of chalk in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) drain pipe, 5 to 15% loading of
stearate coated chalk or marble in uPVC window profile. PVC cables can use calcium carbonate at
loadings of up to 70 phr (parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile
strength and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity). Polypropylene compounds are
often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a requirement that becomes important at high
use temperatures. It also routinely used as a filler in thermosetting resins (Sheet and Bulk moulding
compounds) and has also been mixed with ABS, and other ingredients, to form some types of
compression molded ―clay‖ Poker chips.
Fine ground calcium carbonate is an essential ingredient in t he microporous film used in babies’
diapers and some building films as the pores are nucleated around the calcium carbonate particles
during the manufacture of the film by biaxial stretching.
It is used in swimming pools as a pH corrector for maintaining alkalinity ―buffer‖ to offset the acidic
properties of the disinfectant agent.
It is commonly called chalk as it has traditionally been a major component of blackboard chalk.
Modern manufactured chalk is now mostly gypsum, hydrated calcium sulfate CaSO4·2H2O.
Calcium carbonate is used in the production of toothpaste and is also used in homeopathy as one of
the constitutional remedies. Also, it has seen a resurgence as a food preservative and color retainer,
when used in or with products such as organic apples or food.
Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the ―milk alkali
syndrome,‖ which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the ―Sippy
regimen‖ of hourly ingestion of mil k and cream, and the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal,
for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer
disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and
hypercalemia, mostly in men with pept ic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the
regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome
declined in men after effective treatments for peptic ulcer disease.
A form of food additive is designated as E170. It is used in some soy milk products as a source of
dietary calcium; one study suggests that calcium carbonate might be as bioavailable as the calcium in
cow’s milk.
4.SODIUM BICARBONATE
Sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical compound with the for mula
NaHCO3. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It
can be used to experiment and is not very dangerous. It has a slight alkaline taste resembling that of
washing soda (sodium carbonate). It is a component of the mineral natron and is found dissolved in
many mineral springs. The natural mineral form is known asnahcolite. It is found in its dissolved
form in bile, where it serves to neutralize the acidity of the hydrochloric acid produced by the
stomach, and is excreted into the duodenum of the small intestine via the bile duct. It is also produced
artificially.
Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking
soda, bread soda, cooking soda, bicarbonate of soda . Colloquially, its name is shortened
to sodium bicarb, bicarb soda , or simply bicarb. The word saleratus, from Latin sal æratus
meaning ―aerated salt‖, was widely used in the 19th century fo r both sodium bicarbonate and
potassium bicarbonate. The term has now fallen out of common usage.
HISTORY
The ancient Egyptians used natural deposits of natron, a mixture consisting mostly of sodium
carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate. The natron was used as a cleansing agent like soap.
In 1791, a French chemist, Nicolas Leblanc, produced sodium bicarbonate as we know it today. In
1846 two New York bakers, John Dwight and Austin Church, established the first factory to develop
baking soda from sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide.
PRODUCTION
NaHCO3 is mainly prepared by the Solvay process, which is the reaction of calcium carbonate, sodium
chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in water. It is produced on the scale of about 100,000 ton/year
(as of 2001).[2]
NaHCO3 may be obtained by the reaction of carbon dioxide with an aqueous solution of sodium
hydroxide. The initial reaction produces sodium carbonate:
Further addition of carbon dioxide produces sodium bicarbonate, which at sufficiently high
concentration will precipitate out of solution:
Commercial quantities of baking soda are also produced by a similar method: soda ash, mined in the
form of the ore trona, is dissolved in water and treated with carbon dioxide. Sodium bicarbonate
precipitates as a solid from this method:
CHEMISTRY
Sodium bicarbonate is an amphoteric compound. Aqueous solutions are mildly alkaline due to the
formation of carbonic acid and hydroxide ion:
Sodium bicarbonate can be used as a wash to remove any acidic impurities from a ―crude‖ liquid,
producing a purer sample. Reaction of sodium bicarbonate and an acid to give a salt and carbonic
acid, which readily decomposes to carbon dioxide and water:
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acetic acid (CH3COOH) to form sodium acetate:
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with bases such as sodium hydroxide to form carbonates:
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with carboxyl groups in proteins to give a brisk effervescence from the
formation of CO2. This reaction is used to test for the presence of carboxylic groups in protein.
APPLICATIONS
Sodium bicarbonate is primarily used in cooking (baking) where it reacts with other components to
release carbon dioxide, that helps dough ―rise‖. The acidic compounds that induce this reaction include
phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, vinegar, etc. Sodium bicarbonate
can be substituted for baking powder provided sufficient acid reagent is also added to the
recipe.[3] Many forms of baking powder contain sodium bicarbonate combined with one or more acidic
phosphates (especially good) or cream of tartar. It can also be used for softening peas ( ⅛ tsp. per
pint of water and bring to boil for one hour)
Many laboratories keep a bottle of sodium bicarbonate powder within easy reach, because sodium
bicarbonate is amphoteric, reacting with acids and bases. Furthermore, as it is relatively innocuous in
most situations, there is no harm in using excess sodium bicarbonate. Lastly, sodium bicarbonate
powder may be used to smother a small fire.
Sodium bicarbonate is used in an aqueous solution as an antacid taken orally to treat acid indigestion
and heartburn. It may also be used in an oral form to treat chronic forms of metabolic acidosis such as
chronic renal failure and renal tubular acidosis. Sodium bicarbonate may also be useful in urinary
alkalinization for the treatment of aspirin overdose and uric acid renal stones.
Sodium bicarbonate can be used to extinguish small grease or electrical fires by being poured or
dumped over the fire. However, it should not be poured or dumped onto fires in deep fryers as it may
cause the grease to splatter. Sodium bicarbonate is used in BC dry chemical fire extinguishers as an
alternative to the more corrosive ammonium phosphate in ABC extinguishers. The alkali nature of
sodium bicarbonate makes it the only dry chemical agent, besides Purple-K, that was used in large
scale fire suppression systems installed in commercial kitchens. Because it can act as an alkali, the
agent has a mild saponification effect on hot grease, which forms a smothering soapy foam. Dry
chemicals have since fallen out of favor for kitchen fires as they have no cooling effect compared to
the extremely effective wet chemical agents specifically designed for such hazards.
5.BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE
Bismuth subsalicylate , with a chemical formula C7H5BiO4, is a drug used to treat nausea, heartburn,
indigestion, upset stomach, diarrhea, and other temporary discomforts of the stomach and
gastrointestinal tract. Commonly known as pink bismuth , it is the active ingredient in popular
medications such as Pepto-Bismol and modern (since 2003) Kaopectate.
PHARMACOLOGY
As a derivative of salicylic acid, bismuth salicylate displays anti-inflammatory action and also acts as
an antacid.
There are some adverse effects. It can cause a black tongue and black stools
stool s in some users of the
drug, when it combines with trace amounts of sulfur in saliva and the gastrointestinal tract. This
discoloration is temporary and harmless.
Some of the risks of salicylism can apply to the use of bismuth subsalicylate.
Children should not take medication with bismuth subsalicylate while recovering from influenza or
chicken pox, as epidemiologic evidence points to an association between the use of salicylate-
containing medications during certain viral infections and the onset of Reye’s syndrome. For the same
reason, it is typically recommended that nursing mothers not use medication containing bismuth
subsalicylate (such as Pepto-Bismol) because small amounts of the medicatio n are excreted in breast
milk and pose a theoretical risk of Reye’s syndrome to nursing children.
RADIOACTIVITY
While bismuth is technically radioactive, its half life is so long, on the order of hundreds of billions of
years, that its radioactivity presents absolutely no threat under all medical and other ordinary
purposes.
DECOMPOSITION
Bismuth subsalicyclate is the only active ingredient in an over the counter medication that will actually
leave a shiny metal slag behind.
INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT
OBJECTIVE :
To analyse the given samples of commercial antacids by determining the amount of hydrochloric acid
they can neutralize.
REQUIREMENTS :
Burettes, pipettes, titration flasks, measuring flasks, beakers, weight box, fractional weights, sodium
hydroxide, sodium carbonate, hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein.
PROCEDURE :
2. Similarly, make 1 litre of approximately NaOH solution by dissolving4.0g of NaOH to prepare one
litre of solution.
3. Prepare Na2CO3 solution by weighing exactly 1.325 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate and then
dissolving it in water to prepare exactly 0.25 litres (250 ml) of solution.
4. Standardize the HCl solution by titrating it against the standard Na2CO3 solution using methyl
orange as indicator.
5. Similarly, standardize NaOH solution by titrating it against standardized HCl solution using
phenolphthalein as indicator.
6. Powder the various samples of antacid tablets and weigh 1.0 g of each.
7. Add a specific volume of standardised HCl to each of the weighed sample is taken in conical flasks.
The acid should be in slight excess, so that it can neutralize all the alkaline component of the tablet.
8. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein and warm the flask till most of powder dissolves. Filter off the
insoluble material.
1. 9. Titrate this solution against the standardised NaOH solution, till a permanent pinkish tinge is
obtained. Repeat this experiment with different antacids.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS :
1. 0 ml 26.5 ml 26.5 ml 11 = 22
Formation Of Biodiesel
Chemistry Investigatory Project
Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement
It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude towards our chemistry teacher Mrs._______ for
her guidance, support
support and encouragement throughout
throughout the duration of the project.
project. Without her
motivation and help the successful completion of this project would not have been possible.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Punit Gaur of class XII has completed the chemistry project entitled
‘
FORMATION OF BIO DIESEL ’
Himself and under my guidance. The progress of the project has been continuously reported and has
been in my knowledge consistently.
SUBJECT INCHARGE :-
:-
Mrs. _________
Contents
Acknowledgement
Certificate
What is Biodiesel?
Uses of Biodiesel
Preparation of Biodiesel
Reactions involved
Biodiesel fuel features
Disadvantages of Biodiesel
Bibliography
What is Biodiesel?
Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based diesel fuel consisting of short chain alkyl (methyl or ethyl)
esters, made by transesterification of vegetable oil or animal fat (tallow), which can be used (alone, or
blended with conventional petrol diesel) in unmodified diesel-engine vehicles. Biodiesel is
distinguished from the straight-vegetable oil (SVO) (sometimes referred to as ―waste vegetable oil‖
―WVO‖ ―used vegetable oil‖ ―UVO‖ ―pure plant oil‖, ―PPO‖) used(alone,
used(alone, or blended) as fuels in some
converted diesel vehicles.‖Biodiesel‖ is standardized as mono-alkyl ester and other kinds of diesel-
grade fuels of biological origin are not included.
Uses of biodiesel
Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source that can be made from soy beans grown for fuel, or from
cooking oils recycled from restaurants. This means it is a renewable resource unlike petroleum-based
diesel.
There is an excess production of soybeans in the United States; therefore biodiesel is an economic
way to utilize this surplus.
Biodiesel is less polluting than petroleum diesel. Compared to petroleum diesel, biodiesel produces
less soot (particulate matter), carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide.
The absence of sulfur in 100% biodiesel should extend the life of catalytic converters.
Biodiesel fuel can also be used in combination with heating oil to heat residential and industrial
buildings. This can reduce dependence on non-renewable and increasingly expensive heating oil.
Biodiesel burns cleaner & is made of non-toxic chemicals so it does not give out poisonous fumes,
unlike the ordinary fuel.
Instructions to Prepare Bio Diesel
Requirements:
Vegetable oil
Antifreeze (Methanol)
Lye (NaOH)
Blender
Scales
Plastic containers
Funnels
Plastic bottle with lid
Duct tape
Thermometer
Steps Involved:
Step 1:
Step 3:
Cover container and mix well by shaking it. It is mixed when it starts to feel warm and is foamy. The
mixture has now become sodium methoxide.
Step 4:
Blend 1 liter of vegetable oil with the sodium methoxide in a blender for 20 minutes.
Step 5:
Pour mixture into a bottle and wait 8 hours until the byproduct, glycerin, separates form the biodiesel.
The glycerin will be on the solid on the bottom.
Step 6:
Step 7:
Prepare a wash bottle by poking a small hole in the corner of the bottle and covering it with duct tape.
Step 8:
Wash the biodiesel by pouring it into the wash bottle and adding in ½ a liter of water. Roll the bottle
around to mix it and then remove the duct tape and drain the water.
Step 9:
Repeat the washing process until the biodiesel is clear. This may need to be done numerous times
over the course of a week to complete the process. Store the biodiesel in a glass container until ready
to use.
Reactions involved
Transesterification:
Animal & plant fats & oils are typically made of triglycerides which are esters of free fatty acids with
the trihydric alcohol, glycerol. In the transesterification process, the alcohol is deprotonated with a
base to make it a stronger nucleophile. Commonly, ethanol or methanol is used. As can be seen, the
reaction has no other inputs than the triglyceride & the alcohol.
Normally, this reaction will precede either exceedingly slowly or not at all. Heat, as well as an acid or
base are used to help the reaction more quickly.
Power: One of the major advantages is the fact that it can be used in exiting engines & fuel injection
equipment (no modification required) without negative impact to operating performance.
Fuel availability/econ omy: Virtually the same MPG rating as petrol-diesel & the only alternative fuel
availability/economy:
for heavyweight vehicles requiring no special dispensing & storage equipment.
Production/Refining: Can be done at home (wasted veggie oil) & farms (virgin oils from seeds),
being the only alternative fuel that can boost of a zero total emissions production facility. By selling
the simultaneously produced glycerol, the cost of BD is basically the same cost of the oil used to make
it.
Storage: Readily blends & stays blended with petrol-diesel so it can be stored & dispensed wherever
diesel is stored or sold.
Combustibility/Safety: Biodiesel has a very high flash point (300 ⁰F) making it one of the safest of
all alternative fuels.
Lubricity: The only alternative fuel that can actually extend engine life because of its superior
lubricating & cleaning properties. The pr esent ―low sulphur‖ diesel fuel is badly wearing the i njection
pumps of not protected diesel engine.
Usage: Biodiesel fuel can generally be used in existing oil heating systems and diesel engines without
modification, and it can be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps. This is an advantage over
other alternative fuels, which can be expensive to use initially due to high cost of equipment
modifications or new purchases. Biodiesel pr ovides almost the same energy per gallon as petroleum
diesel.
Environment Impact: The only renewable alternative diesel fuel that actually reduces major
greenhouse gas components in the atmosphere. The use of biodiesel will also reduce the following
emissions: carbon monoxide, ozone-forming-hydrocarbons, hazardous diesel particulate, acid rain-
causing sulphur dioxide, lifecycle carbon dioxide.
Disadvantages of Biodiesel
Biodiesel is currently about one and a half times more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel. Part of
this cost is because the most common source of oil is the soybean, which only is only 20% oil.
However, the costs of biodiesel can be reduced by making biodiesel from recycled cooking oils rather
than from new soy beans, or by making it from plant matter with higher oil content.
It takes energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, including the energy of sowing, fertilizing and
harvesting.
Biodiesel fuel can damage rubber hoses in some engines, particularly in cars built before 1994. You
should check with the manufacturer before using biodiesel to see if you need to replace any hoses or
rubber seals.
Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine. This dirt then collects in the fuel filter, which can clog it.
Clogging occurs most often when biodiesel is first used after a period of operation with petroleum
diesel, so filters should be changed after the first several hours of biodiesel use.
Bibliography
All the information in the project has been gathered from internet.
Websites used:
Google
Free encyclopedia on biodiesel
Biodiesel uses
iCBSE
Transesterification chemistry for preparing biodiesel
Biodiesel features
Making your own biodiesel
Fact file of biodiesel
SCHOOL
PUNALUR
2009-2010
Class :
Reg. No :
CERTIFICATE
AISSCE 2008. I certify that this project is done by him/ her with his/her
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I place my sincere
sincere thanks to my chemistry teacher SUSAN
SUSAN JACOB for her guidance
guidance and
advices to complete my work successfully. I also t hank our principal Mr. GEORGE. P
.GEORGE for providing me all the facilities to finish the project on time.
I also take this opportunity to place on record my deep gratitude to LORD ALMIGHTY for the
the
countless blessings showered
showered on me while doing the work and to complete it.
Last but not least I thank my parents for their encouragement and support in my humble
venture.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………
…………………………………
…
2. AIM …………………………………
………………………………………….
……….
3. MATERIALS REQUIRED………………….
4. PRECEDURE…………………
PRECEDURE………………………………..
……………..
5. OBSERVATIONS………
OBSERVATIONS……………………………
……………………
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY………………
BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………
……………
INTRODUCTION
In the past decade there has been a tremendous increase in the yields of
using pesticides and insecticides. These are chemicals that are sprayed over
crop to protect it from pests. For example, DDT, BHC, zinc phosphide,
and are used in small quantities with care. Pesticides are proven to be
effective against variety of insects, weeds and fungi and are respectively
vegetables . From plants they transfer to animals , birds and human beings
who eat these polluted fruits and vegetables. Inside the body they get
Insecticides residues in even raw samples of wheat, fish, meat , butter etc.
health officials all over the world to put a check over the use of insecticides
AIM
To study the presence of insecticides or pesticides (nitrogen containing) i n various fruits and
vegetables.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Mortar and pestle , beakers, funnel , glass rod , filter paper china dish , water bath, tripod stand,
fusion tube, knife, test tube.
Samples of various fruits and vegetables, alcohol, sodium metal, ferric chloride, ferrous sulphate
crystals, distilled water and dil. Sulphuric acid.
PROCEDURE
Take different types of fruits and vegetables and cut them into small pieces
separately. Transfer the cut pieces of various fruits and vegetables into it
separately and crush them . Take different kinds for each kind of fruits and
vegetables and place the crushed fruits and vegetables in these beakers and
add 100 ml of alcohol to each of these . Stir well and filter. Collect the
filtrate in separate china dishes, Evaporate the alcohol by heating the china
dishes one by one over a water bath and let the residue dry in the oven . Heat
a small piece of sodium in a fusion tube , till it melts. Then add one of the
above residues from the china dish to this fusion tube and heat it till red hot.
Drop the hot fusion tube in a china dish containing about 10 ml of distilled
water. Break the tube and boil the contents of the china dish for about 5
minutes . Cool and filter the solution. Collect the filtrate . To the filtrate add
Then add 2-3 drops of ferric chloride solution and acidify with dilute HCl.
obtained from other fruits and vegetables and record the observation.
OBSERVATIONS
S.no Name of the fruit or Test for the presence Presence of insecticide
(positive or negative)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Modern’s abc of practical chemistry -XII
1. Comprehensive practical chemistry – XII
1. NCERT chemistry -XII
Green Chemistry
Bio diesel and Bio petrol also study extraction process of Bio diesal
SUBMITTED BY : ABHYODAYA SIDDHARTHA
GUIDED BY :
YEAR : 2010-2011
Date _____________.
EXAMINER
DATE : ___________
SEAL
Miss. , for her vital support, guidance and encouragement – without which this project would not have
come forth. I would also like to express my gratitude to my old chemistry teacher Mr.DINESH
SHUKLA for his support during the making of this project.
INDEX
I Objective 5
VIII Biopetrol 23
IX Conclution 30
X Bibliography 31
The Objective of this project is to study GREEN CHEMISTRY- Bio diesel and Bio petrol also study
extraction process of Bio desial.
Green chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with developing processes and products to
reduce or eliminate hazardous substances. One of the goals of green chemistry is to prevent pollution
at its source, as opposed to dealing with pollution after it has occurred.
1.
Prevention
It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created.
2.
Atom Economy
Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the
process into the final product.
3.
Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate substances that
possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment.
4.
Chemical products should be designed to effect their desired function while minimizing their toxicity.
5.
The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary
wherever possible and innocuous when used.
6.
Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recog nized for their environmental and
economic impacts and should be minimized. If possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at
ambient temperature and pressure.
7.
A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and
economically practicable.
8.
Reduce Derivatives
9.
Catalysis
10.
Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they break down into
innocuous degradation products and do not persist in the environment.
11.
Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, inprocess monitoring and
control prior to the formation of hazardous substances.
12.
Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the
potential for chemical accidents, including rel eases,explosions, and fires.
Introduction
Bio-diesel is an eco-friendly, alternative diesel fuel prepared from domestic renewable resources
i.e. vegetable oils (edible or non- edible oil) and animal fats. These natural oils and fats are
made up mainly of triglycerides. These triglycerides when rea w striking similarity to petroleum
derived diesel and are called ―Bio-diesel‖. As India is deficient in edible oils, non -edible oil may
be material of choice for producing bio diesel . For this purpose Jatropha curcas considered as
most potential source for it. Bio diesel is produced by transesterification of oil obtains from the
plant.
Jatropha Curcas has been identified for India as the most suitable Tree Borne Oilseed (TBO) for
production of bio-diesel both in view of the non-edible oil available from it and its presence
throughout the country. The capacity of Jatropha Curcas to rehabilitate degraded or dry lands,
from which the poor mostly derive their sustenance, by improving land’s water retention
capacity, makes it additionally suitable for up-gradation of land resources. Presently, in some
Indian villages, farmers are extracting oil from Jatropha and after settling and decanting it they
are mixing the filtered oil with diesel fuel. Although, so far the farmers have not observed any
damage to their machinery, yet this remains to be tested and PCRA is working on it. The fact
remains that this oil needs to be converted to bio-diesel through a chemical reaction – trans-
esterification. This reaction is relatively simple and does not require any exotic material. IOC
(R&D) has been using a laboratory scale plant of 100 kg/day capacity for trans-esterification;
designing of larger capacity plants is in the offing. These large plants are useful for centralized
production of bio-diesel. Production of bio-diesel in smaller plants of capacity e.g. 5 to 20 kg/day
may also be started at decentralized level.
Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of fatty acids (long chain carboxylic acids). It has similar
properties to the diesel fuel made from crude oil that is used to fuel many vehicles. It can be made
easily from vegetable cooking oil that contains compounds of fatty acids. Enough fuel can be produced
in this activity to burn in a later activity, although it is not pure enough to actually be used as fuel in a
car or lorry. The synthesis is a simple chemical reaction that produces biodiesel and propane-1,2,3-
triol (glycerol). Cooking oil is mixed with methanol and potassium hydroxide is added as a catalyst.
The products separate into two layers, with the biodiesel on the top. The biodiesel is separated and
washed, and is then ready for further experimentation.
15 cm3 methanol (highly flammable, toxic by inhalation, if swallowed, and by skin absorption)
Safety
Wear eye protection.
What to do
1. Measure 100 cm of vegetable oil into the 250 cm3 flask. Weigh the flask before and after to
3
Filter pump
A piece of wide bore glass tubing approximately 10 cm long with two one-hole stoppers to fit
90o glass bend to fit the two-hole stopper (one leg to extend to bottom of flask)
Take care if you have to insert glass tubing into the stoppers yourself. Make sure that your teacher
shows you the correct technique.
What to do
1. Pour 125 cm of distilled water into the 250 cm3 flask and add 10 cm3 of universal indicator. Add one
3
drop of 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution and gently swirl the flask so that the colour of the
solution is violet or at the most basic end of the universal indicator colour range.
2. Place 10 cm3 of this solution into the boiling tube.
3. Assemble the apparatus illustrated in Figure 1, attaching it to the filter pump with the vacuum tubing.
4. Place 2 cm3 of biodiesel onto a wad of mineral wool in the metal sample cup.
5. Turn on the water tap so the filter pump pulls air through the flask and ignite the biodiesel. Position
the funnel directly over the burning fuel, so
so as to capture the fumes from the burning fuel. Mark or
note the position of the tap handle so you can run the pump at the same flow rate later in the
experiment.
6. Allow the experiment to run until the universal indicator turns yellow and time how long this takes.
7. Record what happens in the funnel and in the glass tube containing the second piece of mineral wool.
8. Clean the apparatus, and repeat the experiment using 2 cm3 of kerosene (this is very similar to diesel
fuel).
Activity 3: Potential for biofuels
1.Technical Feasibility
Existing storage facilities and infrastructure for petro-diesel can be used with minor alteration.
2.Sources of Bio-diesel
All Tree Bearing Oil (TBO) seeds – edible and non edible
Edible seeds can’t be used for bio -diesel production in our country, as its indigenous production
does not meet our current demand.
Among non-edible TBO, Jatropha Curcas has been identified as the most suitable seed for India.
3.Advantages of Jatropha
It grows practically all over India under a variety of agro climatic conditions.
Can be grown in arid zones (20 cm rainfall) as well as in higher rainfall zones and even on the
land with thin soil cover.
Its plantation can be taken up as a quick yielding plant even in adverse land situations viz.
degraded and barren lands under forest and non-forest use, dry and drought prone areas,
marginal lands, even on alkaline soils and as agro-forestry crops.
Nursery raising
Nurseries may be raised in poly-bags filled with mixture of soil and farm yard manure in the ratio
of 4:1.
Plantation
Farm yard manure (2-3 kg), 20 gm urea, 12 gm Single Super Phosphate (SSP) & 16 gm Mono
Phosphate (MP)
Planting density
2500 plants / ha at 2m x 2m
Transplantation
Fertilizer
From second year in the ratio of 40:60:20 Nitrogen Phosphorous and Potassium (NPK) kg/ha
Irrigation
Pruning
Fruiting
Andhra Pradesh 44
Bihar 10
Chhatisgarh 190
Gujarat 240
Haryana 140
Karnataka 80
Maharashtra 150
Mizoram 20
Rajasthan 275
Tamil Nadu 60
Uttaranchal 50
Likely demand of petro diesel by 2006-07 will be 52 MMT and by 2011-12 it will increase to 67
MMT.
5% blend of Bio-diesel with petro diesel will require 2.6 MMT of Bio-diesel in 2006-07
By 2011-12, for 20% blend with Petro-diesel, the likely demand will be 13.4 MMT.
To meet the requirement of 2.6 MMT of bio-diesel, plantation of Jatropha should be done on 2.2
– 2.6 million ha area.
11.2 – 13.4 million ha of land should be covered by 2011 – 12 for 20% bio-diesel blending
It will generate following no. of jobs in following areas.
Oil content
35% to 40%
Systematic state/region wise survey for identification of superior trees and superior seeds.
Samples of high yield to be sent to National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) for
accession and cryo-preservation.
NOVOD has developed improved Jatropha seeds, which have oil contents up t o 1.5
times of ordinary seeds.
However, being in short supply, initially these improved Jatropha seeds would be supplied only to
Agricultural Universities for multiplication and development.
After multiplication these would be supplied to different states for further cultivation. This
program is likely to take 3 – 4 years.
9. Trans-esterification Process
Vegetable Oil i.e. the triglyceride can be easily trans-esterified in the presence of alkaline
catalyst at atmospheric pressure and at temperature of approximately 60 to 70oC with an excess
of methanol.
If 100 gm of vegetable oil is taken, 1 gm of the alkaline catalyst (Potassium Hydroxide), and 12
gm of Methanol would be required
As a first step, the alkaline catalyst is mixed with methanol and the mixture is stirred for half an
hour for its homogenization.
This mixture is mixed with vegetable oil and the resultant mixture is made to pass through reflux
condensation at 65oC.
The upper layer of bio-diesel (a methyl ester) is washed to remove entrained glycerin.
This reaction works well with high quality oil. If the oil contains 1% Free Fatty Acid (FFA), then
difficulty arises because of soap formation. If FFA content is more than 2% the reaction becomes
unworkable.
Methanol is inflammable and Potassium Hydroxide is caustic, hence proper and safe handling of
these chemicals are must.
IIT, Delhi
IIP, Dehradun
CSIR
Uttranchal:
Uttaranchal Bio-fuel Board (UBB) has been constituted as a nodal agency for bio-diesel
promotion in the state.
UBB has established Jatropha Gene Bank to preserve high yielding seed varieties.
vari eties.
Andhra Pradesh:
Task force for it has been constituted at district and state level
Chhattisgarh:
6 lakh saplings of Jatropha have been planted with the involvement of State’s Forest, Agriculture,
Panchayat and Rural Development Departments
As per the Deputy Chairman, State Planning Board, the state has the target to cover 1 million ha
of land under Jatropha plantation
Ten reputed bio-diesel companies, including the UK-based D1 Oils, have offered to set up
Jatropha oil-extraction units or to buy the produce from farmers in Chhattisgarh.
Companies like Indian Oil, Indian Railways and Hindustan Petroleum have each deposited Rs 10
lakh as security for future MoUs with the state government.
Farmers in Haryana have formed NGOs and cooperatives for promotion of Jatropha plantation.
These NGOs and cooperatives are raising nurseries for Jatropha plantation and supplying saplings
to others for further cultivation.
They have been blending directly Jatropha Oil into diesel fuel and successfully using this blend in
their tractors and diesel engines without any problems.
These NGOs and cooperatives are also organizing the practical demonstration of this usage in
their demonstration workshops.
They are organizing local seminars, workshops and conferences etc. to promote the usage of
Jatropha oil.
Shatabadi Express was run on 5% blend of bio-diesel from Delhi to Amritsar on 31st Dec. 2002
in association with IOC.
Field trials of 10% bio-diesel blend were also done on Lucknow-Allahabad Jan Shatabdi Express
also through association with IOC.
CSIR and Daimler Chrysler have jointly undertaken a successful 5000 km trial run of Mercedes
cars using bio-diesel as fuel.
NOVOD has initiated test run by blending 10% bio diesel in collaboration with IIT, Delhi in Tata
Sumo & Swaraj Mazda vehicles.
BIO-PETROL
Introduction
Measures to be implemented to resolve the problem of sewage sludge that contain a high degree of
organic matter could primarily aim at recycling it through a thermo chemical pyrolysis process in order
to recover hydrocarbons that make up the structure of sewage sludge. Pyrolysis of sewage sludge
produces oil, gas and char products. The pyrolysis oils have also been shown to contain valuable
chemicals in significant concentrations and hence may have the potential to be used as chemical
feedstock. The production of a liquid product increases the ease of handling, storage and transport.
The technology, improved by BioPetrol Ltd. (patent pending) is capable of processing carbon wastes,
other than sewage sludge, including agri-wastes, bagasse, pulp and paper residues, tannery sludge
and other end-of-life products such as plastics, tires and the organics in municipal solid waste.The
process of low temperature thermochemical conversion of municipal sewage sludge to oil is a new
technology in developed countries. The amount of investment is still less than the amount invested in
the sewage sludge incineration process, and the operational economy of the process is obviously
superior to incineration.
The BioPetrol, Ltd. integrated thermochemical process (patent pending) recovers about 1,100,000
Kcal from each 283 kg of sewage sludge 90% D.S. after the thermal evaporating of 717kg water from
each dewatered ton (1,000 kg) of sewage sludge 26% D.S.
The BioPetrol process begins with sewage sludge at 90% D.S. Sewage sludge drying equipment is
used commonly for the evaporative removal of interstitial water from the sludge. Numerous drying
technologies exist on the market.
1. Disposal of Sewage Sludge – Disposal of sewage sludge comprises over 30% of wastewater
treatment plants’ budget. Customers of this service are l ocal communities. They are willing to pay top
dollar for the disposal of their sludge. For example: Holland $50-$90 per ton, U.S., Canada and
Australia, up to $150 per ton. The US produces 25 million tons of sludge annually (2001).
2. Synthetic Crude Oil – Excess crude oil, beyond what is being recirculated to run equipment A+B is
about 30 kg per 1 ton sewage sludge 90% D.S. Oil energy = 8,900 Kcal/kg same as diesel oil used in
heavy industry. There are references in professional literature to numerous valuable chemicals in
significant concentration that are present in pyrolysis oils.
BioPetrol, ltd. has been awarded a grant of $300,000 for a period of 2 years by Israel’s Office of the
Chief Scientist to conduct advanced R&D. The company has concluded and proved the viability of the
process and is now on the verge of constructing a demonstration pilot for a continuous process.
BioPetrol is seeking an investment of US$400,000 for the completion of the demonstration pilot. A
business plan is available for further details.
Technology
The technological processes at issue in the Bio-Petrol project belong to the sphere of liquefying
carbon-rich solid fuels. The liquefaction processes common today comprise two stages:
1. Thermal breakdown of the molecular structure to create radical fractions different in size.
Bio-Petrol Company has carried out R&D work which has resulted in the formulation of a suitable
process for producing synthetic oil from sewage sludge with larger output than that obtained from the
common process-i.e. pyrolysis. By integrating familiar liquefaction methods the company developed a
process of high utilization of the organic matter that is in the sewage sludge that produces oil and gas
in larger quantities and of better quality.
What is Ethanol?
Ethanol is part of a category of molecules called alcohols. The simplest alcohol is called methanol and
is very similar to a compound called methane. Methane is a molecule composed of one carbon atom
surrounded by 4 hydrogen atoms. In methanol, one of these hydrogen atoms is replaced with an
oxygen atom with a hydrogen atom attached to it. This two atom group, oxygen attached to a
hydrogen, is called an alcohol group.
Any molecule that has an alcohol group attached to it can be called an alcohol. To make it easier to
talk about, chemists add an ―ol‖ on the end of a chemicals name to indicate that it has an alcohol
group. Therefore, methane with an alcohol group attached is called methanol.
For ethanol, it is an ethane molecule –two carbon atoms, with six hydrogen atoms surrounding them—
with one hydrogen replaced by an alcohol group. Then, the name ethane is changed to ethanol, to
indicate that it is an alcohol.
Ethanol has been used by humans for thousands of years, in part because it is easy to make. In fact,
nature can make it for us in a process called fermentation.
Fermentation is a biochemical process carried out by microscopic organisms called yeast. Yeast are
anaerobic, meaning they can live and eat without needing oxygen. Many living things eat sugar, and
yeast eat sugar too. When there is no oxygen, yeast chow down on sugar, but they can’t get all of the
energy that is available in sugar out of it. Instead they use it to get some energy, and in the process
of digesting it, convert it into ethanol and carbon dioxide Petrol.
Yeast are even used to make bread. When making bread, bakers use the yeasts ability to make
carbon dioxide Petrol to make the bread rise, making it thicker. If it were not for yeast, pizza dough
would be flatter than a pancake.
Scientists have also invented ways to make ethanol synthetically, withou t utilizing nature’s help. The
process converts a byproduct of making Petrololine into ethanol. Although this process is used, more
than 90% of the ethanol produced per year is made using yeast.
Yeast only consume simple sugars, so only certain foods are good for putting them to work making
ethanol. Bakers use the sugar that you can find in your kitchen. But it takes a lot of kitchen sugar to
fill the tank of your car with ethanol. Some countries, such as Brazil, that grow a lot of sugar use it to
make ethanol for cars. Brazil has been producing ethanol fuels for decades. The United States does
not have enough sugar cane plants to do this. Instead, the U.S. has focused on using corn.
Corn has less sugar in it than sugar cane, requiring scientists to develop ways to convert corn’s more
complex sugars into simple sugars. Critics of using corn for fuel say that it takes more energy to make
ethanol from corn than it takes to make regular Petrololine.
However, a recent review of many different studies in the American Chemical Society journal,
Environmental Science and Technology, suggests that i n most cases, using corn would stil l save us
from using as much fossil fuels as we would if we just used Petrololine.
A new method is being developed that may be even more promising than using corn or sugar cane as
yeast food. All plants make a complex sugar called cellulose and it is one of the most abundant plant
materials on earth. Cotton is almost all cellulose, and some forms of cellulose can be found in many of
the foods that we eat. Trees have i t. Grass has it. Even corn stalks. But yeast don’t eat cellulose.
Recently several groups of researchers have developed enzymes, which are complex molecules that
operate like little machines, to break apart cellulose into simple sugars that the yeast can eat.
What makes this very interesting is that farms and other industries already produce tons and tons of
waste materials that contain cellulose. Just imagine, all the sticks and grass clippings from your yard
or playground could be turned into fuel for your car. Farms can also grow plants for making ethanol.
President George W. Bush mentioned one of these, switch grass, in the 2006 State of the Union
address.
Therefore, farms or timber companies can convert their waste into ethanol. There is also one
additional benefit, and challenge to processing cellulose. Cellulose is often stuck together with another
plant compound called lignin. Lignins are compounds that make plants strong, and they trap cellulose.
Lignins are one of the waste products of papermaking. But, lignin materials extracted from waste
materials used for making ethanol can be burned to power the process, saving more fossil fuels.
It’s not a question of if we will stop using oil but when. Soon, we will all have to replace oil with a
different, renewable source and ethanol may be the answer.
****THE END****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
www.google.co.in
www.chemistry.org
www.ott.doe.gov/biofuels/environment.html
www.pcra.org