Sequences and Series

October 24, 2009

Abstract
Sequences and series forms the basis for understanding of continuity
and limit phenomenon in Calculus. Distinct series always have been of
interest to inquisitive minds to solve them and try have a pattern. Any set
of numbers in some order following some rule or following some property
can be called a sequence. Set of prime numbers are too very interesting
and have kept many people busy to nd some formula or rule to represent
them.
In the series of lectures here we present to you, Theory of Sequence
and series, though only for IIT Jee.

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CONTENTS CONTENTS

Contents
1 Sequence & Series 3
2 Arithmetic Progression(AP) 3
2.1 Properties of Arithmetic Progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 nth term of an AP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2 Dierence of consecutive terms . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
T − T1
2.1.3 Geometry of n =d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
n−1
2.1.4 Sum of extremes is constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.5 Any term is symmetric sum of extremes about it . . 4
2.1.6 Invariance of Arithmetic Progression . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.7 Specic Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.8 AP under Exponential Transformation . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.9 Arithmetic mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.10 Inserting n arithmetic means between a & b . . . . 5
2.2 Sum of AP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 Geometric Progression(GP) 6
3.1 Properties of GP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.1 nth term of a GP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.2 Ratio of consecutive terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.3 Product of extremes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.4 Any term is symmetric product of extremes about it 6
3.1.5 Invariance of Geometric progression . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.6 Specic cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.7 GP under logarithmic function . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.8 Geometric mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.9 Inserting n geometric means between a and b . . . . 7
3.1.10 Sum of a GP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Harmonic Progression (HP) 8
4.1 Properties of HP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1.1 Invariance of Harmonic progression . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1.2 Harmonic mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1.3 n harmonic means between a and b . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1.4 Sum of HP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 All three AP,GP & HP 8
5.1 To determine consecutive terms of a Progression . . . . . . 8
5.2 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2.1 Two numbers a and b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2.2 Generalization to n positive numbers . . . . . . . . 9
5.2.3 AM-GM-HM Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6 Arithmetico-Geometric Series 9
7 Standard formulae 10

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2 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION(AP)

1 Sequence & Series

Denition. Sequence
A sequence is a function from set of Natural numbers to the set of real
numbers. i.e f : N → Sn .
Examples : Set of natural numbers, Prime numbers etc.

Denition. Series
A series is the sum of a sequence like. say a1 , a2 , . . . , an is a nite sequence
n
then the corresponding series is a1 + a2 + . . . + an = ai
X

i=1

2 Arithmetic Progression(AP)
Denition. A sequence {ai } is an arithmetic progression if the terms have a
common dierence i.e. ak − ak−1 = constant

Notation : A sequence a1 , a2 , . . . , an is denoted as {ai } with common dier-

ence with d, nth term of an AP is denoted as Tn

2.1 Properties of Arithmetic Progression

Given an arithmetic progression {ai } we have

2.1.1 nth term of an AP

Tn = a + (n − 1)d where a is the rst term of the AP.
T − T1
This can also be seen as d = n
n−1

2.1.2 Dierence of consecutive terms

T1 − T2 = T2 − T3 = · · · = Tn − Tn+1 = constant

Tn − T1
2.1.3 Geometry of =d
n−1
This is easier to see that a line with x variable taking positive integral values
and y variable taking values of the sequence T1 , T2 , . . . , Tn so d is the slope of
such a line. We can generalise this to state that any two points (p, Tp ), (q, Tq )
have the same slope d. Therefore

Tp − Tq
=d
p−q

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2.1 Properties of Arithmetic Progression
2 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION(AP)

2.1.4 Sum of extremes is constant

T1 + Tn = T2 + Tn−1 = · · · = Tk + Tn−k+1 = constant
1. We can generalise this about any term in the sequence say about the term
Tr it can be written as
Tr−1 + Tr+1 = Tr−2 + Tr+2 = · · · = Tr−k + Tr+k = constant

2. or we can see it with addition of any two and moving towards the midpoint
of those two, i.e.
Tk + Tr = Tk+1 + Tr−1 = Tk−1 + Tr+1 = · · · = constant

2.1.5 Any term is symmetric sum of extremes about it

Tk−r + Tk+r
Tk = where r ≤ k ≤ n − r
2

2.1.6 Invariance of Arithmetic Progression

Given any two sequences {ai }, {bi } ∈ AP with common dierence d1 & d2
(where AP is the set of all arithmetic progression then
1. {ai ± k} ∈ AP with common dierence = d1 ± k
2. {kai } ∈ AP with common dierence = kd1 (can also be written for
na o d1
∈ AP with common dierence = )
i
k k
3. {ai ± bi } ∈ AP with common dierence d1 ± d2
4. NOTE :
(a) {ai bi } ∈/ AP
 
ai
(b) ∈
/ AP
bi

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2 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION(AP) 2.2 Sum of AP

2.1.7 Specic Case

Choosing rst and common dierence according to simplicify also helps in solv-
ing problems with ease
1. Three numbers in AP : a − d, a, a + d
2. Four numbers in AP : a−3d, a−d, a+d, a+3d (note the common dierence
here is 2d )
3. Five numbers in AP : a − 2d, a − d, a, a + d, a + 2d

2.1.8 AP under Exponential Transformation

If {ai } is in AP then {eai } is in GP

2.1.9 Arithmetic mean

Arithemetic mean of two terms a & b is
a+b
AM =
2

2.1.10 Inserting n arithmetic means between a & b

The common dierence if n arithmetic means are inserted between a and b is
given as n
Tn+2 − T1
d =
(n + 2) − (1)
b−a
=
n+1
Therefore,
 the n+2 terms
 in AP are
b−a b−a 2(b − a) n(b − a)
a + (i − 1) = a, a + ,a + ,...,a + , b where
n+1 n+1 n+1 n+1
1≤i≤n+2

2.2 Sum of AP

Sum of rst n terms of an AP {ai } is given by

n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
n
= [T1 + Tn ]
2
T1 + Tn
= n·
2
n · (middle term) ; for n odd
(
= n
· (sum of middle two terms) ; for n even
2
where a is the rst term and Sn is the sum of the rst n terms with d the
common dierence

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 3 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION(GP)

3 Geometric Progression(GP)
Denition. A sequence {ai } is the Geometric progression if the terms have a
ak
common ratio i.e. = r = constant
ak−1
Notation : We denote the nth term with Tn and common ratio as r

3.1 Properties of GP

3.1.1 nth term of a GP

Tn = ar n−1
where a is the rst term and r the common ratio of the GP

3.1.2 Ratio of consecutive terms

T1 T2 T3 Tn
= = = ··· = = constant
T2 T3 T4 Tn+1

3.1.3 Product of extremes

T1 Tn = T2 Tn−1 = · · · = Tk Tn−k+1 = constant

1. We can generalise this process about any Tr , rth term

Tr−1 Tr+1 = Tr−2 Tr+2 = Tr−2 Tr+2 = · · · = constant

2. Or we can see it any two terms and then going symmetrically inside or
outside between them
Tk Tr = Tk+1 Tr−1 = Tk−1 Tr+1 = · · · = constant

3.1.4 Any term is symmetric product of extremes about it

Tk−r Tk+r where r ≤ k ≤ n − r
p
Tk =

3.1.5 Invariance of Geometric progression

Given any two sequences {ai }, {bi } ∈ GP with common ratio r1 & r2 respec-
tively (where GP is the set of geometric progressions) then
na o
1. {kai } ∈ GP with common ratio = kr1 (i.e. follows to i
∈ GP with
k
r
common ratio = 1 )
k
2. {ai bi } ∈ GP with common ration = r1 r2
3. {ani } ∈ GP and common ratio = r1n
4. NOTE :

(a) {ai ± k} ∈/ GP
(b) {ai ± bi } ∈/ GP

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3 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION(GP) 3.1 Properties of GP

3.1.6 Specic cases

Choosing the rst term and common ratio according to the problem as hand
results in ease solving the problem
a
1. Three numbers in GP : , a, ar
r
a a
2. Four numbers in GP : 3 , , ar, ar3
r r
a a
3. Five numbers in GP : 2 , , a, ar, ar2
r r

3.1.7 GP under logarithmic function

If {ai } in GP we get {log ai } is in AP
Now we can state that to convert a sequence from an AP to GP we require the
exponential transformation and for the inverse we use the inverse of exponential
i.e. logarithmic transformation.

3.1.8 Geometric mean

Geometric mean of two terms a and b is
√
GM = ab

3.1.9 Inserting n geometric means between a and b

On inserting n geometric terms, we have n + 2 terms in GP. So the common
ratio is
r
b n+1
r =
a
1
  n+1
b
=
a
Using Tn = arn−1 we get the sequence as
k−1
  n+1
b
Tk = a
a
1
  n+1 2
  n+1 n
  n+1
b b b
given as a, a ,a ,...,a ,b
a a a

3.1.10 Sum of a GP
Sum of a geometric series is
1 − rn
 
Sn = a
1−r
If the series is innite with |r| < 1 then
a
S∞ =
1−r
where a is the rst term of the series and r the common ratio

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 5 ALL THREE AP,GP & HP

4 Harmonic Progression (HP)

Denition. A sequence is in Harmonic progression if the reciprocals of the
sequence
  are in Arithmetic progression. So if a sequence {ai } is HP means
1
is in AP.
ai

4.1 Properties of HP

Given a sequence {hi } in HP then

4.1.1 Invariance of Harmonic progression

na o
{ai } in HP means {kai } is also in HP that implies is also in HP
i
k

4.1.2 Harmonic mean

Given two numbers a & b the harmonic mean is
2ab
HM =
a+b

4.1.3 n harmonic means between a and b

To nd n harmonic means between a and b is to nd n arithmetic means between
a and b
1 1

1 1
= + (n + 1)d
b a
a−b
= (n + 1)d
ab
a−b
d =
(n + 1)ab
So the terms in the AP between a and b is
1 1 a−b 1 a−b 1 a−b 1 a−b
, + , +2 , +3 ,··· , +n and
a a (n + 1)ab a (n + 1)ab a (n + 1)ab a (n + 1)ab
reciprocal of these sequence gives the n harmonic means between a & b

4.1.4 Sum of HP
There is no standard formula of harmonic progression for sum of n terms

5 All three AP,GP & HP

5.1 To determine consecutive terms of a Progression

1. a, b, 2b − a is AP
b2
2. a, b, is GP
a
ab
3. a, b, is GP
2a − b

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6 ARITHMETICO-GEOMETRIC SERIES 5.2 Inequalities

5.2 Inequalities

5.2.1 Two numbers a and b

a, b are positive numbers. Let A, G and H be A.M, G.M. & H.M. respectively
of a and b
a+b √ 2ab
A= , G = ab, H =
2 a+b

⇒ AH = G2 = ab
⇒ A,G,H are in GP

5.2.2 Generalization to n positive numbers

n
X
ai
1. AM = i=1
n

2. GM = ( i=1 ai )1/n
Qn

n
3. HM = n
X 1
i=1
ai

5.2.3 AM-GM-HM Inequality

1. AM ≥ GM ≥ HM
2. Root mean square inequality1
(AM of squares) ≥ AM 2
2
a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n

a1 + a2 + · · · + an
≥
n n

6 Arithmetico-Geometric Series
A combination of two series one AP and other GP in the following form
a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + · · · + (a + (n − 1)d)rn−1

is termed as AGP
Tn = (a + (n − 1)d)rn−1
and  
1 n dr n−1
Sn = a − [a + (n − 1)d]r + (1 − r )
1−r 1−r
and
a dr
S∞ = +
1 − r (1 − r)2
1 This inequality can be easily derived from cauchy-schwartz inequality

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 7 STANDARD FORMULAE

7 Standard formulae
n
n(n + 1)
1.
X
k=
i=1
2

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2. k2 =
P
6
 2
n(n + 1)
3. k3 =
P
2
n
4.
X
2k + 1 = n2
k=1

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