Histology of the Nervous System

Brain (cerebrum & cerebellum)

Spinal cord
Ganglia (sensory and autonomic)

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 General Organization of the Nervous System

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 Central Nervous System

 It has virtually no connective tissue ??? and is therefore a

relatively soft, gel-like organ.
 When sectioned, the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord
show regions of white matter and gray matter, differences
caused by the differential distribution of myelin.

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 Brain

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  The main components of  Gray matter contains
white matter are:  abundant neuronal cell
 myelinated axons bodies
 myelin-producing  dendrites
oligodendrocytes  initial unmyelinated
 microglia portions of axons
 astrocytes
 microglial cells

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  Gray matter is the region where synapses occur
 Gray matter is prevalent at the surface or cortex of the
cerebrum and cerebellum, whereas white matter is present
in more central regions.
 Aggregates of neuronal cell bodies forming islands of gray
matter embedded in the white matter are called nuclei

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 White versus gray matter, stained

 A cross section of spinal cord shows the transition between

white matter and gray matter.
 The white matter consists mainly of nerve fibers whose
myelin sheaths were dissolved in the preparation procedure,
leaving the round empty spaces shown.
 Neuronal cell bodies, astrocytes, and abundant cell
processes predominate in the gray matter.

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 White Versus Gray Matter, Stained

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  Neuroscientists recognize six layers in the cerebral cortex
with most neurons arranged vertically.

 The most abundant neurons are the efferent pyramidal

neurons which come in many sizes.

 Cells of the cerebral cortex function in the integration of

sensory information and the initiation of voluntary motor
responses.

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 Cerebral Cortex
 The cerebral hemispheres consist of a convoluted cortex of
gray matter overlying the central medullary mass of white
matter which conveys fibres between different parts of the
cortex and to and from other parts of the CNS.

 Histologically, the neurons of the cerebral cortex are

divided into different morphological types which are
arranged in several layers.

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 Types of Cerebral Cortex

Neocortex
o Newest in evolution
o About 90% of total cortex in humans
o 6 layers, most complex

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 Cerebral Cortex

 In submammalian species, the major function of the cortex

concerns the sense of olfaction (smell) and the neurons are
arranged into three layers.

 In mammals, there has evolved the so-called neocortex

consisting of six layers of neurons.

 The neocortex includes the sensory, motor and association

areas and in humans constitutes about 90% of the cerebral
cortex.

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 Neuron Types in the Cerebral Cortex
 The different characteristic types of cortical neurons are:
1. Pyramidal cells
 They have pyramid-shaped cell bodies, the apex being
directed towards the cortical surface.
 A slender axon arises from the base of the cell and passes into
the underlying white matter, though in the case of small
superficially located cells, the axon may synapse in the deep
layers of the cortex.
 The size of the pyramidal cells varies from small to large, the
smallest tending to lie more superficially.
 The huge upper motor neurons of the motor cortex, known
as Betz cells, are the largest of the pyramidal cells in the
cortex.
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 2. Stellate (granule)cells
 They are small neurons with a short vertical axon and
several short branching dendrites, giving the cell body
the shape of a star.
 With routine histological methods, the cells look like small
granules giving rise to their alternative name.
3. Cells of Martinotti
 They are small polygonal cells with a few short dendrites
 The axon extends towards the surface and bifurcates to
run horizontally, usually in the most superficial layer.

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 4. Fusiform cells
 They are spindle-shaped cells oriented at right angles to
the surface of the cerebral cortex.
 The axon arises from the side of the cell body and passes
superficially.
 Dendrites extend from each end of the cell body
branching into deeper and more superficial layers.

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 5. Horizontal cells of Cajal
 They are small and spindle-shaped but oriented
parallel to the surface.
 They are the least common cell type and are only found
in the most superficial layer where their axons pass
laterally to synapse with the dendrites of pyramidal
cells.
 In addition to neurons, the cortex contains supporting
neuroglial cells, i.e. astrocytes, oligodendroglia and
microglia.

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 Cells of Cerebral Cortex

1. Pyramidal Cell
2. Fusiform Cell
3. Granular (Stellate) Cell
4. Basket cell
5. Double bouquet cell
6. Chandlier cell
7. Neurogliform cell
8. Horizontal Cell of Cajal
9. Cells of Martinotti
a: axon

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 Layers of the Neocortex

 The neurons in the neocortex are arranged into six layers,

the layers differing in neuron morphology, size and
population density.

 The layers merge with one another rather than being

highly demarcated and vary somewhat from one region
of the cortex to another depending on cortical thickness
and function.

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 I. Plexiform (molecular) layer
 Most superficial layer mainly contains dendrites and
axons of cortical neurons making synapses with one
another.
 The sparse nuclei are those of neuroglia and
occasional horizontal cells of Cajal.
II. Outer granular layer
 A dense population of small pyramidal cells and
stellate cells make up this thin layer which also
contains various axons and dendritic connections
from deeper layers.

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 III. Outer Pyramidal cell layer
 Pyramidal cells of moderate size predominate in this
broad layer, the cells increasing in size deeper in the
layer.
 Martinotti cells are also present.
IV. Inner granular layer
 Consists of mainly densely packed stellate cells.

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 V. Inter Pyramidal (Ganglionic) layer
 Large pyramidal cells, smaller numbers of stellate cells
and cells of Martinotti make up this layer
 The name of the layer originating from the huge
pyramidal (ganglion) Betz cells of the motor cortex..
VI. Multiform cell layer
 This is so named for the wide variety of differing
morphological forms found in this layer.
 It contains numerous small pyramidal cells, cells of
Martinotti, as well as stellate cells, especially
superficially, and fusiform cells in the deeper part

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 Layers of the Neocortex

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 Summary
Layers of Cerebral Cortex Predominant Cells

Plexiform layer Horizontal cells of Cajal

Outer granular layer Small pyramidal cells

Stellate cells
Outer pyramidal layer Pyramidal cells (moderate size)
Martinotti cells
Inner granular layer Densely packed stellate cells

Inner pyramidal layer Large pyramidal (Betz) cells

Stellate cells
Martinotti cells
Multiform cell layer Superficial: small pyramidal cells, cells
of Martinotti, as well as stellate cells
Deep: fusiform cells
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 Cerebellum

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 Cerebellar Cortex

 The cerebellar cortex, which coordinates muscular

activity throughout the body, has three layers:

 outer molecular layer

 central layer (contain very large neurons called
Purkinje cells) &
 inner granule layer

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  The Purkinje cell bodies are prominent even in H&E
stained material and their dendrites extend throughout
the molecular layer as a branching basket of nerve fibers.

 The granule layer is formed by very small neurons (the

smallest in the body), which are packed together densely,
in contrast to the neuronal cell bodies in the molecular
layer which are sparse.

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 Cerebellum

 The cerebellar cortex is

convoluted with many distinctive
small folds, each supported at its
center by cerebellar medulla
(M), which is white matter
consisting of large tracts of axons

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 Cerebellum

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 Cerebellum

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 Cerebellar Histology

Molecular Layer

Purkinje Cells

Granular Layer

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 Spinal Cord

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 Spinal Cord
 In cross sections of the spinal cord, white matter is
peripheral and gray matter is internal and has the general
shape of an H.
 In the center is an opening, the central canal, which
develops from the lumen of the embryonic neural tube and is
lined by ependymal cells.
 The gray matter forms the anterior horns, which contain
motor neurons whose axons make up the ventral roots of
spinal nerves, and the posterior horns, which receive sensory
fibers from neurons in the spinal ganglia (dorsal roots).
 Spinal cord neurons are large and multipolar, especially the
motor neurons in the anterior horns.

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 Spinal cord
 Gray matter contains abundant astrocytes and large neuronal
cell bodies, especially those of motor neurons in the ventral
horns.
 White matter surrounds the gray matter and contains
primarily oligodendrocytes and tracts of myelinated axons
running along the length of the cord.

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 Spinal cord

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 Spinal cord
 Micrograph of the large motor neurons
of the ventral horns show :
• large nuclei
• prominent nucleoli
• cytoplasm rich in chromatophilic
substance (Nissl substance)
 all of which indicate extensive protein
synthesis to maintain the axons of these
cells which extend great distances

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 Spinal cord

 In the white commissure ventral to

the central canal, tracts run
lengthwise along the cord.
 Seen here in cross-section with
empty myelin sheaths surrounding
axons, as well as tracts running from
one side of the cord to the other, as
several longitudinally sectioned
tracts of eosinophilic axons.

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 Peripheral Nervous System
 The main components of the peripheral nervous system are
the nerves, ganglia, and nerve endings.
 Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers (axons) surrounded by
glial cells and connective tissue.

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 Nerve Fibers
 Nerve fibers consist of axons enclosed within a special sheath
of cells derived from the embryonic neural crest.
 Like tracts within the CNS, peripheral nerves contain groups
of nerve fibers.
 In peripheral nerve fibers, axons are sheathed by Schwann
cells, also called neurolemmocytes.
 The sheath may or may not form myelin around the axons,
depending on their diameter.

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  Axons of small diameter are usually unmyelinated
nerve fibers.

 Progressively thicker axons are generally sheathed by

increasingly numerous concentric wrappings of the
enveloping cell, forming the myelin sheaths.

 These fibers are known as myelinated nerve fibers.

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 Nodes of Ranvier and Endoneurium
 A longitudinal section of
myelinated nerve fibers reveals the
nodes of Ranvier, or nodal gaps,
which are small, physiologically
important gaps in the myelin
sheath between adjacent Schwann
cells.

 The axon can be seen spanning

each nodal gap.

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 Myelinated Fibers
 Axons of large diameter grow in the PNS, and are
engulfed along their length by many undifferentiated
neurolemmocytes and become myelinated nerve
fibers.

 The multiple layers of Schwann cell membrane unite as a

layer myelin, a whitish lipoprotein complex whose
abundant lipid component is partly removed by standard
histologic procedures, as in all cell membranes.

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  Membranes of Schwann cells have a higher proportion of
lipids than do other cell membranes and the myelin sheath
serves to protect axons and maintain a constant ionic
microenvironment required for action potentials.
 Between adjacent Schwann cells the myelin sheath shows
small nodal gaps along the axon, also called nodes of
Ranvier.
 Interdigitating processes of Schwann cells partially cover
each node.
 The length of axon covered by one Schwann cell is called the
internodal segment and may be more than 1 millimeter.
 Unlike oligodendrocytes of the CNS, Schwann cells only form
myelin around a portion of one axon.

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 Unmyelinated Fibers
 The CNS is rich in unmyelinated axons which are not sheathed
at all but run free among the other neuronal and glial
processes.
 However in the PNS, even all unmyelinated axons are
enveloped within simple folds of Schwann cells.
 In this situation the glial cell does not form multiple wrapping of
itself as myelin.
 Unlike their association with individual myelinated axons, each
Schwann cell can enclose portions of many unmyelinated axons
with small diameters.
 Adjacent Schwann cells along unmyelinated nerve fibers do not
form nodes of Ranvier.

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 Ganglia

 Ganglia are typically ovoid structures containing neuronal

cell bodies and glial cells supported by connective tissue.
 Because they serve as relay stations to transmit nerve
impulses, one nerve enters and another exits from each
ganglion.
 The direction of the nerve impulse determines whether the
ganglion will be a sensory or an autonomic ganglion.

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 Ganglia

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 Sensory Ganglia
 It receive afferent impulses that go to the CNS.
 Sensory ganglia are associated with both cranial nerves
(cranial ganglia) and the dorsal root of the spinal nerves
(spinal ganglia).
 The large neuronal cell bodies of ganglia are associated with
thin, sheet-like extensions of small glial cells called satellite
cells.

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  Sensory ganglia are supported by a distinct connective
tissue capsule and framework continuous with the
connective tissue layers of the nerves.

 The neurons of these ganglia are pseudounipolar and

relay information from the ganglion's nerve endings to the
gray matter of the spinal cord via synapses with local
neurons.

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 Sensory Ganglion
 A sensory ganglion (G) has a distinct connective tissue capsule
(C) and internal framework continuous with the epineurium
and other components of peripheral nerves, except that no
perineurium is present and there is no blood-nerve barrier
function.
 Fascicles of nerve fibers (F) enter and leave these ganglia.

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 Posterior Root (Sensory Ganglion)
 They are enlargements in the posterior peripheral nerve
roots of the spinal cord and contain the cell bodies of
unipolar sensory neurons and their axons.
 The cell bodies are generally round in shape with centrally
located nuclei.
 There is a wide range of sizes of neuron cell bodies, with
the:
 largest having axons that are heavily myelinated and
carry touch or muscle stretch information
 smallest having axons that are lightly myelinated or
unmyelinated and that carry pain and temperature
information.

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  Small glialike cells, satellite cells, surround the neuron
cell bodies and regulate the extracellular ionic
environment.
 Schwann cells provide myelin for the myelinated
axons.
 The posterior root contains only sensory neurons
 In contrast to autonomic ganglia there are no
synapses in posterior root ganglia

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 Posterior Root (Sensory Ganglion)

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 Autonomic Ganglia
 Autonomic nerves affect the activity of smooth muscle, the
secretion of some glands, modulate cardiac rhythm and
other involuntary activities by which the body maintains a
constant internal environment (homeostasis).

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  It is the site where preganaglionic fiber synapse with
postganglionic fibers
 Classification:
 Paravertebral – segmentally arranged along anterolateral
surface of vertebral column and connected to each other to
form sympathetic trunk
 Prevertebral - Occur only in abdomen and pelvis , lie
anterior to the vertebral column
 Terminal – are parasympathetic and lie close to the
innervated structure

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  Autonomic ganglia
 They are small bulbous dilatations in autonomic nerves
 Their capsules are less well-defined.
 It usually have multipolar neurons.
 the sizes of the cell bodies are more uniform than in the
sensory ganglia
 the cell bodies and axons are distributed more evenly
across the ganglia rather than being grouped into clumps
as in the sensory ganglia.
 A layer of satellite cells also envelops the neurons of
autonomic ganglia, although in intramural ganglia, only a
few satellite cells may be seen around each neuron.

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 Sympathetic Ganglia

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 Comparison of Sensory & Autonomic Ganglia

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 Thank You for Your Attention

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