Path-loss and Shadowing

(Large-scale Fading)

PROF. MICHAEL TSAI

2011/10/20
 Friis Formula
TX Antenna RX Antenna

  
×  ⇒
 =
 4

EIRP=
 

Power spatial density

1
×
4


2
   
Antenna Aperture  =
4

• Antenna Aperture=Effective Area

• Isotropic Antenna’s effective area , ≐

• Isotropic Antenna’s Gain=1

• = 
 

      
• Friis Formula becomes:  = =
!   !

3
    
Friis Formula  =
! 

• is often referred as “Free-Space Path Loss” (FSPL)
! 

• Only valid when d is in the “far-field” of the transmitting antenna

• Far-field: when ! > !# , Fraunhofer distance
$
• !# = , and it must satisfies !# ≫ $ and !# ≫ 

• D: Largest physical linear dimension of the antenna
• &: Wavelength
• We often choose a !' in the far-field region, and smaller than any
practical distance used in the system
! 
• Then we have  ! =  !'
!'

4
Received Signal after
Free-Space Path Loss

phase difference due to propagation distance

,!
   )* −

 = ( .
- )* ,#/
!

Free-Space Path Loss Carrier (sinusoid)

Complex envelope

5
Example: Far-field Distance
• Find the far-field distance of an antenna with
maximum dimension of 1m and operating frequency
of 900 MHz (GSM 900)
• Ans:
• Largest dimension of antenna: D=1m
• Operating Frequency: f=900 MHz
/ 0×1'2
• Wavelength:  = = = '. 00
# 3''×1'4
6 
• !# = = = 4. '4 (m)
 '.00

6
Example: FSPL
• If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power, express the transmit
power in units of (a) dBm and (b) dBW.
• If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz
carrier frequency, find the received power in dBm at a free space
distance of 100 m from the antenna. What is the received power at
10 km? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
• Ans:
• 1' 8-1' 9' = 1: !;< = : =>?
• Received Power at 100m 
2
0 × 1'
9' × 1 × 1 ×
3'' × 1'4 C4
 (1''A) = = 0. 9 × 1' <
 × 1'' 
= −9. 9 (!;<)
• Received Power at 10km 
1''
 1'DA =  1''A = 0. 9 × 1'C1' <
1''''
= −3. 9 (!;<)

7
 Two-ray Model
TX Antenna
J
F RX Antenna
K
L
ℎ G G′ M
ℎ
E


Delayed since x+x’ is longer. [ = (G + G \ − F)/_
NCJO P =
X2
F X2
G + G \
& J L ST P exp − Q K M ST P − [ exp −
& &
QR + exp X2
]K P
4
F G + G\

R: ground reflection coefficient (phase and amplitude change)

8
 l
Two-ray Model: x
x’
Received Power
x x’


  ` a / ! )* C,bc
•  =  +
 8 )d)\

• The above is verified by empirical results.

• bc = () + )\ − 8)/
• ) Z )\ + 8  e Z e  Z ! + e + e  Z !

9
Two-ray Model: Received
Power
 )d)f C8 e e
• When ! ≫ e + e , bc = ≈
 !
• For asymptotically large d, ) + )\ ≈ h ≈ !, E ≈ ',
ij ik ≈ / ! , l ≈ −1 (phase is inverted after reflection)
 
` a / ! )* C,bc ` a 
• + ≈ 1 + )* −,bc
8 )d)\ !

 
• 1 + )* −,bc = 1 − / bc + m bc =  −
bc
nop bc = m ( ) ≈ bc

 
 ` a e e  ` a e e
•  ≈ qr = qr
! ! !

Independent of & now

10
ℎ

Could be a natural choice of cell size

4ℎ ℎ
K =
&

11
 Indoor Attenuation
• Factors which affect the indoor path-loss:
• Wall/floor materials
• Room/hallway/window/open area layouts
• Obstructing objects’ location and materials
• Room size/floor numbers
• Partition Loss:
Partition type Partition Loss (dB) for 900-1300 MHz
Floor 10-20 for the first one,
6-10 per floor for the next 3,
A few dB per floor afterwards.
Cloth partition 1.4
Double plasterboard wall 3.4
Foil insulation 3.9
Concrete wall 13
Aluminum siding 20.4

12
All metal 26
Simplified Path-Loss Model
• Back to the simplest:
v
s

 =
 t

• s : reference distance for the antenna far field
(usually 1-10m indoors and 10-100m outdoors)
• t: constant path-loss factor (antenna, average channel
attenuation), and sometimes we use

&
t=
4
s
• u: path-loss exponent

13
Some empirical results
Measurements in Germany Cities

Environment Path-loss
Exponent
Free-space 2

Urban area cellular radio 2.7-3.5

Shadowed urban cellular 3-5

radio
In building LOS 1.6 to 1.8

Obstructed in building 4 to 6

Obstructed in factories 2 to 3

14
Empirical Path-Loss
Model
• Based on empirical measurements
• over a given distance
• in a given frequency range
• for a particular geographical area or building
• Could be applicable to other environments as well
• Less accurate in a more general environment
• Analytical model:  / is characterized as a function of
distance.
• Empirical Model:  / is a function of distance including
the effects of path loss, shadowing, and multipath.
• Need to average the received power measurements to remove
multipath effects
Local Mean Attenuation (LMA) at distance d.

15
Example: Okumura Model
• Okumura Model:
w ! !; = w #/ , ! + x #/ , ! −  e −  e − (y
• w #/ , ! : FSPL, x #/ , ! : median attenuation in addition to FSPL
‚

10 log~s , ℎ ≤ 3†,
•  ℎ = 20 log~s ( € ) ,  ℎ   ‚
ƒ
ss
20 log~s , 3† < ℎ < 10†.
ƒ
:antenna height gain factor.
• (y : gain due to the type of environment

16
Example: Piecewise
Linear Model
• N segments with N-1
“breakpoints”
• Applicable to both
outdoor and indoor channels
• Example – dual-slope model:
v‰
s

 t  s „  „ K ,


  = v‰ v
K   " K .

 t
 K
• t: constant path-loss factor
• u~ : path-loss exponent for s ~K
• u : path-loss exponent after K

17
Shadow Fading
• Same T-R distance usually have different path loss
• Surrounding environment is different
• Reality: simplified Path-Loss Model represents an
“average”
• How to represent the difference between the average
and the actual path loss?
• Empirical measurements have shown that
• it is random (and so is a random variable)
• Log-normal distributed

18
Log-normal distribution
• A log-normal distribution is a probability distribution
of a random variable whose logarithm is normally
distributed:
logarithm of the random variable

1 log G − — 
]™ G; —, ˜  = exp −
G˜ 2
2˜ 
normalized so that the integration of the pdf=1
• G: the random variable (linear scale)
• —, ˜  : mean and variance of the distribution (in dB)

19
Log-normal Shadowing
• Expressing the path loss in dB, we have



ž  Ÿ =
ž  +  ¡ =
ž s + 10u log +  ¡
s
• ›œ : Describes the random shadowing effects
• ›œ ~(', œ )
(normal distribution with zero mean and œ variance)
• Same T-R distance, but different levels of clutter.
• Empirical Studies show that œ ranges from 4 dB to 13dB in
an outdoor channel

20
Why is it log-normal distributed?
• Attenuation of a signal when passing through an
object of depth d is approximately:

¦  = exp −¢

• ¢: Attenuation factor which depends on the material

• If £ is approximately the same for all blocking objects:

¦  = exp −¢ § ¥ = exp −¢

¥
•  = ∑¥ ¥ : sum of all object depths
• By central limit theorem, ! ~(x, œ ) when the
number of object is large (which is true).

21
Path Loss, Shadowing,
and Multi-Path

22
Cell Coverage Area
• Cell coverage area: expected percentage of locations
within a cell where the received power at these
locations is above a given minimum.

Some area within the

cell has received
power lower than

¥¨
Some area outside of
the cell has received
power higher than

¥¨

23
Cell Coverage Area
• We can boost the transmission power at the BS
• Extra interference to the neighbor cells
• In fact, any mobile in the cell has a nonzero
probability of having its received power below Am .
• Since Normal distribution has infinite tails
• Make sense in the real-world:
in a tunnel, blocked by large buildings, doesn’t matter if it is very
close to the BS

24
Cell Coverage Area
1 if the statement is true, 0 otherwise.
• Cell coverage area is given by (indicator function)

1
©=y ª 1   > Am m ! !
( /88 ``

1
= ª y 1   > Am m ! !
( /88 ``


•  ≐ *   > Am

 (
1 1
©= ª  ! = ª ª  ! !«
( /88 ``
 ( ' '


25
Cell Coverage Area

¥¨ −
 −
ž N

¬ = ­
® N ≥
¥¨ = °
˜
Log-normal distribution’s standard deviation
• Q-function:
²
1 ´
° ± ≐­  >± =ª exp − ´
³ 2
2

26
Cell Coverage Area
• Solving the equations yield:
2 − 2·¸ 2 − ·¸
¶ = ° · + exp °
¸ ¸

Am C ( 1'µ8-1' 

• `= ,a =
œ œ
average received power at cell boundary (distance=R)

• If Am =  (
1 2 2
¶ = + exp  °
2 ¸ ¸

27
 2 − 2·¸ 2 − ·¸
¶ = ° · + exp °
¸ ¸

Example `=
Am C (
œ
,a =
1'µ8-1' 
œ

• Find the coverage area for a cell with

• a cell radius of 600m
• a base station transmission power of 20 dBm
• a minimum received power requirement of -110 dBm.
M v
• path loss model:
 () =
 t M¹ , u = 3.71, t = −31.54 Ÿ, s = 1, shadowing
standard deviation ˜ = 3.65 dB
• Ans:
•  ( = ' − 01. 9 − 1' × 0. :1 × 8-1' 4'' = −11. 4 !;A
C11'd11.4 1'×0.:1×'.0
• `= = 1. 4, a = = . 1
0.49 0.49
• © = ¾ 1. 4 + )* −'. 4 ¾ −'. 2': = '. 4 (not good)
• If we calculate C for a minimum received power requirement of -120
dBm

28
• C=0.988!
 Example: road corners path loss
Radio: Chipcon CC2420
IEEE 802.15.4, 2.4 GHz
TX pwr: 0 dBm

8 dBi peak gain 40 m

omni-directional
antenna
5m

29
Intel-NTU Connected Context Computing Center 10 m
Link Measurements –
Path loss around the corner building

• Compare the path-loss exponent of three different locations:

1. Corner of NTU_CSIE building
2. XinHai-Keelong intersection
3. FuXing-HePing intersection
30
 1 2 3

Passing-by Occasionally Frequently Frequently

vehicles
Buildings No Few Some high
Around buildings buildings
Intersection Narrow Wide Wide

31
Doppler Effect

• Difference in path lengths bh = ! /« = ¿br nop«

bh ¿br
• Phase change bc = = nop«
 
• Frequency change, or Doppler shift,

1 bc ¿
#! = = /«
 br 

32
 1 bc ¿
#!   /«
Example  br 
• Consider a transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal carrier
frequency of 1850 MHz. For a vehicle moving 60 mph,
compute the received carrier frequency if the mobile is
moving
1. directly toward the transmitter.
2. directly away from the transmitter
3. in a direction which is perpendicular to the direction of arrival of the
transmitted signal.
• Ans:
K ƒ×~sÂ
• Wavelength=& = ÀÁ
= ~ÃÄs×~sÅ
= 0.162 (†)

• Vehicle speed Æ  60†­ℎ  26.82 È
1.
É.Ã
]M  cos 0  160 ʱ
s.~É
2.
É.Ã
]M  cos
 +160 (ʱ)
s.~É
Ë
3. Since cos   0, there is no Doppler shift!

33
Doppler Effect
• If the car (mobile) is moving toward the direction of
the arriving wave, the Doppler shift is positive
• Different Doppler shifts if different « (incoming angle)
• Multi-path: all different angles
• Many Doppler shifts
Doppler spread

34