First Edition - 2009 Electronic Dev and Circuits Bene Publications FETable of Contents : ; oo ree . Chapter-1 Semiconductor Diode (1-1)to (4-82) Chapter-2 Bipolar Junction Transistor (2-1) to 2-130) | Chapter-3 9 FET (3-1) to (3-66) Chapter-4 _UsT and Power Devices (4-1) to (4-40) Chapter-5 Amplifiers (6-1) 10 (5-92) Chapter-6 Power Amplifiers (6-1) to (6-86) Chapter-7 Feedback Amplifiers (7-1) to (7-74) Chapter-8 Oscillators (8-1) 10 (8-74) Chapter-9 Pulse Circuits (Q- 1) to (9 - 136) Chapter-10 Rectifiers, Filters and Power Supplies (10-1) to (10 - 156) Use of clear, plain and lucid language making the understanding very easy. \# Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs, i Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. {# Important concepts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book. i# Large number of solved examples. {& Approach of the book resembles class room teaching. '# Book provides detailed insight into the subject. _Semester - mn EEE eS Measurements and Instrumentation Bakshi Electromagnetic Theory Bakshi © Environmental Science and Engineering Bagad | BS _ Electronic Devices and Circuits Godse, Bakshi ‘@ Data Structures Puntambekar (4)8 set Electronic Devices and Circuits ISBN 9788184316834 Al rights reserved with Technical Publications. No part ofthis book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage end retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India. Printed at : ‘VIKRAM PRINTERS PVT. LTD. 34 6:34 Parva Industral Estat, Pune-Satira Read, Pune -411 C00Preface The importance of Electronic Devices and Ci is well known in various engineering fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book. The book is structured 10 cover the key aspects of the subject Electronic Devices and Circuits. The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamenials of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts ond stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, praciical examples and solved problems. All the chapters in the bock ore arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care hos been faken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepis of the subject. The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more. We wish to express our profound thanks to all these who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by our whole family. We wish to thanks the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well appreciated. Authors A. P. Godse U. A. Bakshi Dedicated to God1.4 Introduction 4.2 The Structure of Matter 4.2.4 Structure of an Atom. 12.2 Structure of Semiconductor Materials 12.3 ionization... 1.3 The Energy-Band shar. 1.3.1 Classification of Materials. . 1.4 Intrinsic Semiconductors 14.4 Crystal Structure of intrinsic Semiconductor. 1.4.3 Conduction by Electrons and Holes. 14.4 Conventional Current 4.5 Extrinsic Semiconductors. 1.5.1 Types of Impurities... .. 1.6 n-Type Semiconductor... 4.6.1 Conduction in n-Type Semiconductor 1.7 p-Type Semiconductor.... 41.7.4 Conduction in p-Type Semiconductor . 1.8 P-N Junction ... 1.9 Unbiased P-N Junction 19.1 Formation of Depletion Region. 19.2 Barrer Potential... 1.10 The P-N Junction Diode. 1.10.1. Blasing of P-N Junction Diode. 1.10.2 Types of Diodes . . 1.11 Forward Biasing of P-N ‘Junction Diode441.1 Operation of Forward Biased Diode .. 1.41.2 Effecton the Depietion Region . . 1.11.5 Forward Resistance of Diode. 1.12 Reverse Biasing of p-n Junction Diode . 1.42.1 Operation of Reverse Biased Diode... 113 Complete V-i Characteristics of a Diode... 0 1.43.4 ‘VA Characteristics of Typical Ge and Si Diodes. iar dirt esad de 1.14 The Current Components in a p-n Junction Diode 1.15 V-I Characteristics Equation of a Diode_ 1.45.1 Nature of V-I Characteristics from Equation et Diode. 1.45.2 Cut-in Voltage. 1.16 Derivation of _V-I Characteristics of p-n Junction Diode 1A7 Mathematical Expression for the Dynamic Resistance... hanisms in Diode. 1.48.1 Avalanche Breakdown. ...... 118.2 Zener Breakdown 4.18.3 Comparison of Breakdown Mechanisms .....- 1.18.4 Temperature Dependence of Breakdown Voltages. 1.19 Effect of Temperature on Diode... 1.20 Transition Capacitance (C,)... 1.20.1 Derivation of Expression for Transition Capacitanc 1.21 Diffusion Capacitance...... 1.21.1 Derivation of Expression for Diffusion Capacitance . . 1.22 Switching Characteristics of Diode . 1.23 Zener Diode 1.23.1 Characteristics of Zener Diode 1.23.2 Equivalent Circuit of Zener Diode a 1.23.3 Effect of Temperature on Zener Diode... .....s..essees Copyrighted1.23.4 Breakdown Mechanisms in Zener Diode . . 1.23.4. Zener Breakdown ._. 1.23.42 ‘Avalanche Breakdown 1.23.4.3 Comparison of Breakdown Mechanisms... ............... 41-59 1.23.5 Comparison of Zener Diode and p-n Junction Diode . 4-59 1.23.6 Applications of Zener Diode . 1.24 Varactor Diode . 1.24.1 Symbol and Equivalent Circuit . 1.24.2 Expression for Transition Capacitance. 1.24.3 Effect of Temperature... 1.24.4 Applications of Varactor Diode . 1.25 Tunnel Diode..... 1.25.1 Energy Band Structure of Tunnel Diode. .. 1.25.2 Characteristics of a Tunnel Diode . 1.25.3 Construction of Tunnel Diode 1.25.4 Load Line for Tunnel Diode 1-1 1.25.5. Negalive Resistance Oscillator using Tunnel Diode .. 4-71 1.25.6 Sinusoidal Oscillator using Tunnal Diode .. .. 1.25.7 Advantages of Tunnel Diode.............. 1.25.8 Other Applications of Tunnel Diode. 1.25.9 Comparison of Tunnel Diode and Conventional Diode 1.25.10 Specifications of Tunnel Diode 1.26 Schottky Barrier Diode... 1.26.1 Characteristics of Schoitky Diod 1.26.2 Applications 1.26.3 Comparison between Schoty Diode and Conventional Diode. Review Questions... 2.1 Introduction to BJT...... 2.4.4 Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) 24.2 Unbiased Transistor 2.4.3 Biased Transistor. 2.4.4 Transistor Operation. .2.1.4.1 Operation of NPN Transistor . 2.1.4.2 Operation of PNP Transistor 2.2 Transistor Voltage and Current 22.1 Transistor Voltages. . . . 22.2 Transistor Currents... 22.3 Definition ofcry, and By 22.4 Relationship between c.,,, andB. 2.3 BUT Configurations 2.4 Why CE Configuration i: is Widely used in Amplifier Circuits ? ... 2.5 Comparison of Transistor Configurations . 2.6 Transistor Biasing Circuit 26.1 Operating Point....... 26.2 Need for Biasing BUT... 2.7 Fixed / Base Bias Circuit 27.4 Circuit Analysis. 27.3 Selection of Operating Point... 27.4 Typical Junction Voltages and Coneitions for Operating Region.................. 2-32 innarCi Pal : pas 2.7.6 Advantages of Fixed Bias Circuit . 2.7.7 Disadvantages of Fixed Bias Circuit 2.8 Stability Factors 28.1 Stability Factor S 2.9 Different Types of Biading Circuits 2.9.1.4 Circuit Analysis it Bi 2.9.2 Voltage Divider Bias / Self Bias Circuit... .. z 2-54 2.9.2.1 Circuit Analysis... $e Pes sei gay ER 29.22 Single Cra of Vatage Dior ls —_ see. 22 2.9.2.3 Advantages of Self Bis or Voltage Divider Bias Circut . 2-588 Copyrighted material2.9.3 Emitter Stabilized Bias Circuit 2.93.1 Cirout Analysis. 2.93.2 Stabiity Improvement. 2.9.4 Miscellaneous Bias Configurations... .. . . 2.10 Comparing DC, and AC Load Lines. 2.11 Method of Stabilizing the Q Point (Bias Compensation) 2.41.1 Diode Compensation Techniques... 2.41.2 Thermistor Compensation 2.11.3 Sensistor Compensation Technique 2.12 Self Bias Circuit as a Constant Current Circuit 2.13 Thermal Runaway 2413.1 Thermal Resistance 2 2.13.2 The Condition for Thermal Stability 2.14 BUT as a Switch .. : 2.14.4 BUT as a Switch in Display. 2.14.2 BUT as a Switch in Relay Driving Circuit . 2.15 BJT as a Voltage Amplifier Examples with Solutions ... Short Answered Questions ....... Review Questions 3.1 Introduction 3.1.4 Structure of JFET_. alee 3.1.1.4 Structure of n-channel JFET and Symbal . a sa 3.1.4.2 Structure of p-channel JFET and Symbol. 3-4 3.4.3 Principle of Operation of JFET 3.2 JFET Characteristics 3.2.1 Drain V-I Characteristics ire n-channel JFET 3.2.2 Drain V-| Characteristics for p-channel JFET Copyrighted m3.24 Transfer Characteristics for p-channel JFET..... 25D Lin : 2 FET P. 7 : 3.3.1 Transconduotance . . 3.3.2 Input Resistance and d Capécltnts 3.3.3 Drain to Source Resistance. . 33.4 Amplification Factor . 3.4 JFET Biasin 3.4.4 Fived-bias Circuit... 3.4.2 Voltage Divider Bias Circuit. . 34.3 Self Bias Circuit... . | 34.4 Graphical Solution for Selt-Bias. 3.4.5 Biasing for Zero Current Drift S 3.4.6 Biasing against Device Variafon oo. eset veeeeee tees ees ‘3.7 MOSFETs... 37.1 Depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET) ......... wee 3.1.1.1 Construcion ofn-chammel MOSFET... wean = 3.7.1.2 Operation, Charactristios and Parameters ofnchannel MOSFET... .. .. 3-34 3.7.13 P-channel Depletion Type MOSFET . 3.71.4 D-MOSFET Symbols... ss... 3.7.2 Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET) ...... - . n-channel T j= 3.12.2 Operation, Charastoristes and Paramolars ofn-channel E MOSFET... ... . 3-38 372.3 P-channel Enhancement TypeMOSFET ss 38 Appiications of MOSFET as a VLSI Device 3.9 MOSFET Biasing ..... 3-43 3.9.1 Biasing Circuits for D MOSFET 3.9.2 Biasing Circuits of EMOSFET . 3-45 3.10 Comparison of Transistors. 3-49 3404 ‘Comparison of BUT and FET . . 3-49 3.10.2 Comparison between N-Channel and P-Channel JFET. 3-50 3.10.3 Comparison of JFET and MOSFET . 3-513.10.4 Comparison of D-MOSFET and E-MOSFET 3.10.5 Comparison between N-Channel and P-Channel MOSFET Examples with Solutions... ‘Short Answered Questions ... . Review Questions... 4.4 UJT (Unijunction Transistor)... 4.1.1 Construction 4.1.2 Equivalent Circuit of UJT 4.13 Intrinsic Stand Off Ratio (n). 4.1.4 Principle of Operation 4.15 UJT Characteristics... 4.1.6 Applications 4.1.7 UJT Relaxation Oscillator. . 4.1.7.1 Operaton 4.2 Introduction to Power Devices .. 4.3 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR). 4.3.4 Construction... 4.3.2 Operation of SCR... 4.3.3 Characteristics of SCR. 4.3.4 Two Transistor Model. . 4.35 Specifications of SCR. . 4.3.6 Methods of Turning ON SCR. 4,38 Merits of SCR 4.39 Demerits of SCR... 4.4 Applications of SCR. 4.4.1 Single Phase Half Wave Reciifier 4.42 Single Phase Full Wave Rectifier x owhar Circuit.4.4.5 A.C, Power Control using SCR. 4.5 Diac. 4.5.1 Basic Operation “ 4.5.1.2 Four Transistors Analogy 45.2 Characteristics 4.5.3 Applications . 4.6 Triac 4.6.1 Working of Triac 4.6.2 V-I Characteristics of Triac 4.6.3 Applications of Triac . 4.6.4 Comparison of SCR and Triao. .. 4.6.5 Merits of Triac . 4.6.6 Demerits of Triac Review Questions .. 5.1 Background. 5.2 CE, CB and CC Amplifiers . 5.2.1 Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit . 5.2.2 Common Collector Amplifier Circuit. 5.2.3 Common Base Amplifier Circuit. 5.3 General Characteristics of Amplifier 5.4 Small Signal- |-Low Frequency h-Parameter Model_.. Sonata t = 5.5.1 Determination of hy. and h,, from Input Characteristic Curves . sai 5.5.2 Determination ofh,, andh.. from Output Characteristic Curves. seeeeeeereeee es 5213 5.6 Midband Analysis of BJT Single Stage Amplifiers .. 5.7 Method for Analysis of a Transistor Circuit .. 5.8 Analysis using Simplified Hybrid Model . 5.8.1. Analysis of Common Emitter Circuit using Simplified Hybrid Model 5.8.2 Analysis of Common Collector Circuit using Simplified Hybrid Model . 5.8.3 Analysis of Common Base Circuit using Simplified Model . 5.9 Analysis of Common Emitter Amplifier with Collector 6 Bass Bias. 5-35‘5.9.3 Analysis using Millers Theorem..........+ ete eeeeereess S237 5.10 Analysis of Common-Emitter Amplifier w with an 1 Emitter Resistance... 5.10.1 Approximate Analysis 5.11 Comparison of Transistor Configurations .. 5.12 Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier 5.12.1 Definition of Cut-off Frequencies and Bandwidth 5.12.2 The Decibel Unit _. 5.12.3 Significance of Octaves and Decades 5.12.4 Midband Gain ..............e 5.12.5 Effect of Various Capacitors on Frequency Response 5.125.1 Effect of Coupling Capacitors... ss. ewes 5.125.2 Effect ofBypass Capacitors... . 2... 5.125.3 Effect of intemal Transistor Capactances 5.125.4 Millar Theorem . Examples with Solutions Short Answered Questions 6.2 Features of Power Amplifiers ... 6.3 Classification of Large Signal Ampiif ier: 6.3.1 Class A Amplifiers. 6.3.2 Class B mpliers 6.3.3 Class C Amplifiers 6.3.4 Class AB Amplifiers . 6.4 Class D Amplifiers 6.5 Comparison of Amplifier Classes. 6.6 Analysis of Class A Amplifiers ...6.7 Series Fed, Directly Coupled Class A Ampiifier. 6.7.1 D.C. Operation 67.2 D.C. Power Input 6.7.3 A.C. Operation. . 6.7.4 A.C. Power Output. 6.7.5 Efficiency... 6.7.6 Maximum Efficiency. .. 6.7.7 Power Dissipation. . 6.7.8 Advantages and Disadvantages. 6.8 Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier. 6.8.1 Properties of Transformer........-+ bs 6.8.2 Circuit Diagram of Transformer Coupled Amplifier 6.8.3 D.C. Operation 6.8.4 D.C Power Input! 6.8.5 A.C. Operation... 6.8.6. A.C. Output Power . 6.8.7 Efficiency .......... 6.8.8 Maximum Efficiency... 6.8.9 Power Dissipation. . .. 6.8.10 Advantages and Disadvantages. 6.9 Distortion in Amplifiers jistortion .... fon. . 6.9.3 Second Harmonic Distortion (Three Point Method) 6.9.4 Power Output due to Distortion 6.9.5 Higher Order Harmonic Distortion (Five Point Method) . 6.9.6 Power Output Due to Distortion 6.10 Analysis of Class B Amplifiers .. 6.11 Push Pull Class B Amplifier 6.11.4 D.C. Operation 6.11.2 D.C. Power Input . 6.11.3 A.C. Operation . 6.11.4 A.C. Power Output 6.11.5 Efficiency 6-426:19,6 Maximum Elfclency «vesssvevivesevevssestevsaserversieyiesseeceeende’ 6-43 6.11.7 Power Dissipation. 6.11.8 Harmonic Distortion . 6.11.9 Advantages and Disadvantages. 6.12 Complementary Symmetry Class B Amplifier 6.12.1 Mathematical Analysis 6.12.2 Advantages and Disadvantages. . 6.13 Comparison of Push Pull and Complementary ‘Symmetry Circuits. 6 - 55 6.14 Cross-Over Distortion .. 6.15 Elimination of Cross-Over Distortion 6.15.1 Push Pull Class B Amplifier 6.15.2 Complementary Symmetry Class B Amplifier. 6.16 Complementary Symmetry Single Supply Version... 6.17 Complementary Symmetry Class B with Driver Stage. 6.18 Quasi-Complementary Push Pull Amplifier... 6.18.1 Operation . 6.19 Safe Operating Area (S.0.A.) for A filet 6.20 Class C Operation... 6.20.1 Resonant Frequency 6.20.2 Load Lines ........ 6.20.3 A.C. Equivalent Circuit ...... 6.20.4 D.C. Clamping of Input Signal . 6.20.5 Filtering the Harmonics. 6.20.6 Bandwiath. 6.20.7 Duty Cycle .... 6.20.8 Output Power .. 6.20.9 Transistor Dissipation 6.20.10 D.C. Input Power... 6.20.11 Efficiency .... Examples with Solution: Review Questions.7.4 Introduction 7.2 Classification of Amplifiers... 7.2.1 Voltage Amplifier 7.2.2 Curent Amplifier. 7.2.3 Transconductance Amplifier... 7.2.4 Transresistance Amplifier... 7.3 Feedback Concept... 7.3.1 Sampling Network 1.3.2 Feedback Network 7.3.3 Mixer Network, 7.4 Ways of Introducing Negative Feedback in Amplifiers 7.5 Effect of Negative Feedback... 7.5.1 Transfer Gain ....... if 75.2 Stabilty of Gain 7.5.3 Frequency Response and Bandwidth. 7.5.4 Frequency Distortion .. 7.5.5 Noise and Nonlinear Distortion. 7-13 7.5.6 Input and Output Resistances . 1 THB 7.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Negative Foedback 7-25 7.7 Methodology of Feedback Amplifier Analysis 7-26 7.8 Voltage Series Feedback... 7-27 7.8.1 Transistor Emitter Followe 7.8.2 FET Source Follower 7.8.3 Voltage Series Feedback Pair 7.9 Current Series Feedback... 7-35 7.8.4 Common Emitter Configuration with Unbypassed R, 7-35 7.9.2. Common Source Configuration with R., Unbypassed . 1-37 2240 Current Shunt Pep gba octet ara rriiee ? SD 7.14 Voltage Shunt Feedback. 7-43 Examples with Hints and Solutions. 7-46 Review Questions... ae ES8.1 Introduction ... 8.2 Basic Theory of Oscillators 8.3 Barkhausen Criterion 83.4] AB|>1. 83.2|AB|=1. 833] ABI<1. 8.3.4 Starting Voltage . 8.4 Classification of Oscillators... 8-8 8.4.1 Based on the Output Waveform. . 8-8 8.4.2 Based on the Circuit Components on i aS 8-8 8.4.3 Based on the Range of Operating Frequency ........c0cccccccseevvvseeevveeee 8-9 8.4.4 Based on : Whether Feedback is Used or Not ? 8-9 8.5 R-C Phase Shift Oscillator ... 8.5.1 RC Feedback Network............ 8.5.2 Transistorised RC Phase Shift Oscillator . . 8.5.3 Derivation for the Frequency of Oscillations és sides 8-13 8.5.4 Minimum Value of h,, for the Oscillations . 8.5.5 FET Phase Shift Oscillator. . 8.5.6 Advantages. 8.5.7 Disadvantages .. .. 8.6 Wien Bridge Oscillator rE 8.6.1 Transistorised Wien Bridge Oscillator... 2.2... cscceeeeeee ‘ von O28 8.6.2 Wien Bridge Oscillator using FET... ..s.seessseeees 8-27 86.3 Comparison of RC Phase Shift and Wien Bridge Oscillators... oo. esse. 8-28 8.7 LC Oscillators... 87.1 Operation of LC Tank Circuit ..... 8.8 Basic Form of LC Oscillator Circuit 8.8.1 Types of LC Oscillators . 8.9 Hartley Oscillato: 8.9.1 Transistorised Harlley Oscillator. ae 8.9.2 Derivation of Frequency of Oscillations... 8.9.3 FET Hartley Osciliator ...8.10 Colpitts Oscillator... 8.10.1 Transistorised Colpitts Oscillator . * 8-41 8.10.2 Derivation of Frequency of Oscilafons ...........cecevcevsecseseves 8-42 8.10.3 Colpitts Oscillator using FET 8-45 8.11 Clapp Oscillator... 8.11.1 Derivation of Frequency of Oscillafions . 2 - 8-47 8.11.2 Advantages. : : 8.12 Frequency Stability of Oscillator 8.13 Crystal Oscillators . 8.13.1 Constructional Details. 8.13.2 A.C. Equivalent Circuit... 8.13.3 Series and Parallel Resonance 8.43.4 Crystal Stability. 8.13.5 Pierce Crystal Oscillator 8.13.6 Miller Crystal Oscilator. 8.14 Amplitude Stabilization. Examples with Solutions... Review Questions Chapter-9" Pulse 9.4 Introduction ... 9.2 Nonsinuscidal Waveforms 9.2.1 Step Waveform. 9.2.2 Pulse Waveform . 9.2.3 Square Waveform. : 9.2.4 Ramp Waveform. ..........0 9.3 High Pass RC Circuit 93.1 Step Input Voltage . . 913.2 Pulse Input Voltage . ... 913.3 Square Wave Input Voltage . 9.3.4 Ramp Input Vokage . .. 9.3.5 High Pass RC Circuit as a Differentiator 9.4 Low Pass RC Circuit Da Ra LES ELLE LE EERE9/811 SHEP Nip VOREIS cee areerwsavmmcancosmneronmaarmae caveman oDD 9.4.2 Pulse Input Voltage .... 9-28 9.4.3 Square Wave Input Voltage .........6 ce eeee cree teveteeteeeensees 9227 9.4.4 Ramp input Voltage ......... 9-29 9.4.5 Low Pass RC Creuil as an integrate . 9.5 Circuit Models of a Diode....... 9.5.1 Practical Diode Model . 9.5.2 Ideal Diode Model .. aes : 9.53 Piecewise Linear Model of Diode coe eee rere seeee 9-33 9.5.4 Analysis of Diode Circuits 9.6 Clipper Circuits or Limiters.. . 9.8.1 Steps to Analyze Ciioper Circuits. . crmauomecnencenmaspmmecxswenyenl® IB 9.7 Series Clippers.. 97.1 Series Negative Clipper Circuit. 9.7.2 Series Positive Clipper Circuit . . % 917.3 Clipping Above Reference Voltage Va 9.7.4 Clipping Below Reference Voltage Vp. .....« 917.5 Additional D.C. Supply in Series with Diode... 9.8 Parallel Clippers. 9.8.1 Basic Parallel Clipper with Positive Clipping 9.8.2 Effect of Cut-in Voltage of Diode 9.8.3 Basic Parallel Clipper with Negative Limiting . si 9.9 Parallel Clipper Circuits with Reference Voltage V, 9.9.1 Operation 9.9.2 Transfer Characteristics ci 9.9.3 Effect of Cut-in Voltage of Diode . . scedieesn 9.9.4 Parallel Negative Clipper with Reference VotageV, Vp 9.10 Two Way Parallel Clipper Circuit .. 9.10.1 Operation 9.10.2 Transfer Characteristics 9.11 Clamper Circuits .... 9.14.1 Negative Clamper. . . quae eee RTE TUNE a 5S 9.11.2 Positive Clamper .. 9.11.3 Steps to Analyze Claigtig Ni Network . 2a SR RNS ATE9.11.4 Addition of Battery in Clamper 9.11.5 Clamper Application... .. 9.12 Introduction to Multivibrator..... 9.13 Types of Multivibrators...... 9.13.3 Astable Multivibrator. 9.14 Bistable Multivibrator. 9.14.1 Fixed Bias Transistor Bistable Multivibrator . 9. Design of Fixed Bias Bistable Multivibrator 9.14.2 Self Biased Transistor Bistable Multivibrator . . . tare ‘9.14.2.1 Design of Self Biased Bisiable Mutivibrator. . . . . 9.14.3 Speedup Capacitors or Commutating Capacitors ....... 9.44.4 Applications .. 9.15 Collector Coupled A Monostable ; Multivibrator .. 9.15.1 Pulse Width of Collector Coupled Monostable Multivibrator. le Multivit 9.15.3 Applications 9.16 Emitter Coupled Monostable Multivibrator 9.16.1 Waveforms ....... 9.16.2 Extreme Limits of V. 9.16.3 Gate Width of Emitter Coupled Monoshot. 9.17 Collector Coupled Astable Multivibrator..... 9.17.1 Waveforms of Astable Muttivibrator. 0.0... 9 108 BAT2 Expression for Tine Ported T . ..--arcseerrenercanees comrrnrarnesaneness: 9.17.3 Distortion and its Elimination . 9.17.4 Applications 9.18 Emitter Coupled Astable Mulfvibrator... 9.18.1 Operation and Mathematical Analysis. 9.18.2 Expression for Time Period... . 9.18.3 Practical Emitter Coupled Astable Mulivibrator . . 9.18.4 Advantages of Emitter Coupled Astable Multvibrator 9.18.5 Disadvantages of Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator . 9.19 Schmitt Trigger Circuit a9.19.1 Operation of the Circuit 9-124 9.19.2 Hysteresis . 9-126 9.19.3 Applications + 9-127 9.19.4 Function of C,.. 9-128 9.19.5 Designing the Schmit Tigger saspeaen 9-128 Examples with Solutions . Review Questions .. Chapters 40'Réctifiers, Filters 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 The Important Characteristics of a Rectfier Circuit... 2.2.0.0. cececceeeeeeee 1004 10.2 Half Wave Rectifier 10.2.1 Operation of the Circuit... . 10.2.2 Average D.C. Load Current ( Ip.) 10.2.3 Average D.C. Load Voltage (E,.) .. 10.2.4R.M.S. Value of Load Current (lays) » 10.2.5 D.C. Power Output (Pp) . 10.2.6 AC, Power Input (Pac). - » 10.2.7 Rectifier Efficiency (1) .... 10.2.8 Ripple Factor (}). 10.2.9 Load Current. . 10.2.10 Peak Inverse Voltage PM. 10.2.11 Transformer Utilization Factor 1 UF). 10.2.12 Voltage Regulation......... 10.242.4 Regulation Characteristics... ss 10.2.13 Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier Circuit. 10.2.14 Effect of Barrier Potential 10.3 Full Wave Rectifier. 10.3.1 Operation of the Circuit... .. 10.3.2 Maximum Load Current ..... 10.3.3 Average D.C. Load Current (Inc) . 10.3.4 Average D.C. Load Voltage (Epa) 10.3.5R.MS. Load Current ( tas) 10.3.6 D.C. Powor Output (Pc) - CADE OS STS10.3.7 A.C. Power Input (Pye). 10.3.8 Rectifier Efficiency (1) . 10.3.9 Ripple Factor (7). . 10.3.10 Load Current (i,)...... 10.3.11 Peak inverse Voltage Phy. boos 10.3.12 Transformer Utilization Factor (T.U.F, 10.3.13 Voltage Regulation. . 10.3.14 Comparison of Full Wave and Hal Wave Circuit. 10.4 Bridge Rectifier . 10.4.1 Operation of the Circ Bis 10.4.2 Expressions for Various Parameters ....... 10.4.5 Advantages of Bridge Rectifier Circuit .. 10.4.4 Disadvantages of Bridge Rectifier .. 10.5 Comparison of Rectifier Circuits . 10.6 Filter Circuits .. 140.7 Capacitor Input Filter 10.7.1 Operation of the Filter. : 10.7.2 Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Input Filter .. 10.7.3 Exact Analysis of Capacitor Input Filter .... 10.7.4 Expression for Ripple Factor . 10.7.5 Expression for Ripple Voltage ...... 10.7.6 Surge Current in a Capacitor Input Filter 10.7.6.4 Limiting the Surge Current 10.7.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Capacitor input Filter 10.8 Inductor Filter or Choke Filter 10.8.1 Operation of the Circuit... . 10.8.2 Expression for the Ripple Factor 10.9 L-Section Filter or LC Filter... 10.9.1 Derivation of Ripple Factor.......... 10.9.2 The Necessity of Bleeder Resistance R, 16.9.3 Comparison between Capacitor Input and LC Fier. . 10.10 CLC Filter or x Filter... 10.10.1 Derivation of Ripple Factor. 10.10.2 Multiple Section Filter . 10.10.3 Advantages. . 10.104 Disadvantages .10.11 Comparison of Filter Circuits... 40.12 Polyphase Rectifiers ........ 10.13 Three Phase Half Wave Rectifier. 10.14 Three Phase Full Wave Rectifier... 10.15 Comparison of Polyphase Rectifiers .. 10.16 Introduction to Regulared power supply .. 10.17 Block Schematic of Regulated Power Supply...... 10.18 Factors Affecting the Load Voltage...... 10.19 Power Supply Performance Parameters. 10.191 Load Regulation . . 10.192 Line Regulation or Sout Rowan 10.19.3 Output Resistance . TTRS a 10.19.4 Voltage Stability Factor le (S). fests eee ee nett eeeeeeeeneee ‘ 10.195 Temperature Stability Factor (S;) 10.19.6 Ripple Rejection . 10.197 Total Change in oul voli. saeane 10.20 Linear Electronic Voltage Regulator 10.21 Types of Voltage Regulators... 10.21.1 Shunt Voltage Regulator 10.21.2 Series Voltage Regulator...... 10.21.3 Comparison of Shunt and Series Rogulates.. 10.21.4 Comparison of Rectifier and Regulator 10.22 Zener Diode Regulator. 10.22.1 Regulation with Varying Input Voltage 10.22.1.1 Steps to Analyze Zener Regulator with Varying Input 10.22.2 Regulation with Varying Load. . wi ¥ 10.22.2.4 Steps to Analyze Zener Regulator with Varying Load 10.223 Design of Zener Regulator under Both Conditions 10.2.4 Temperature Coefficient of a Zener Diode 10.225 Zener Power Dissipation and Derating. 10.226 Voltage Stabilty Factor........ 10.227 Output Resistance 10.22.8 Disadvantages . I RS SN Te OEE ERE10.23 Transistor Shunt Regulator... 10.24 Emitter Follower Series Voltage Regulator... 10.24.1 Expression for the Voltage Stability Factor. 10.24.2 Expression for the Output Resistance . . 10.24.3 Disadvantages ..... 10.25 Transistorised Series Feedback Type Regulator. 10.25.1 Expression for the Output Voltage... 10.25.2 Power Dissipation in the Pass Transistor. 10.25.3 Voltage Stability Factor. 10.25.4 Output Resistance . 10.25.5 Temperature Stability Factor 10.26 Transistor Series Regulator with Darlington F Pai 10.27 Series Regulator with Pre-regulator Circuit... 10.28 Design Considerations. 10.29 Protection Circuit: 10.30 Short Circuit Protection or Overload Protection 10.31 Current Limiting Circuit ..... 10.31.1 Operation under Overcurrent Condition . 10.31.2 V-I Characteristics . 10.31.3 Disadvantage of Simple Current nt Lining 10.32 Foldback Limiting 10.33 Introduction to Switched Mode Power Suppl 10.33.1 Need of Switched Mode Power Supply . 10.34 Basic Switching Regulator 10.35 Block Diagram of SMPS 10.36 Types of Switching Regulators 10.37 Step Down Switching Regulator (Buck). 10.37.1 Advantages. . 10.37.2 Disadvantages 40.38 Step Up Switching Regulator (Boost). 10.38.1 Advantages. . .. 10.38.2 Disadvantages 10.39 Voltage Inverter Type Switching Regulator (Buck-Boost).... Review Questions (andy ES aSemiconductor Diode 1.1 Introduction The materials such as copper, aluminium etc. are good conductors of electricity. While the materials such as wood, glass, mica etc. are very bad conductors of electricity and are called insulators. There is another class of materials, whose conductivity ie. ability to carry electricity, lies between that of conductors and insulators. Such materials are called semiconductors. Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are two well known semiconductor materials. To understand how diodes, transistors, thyristors and integrated circuits work, it is necessary to know the basic physics behind the behaviour of semiconductor materials. 1.2 The Structure of Matter ‘The matter which occupies the space may be solid, liquid or gaseous. The molecules and atoms, of which all the substances are composed, are not at all elements but are themselves made up of simpler entities. We know this because, we upto certain extent are successful in breaking atoms and studying the resulting products. For instance, such particles of atom are obtained by causing ultraviolet light to fall on cold metal surfaces, such particles are spontaneously ejected from the radioactive elements. So such particles are obtained from many different substances under widely varying conditions. In fact, according to the modern electron theory, matter is composed of the three fundamental particles, which are invisible to bare eyes. These are the neutron, the proton and the electron. The proton is positively charged and the electron is negatively charged. ‘The neutron is uncharged i. electrically neutral in nature possessing no charge. The mass of neutron and proton is same while the electron is very light, almost 1/1840" the mass of neutron. The following table gives the information about these three partides. Fundamental particle | Nature of charge Mass in kg Neutron: No charge 1.675x 10-77 Proton Positive 4.672« 40°77 Electron Negative 9.107% 10° Table 1.1 (1-1)Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-2 Semiconductor Diode There is no difference between an electron of copper and an electron of aluminium or an electron of any other element. Similarly the neutrons and protons of various atoms are characteristicwise identical in nature. Then why do various elements behave differently ? This is because of the difference in the arrangement of electrons, protons and neutrons of which each atom is composed. Let us see the structure of an atom. 1.2.4 Structure of an Atom The atoms have a planetary type of structure, according to classical Bohr Model. All the protons and neutrons are bound together at the centre of an atom, which is called Nucleus. While all the electrons are moving round the nucleus. So nucleus can be thought of as a central sun, about which electrons revolve in a particular fashion like the planets. In a normal atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. As neutron is electrically neutral, an atom as a whole is electrically neutral. The number of protons in an atom is called as its atomic number. While the atomic weight is approximately equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. The electrons which are revolving round the nucleus, do not move in the same orbit. The electrons are arranged in the different orbits or shells at fixed distances from the nucleus. Each shell can contain a fixed number of electrons. In general, a shell can contain a maximum of 2n’ electrons where n is the number of the shell. The first shell can occupy maximum of two electrons (2x12) while the second shell can occupy maximum of eight electrons (2x 2?) and so on. Each shell has an energy level associated with it. The closer an clectron is to the nucleus, the stronger are the forces that bind it to the nucleus. So the first shell which is closest to the nucleus is always under the tremendous force of attraction. While the shell which is farthest from the nucleus is under very weak force of attraction. The electrons revolving in the last shell ie. farthest from the nucleus are very loosely bound to the nucleus. Such electrons in the outermost shell are responsible for the electrical and chemical characteristics of an atom. Key Point : The outermost shell is called the valence shell and the electrons in this shell are called valence electrons. The exception to the ‘2n?' rule stated above is that the outermost shell in an atom. cannot accommodate more than eight electrons. The valence electrons revolving in the outermost shell are said to be having highest energy level. The amount of energy required to extract the valence electron from the outer shell is very less. Key Point : Each shell has energy level associated with it. Closer the shell to the nucleus, more tightly it is bound to the nucleus and possesses lower energy level.Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-3 Semiconductor Diode Energy level increases From Thus energy level of shell one frst shell valence shell as te disance ion thenuceus 'S_lowermost while the energy ieroases level of valence shell is highest. More energy level indicates that i the electrons of that shell are iearons \'\ loosely bound to the nucleus. Nucleus sa Hence valence electrons are Lowes evant 7 Shen 2 loosely bound to the nucleus as having highest energy level. The Nalonce stoi concept of energy level is shown Dighest energy level in the Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.1 Concept of energy level When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light or due to high atmospheric temperature, the energy levels of the electrons are raised. When such an additional energy is imparted to the electrons, the electrons move to the next orbit which is farther from the nucleus. If such an energy is imparted to a valence electron, it tries to jump to the next orbit. But as a valence electron is in the outermost orbit, actually it gets completely removed from the force of attraction of the nucleus. Key Points: 1) An electron which is not subjected to the force of attraction of the nucleus is called a free electron. Such free electrons are basically responsible for the flow of current. 2) More the number of free electrons, better is the conductivity of the metal. 1.2.2 Structure of Semiconductor Materials The semiconductor materials such as Ge and Si have four electrons in their valence shell ic. outermost shell. The Fig. 1.2 shows atomic structure of the semiconductor materials, germanium and silicon. Germaniym atorn Silicon atom ‘Valence electron \ Nudeus Each has 4 elections in its outermost Le. valence shel Fig. 1.2 Atomic structure of germanium and silicon atomsElectronic Devices and Circuits 1-4 Semiconductor Diode The germanium has a nucleus with 32 protons. The electrons are distributed as follows: 2 electrons in the first orbit, 8 in the second orbit and 18 in the third. The remaining four electrons are in the outer or valence orbit. The silicon has nucleus with 14 protons and 14 electrons. As shown in Fig. 1.2 the first orbit contains 2 and the second orbit contains 8 electrons. The remaining four electrons are in the outermost orbit. Key Point : When there are four electrons in the outermost orbit, the semiconductor material is referred to as pure or intrinsic semiconductor. 1.2.3 lonization If an electron is extracted from the outermost shell of an atom then the overall negative charge of that atom decreases as it looses negative charge in the form of an electron. But the number of protons remain same hence positive charge remains same. So atom as a whole looses its electrical neutral nature and becomes positively charged. Such an atom is called positive ion. Similarly by any means if an electrically neutral atom gains an additional electron then it becomes negatively charged and called negative ion. Thus by loosing or gaining electrons, an atom gets converted into a charged ion. This process of loosing or gaining an electron, which converts electrically neutral atom to a charged ion is called ionization. 1.3 The Energy-Band Theory We have seen that every shell is associated with an energy level. An electron orbiting very close to the nucleus in the first shell is very much tightly bound to the nucleus and possesses only a small amount of energy. Hence first shell has lowest energy level. Greater the distance of an electron from the nucleus, the greater is its energy. Hence the energy level of the outermost shell is highest. Due to such high energy, the valence electrons in the outermost shell can be easily extracted out and hence such electrons take part in chemical reactions and in bonding the atoms together. Now this discussion is related to the electrons and shells of one isolated atom only. In solids, atoms are brought close together. In such a case, outer shell electrons are shared by more than one atom. So these electrons come under the influence of forces from other atoms too. The valence electrons are shared by forming a bond with the valence electrons of an adjacent atom. Such bonds are called covalent bonds. Thus the valence electrons are not free under normal conditions, as they are shared by the adjacent atoms. Now the valence electrons possess highest energy level. When such electrons form the covalent bonds, due to the coupling between the valence electrons, the energy levels associated with the valence electrons merge into each other. This merging forms an energy band. Similarly the energy levels of various electrons present in the first orbit, second orbit etc. also merge to form the various energy bands.Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-5 Semiconductor Diode So instead of the presence of widely separated energy levels as that of the isolated atoms, the closely spaced energy levels are present in a solid, which are called energy bands. Out of all the energy bands, three bands are most important to understand the behaviour of solids. These bands are, 1. Valence band, 2. Conduction band, 3. Forbidden band or gap. Key Point : The energy band formed due to merging of energy levels associated with the valence electrons i.e. electrons in the last shell, is called valence band. As mentioned earlier in normal condition, valence electrons form the covalent bonds and are not free. But when certain energy is imparted to them, they become free. Key Point : The energy band formed due to merging of energy levels associated with the free electrons is called conduction band. Under normal condition, the conduction band is empty and once energy is imparted, the valence electrons jump from valence band to conduction band and become free. While jumping from valence band to conduction band, the electrons have to cross an energy gap. Key Point : The energy gap which is present separating the conduction band and the valence band is called forbidden band or forbidden gap. The energy imparted to the electrons must be greater than the energy associated with the forbidden gap, to extract the clectrons from valence band and transfer them to conduction band. The energy associated to forbidden band is denoted as Eg. Key Point : The electrons cannot exist in the forbidden gap. The graphical representation Eneroy4 of the energy bands in a solid is Conduction called energy band diagram. a : T==+rorisden Such an energy band diagram Valence > es] erergygap §~—for a solid silicon is shown in band (Eo) the Fig. 1.3. nd 2” band st The electrons in the various ¥ Band orbits revolving around the Edge of the nucleus nucleus occupy the various bands including fully or partly 1.3 Energy band diagram occupied valence band. The conduction band which is normally empty carries the electrons which get drifted from the valence band. These electrons present in the conduction band are free electrons and they drift about in the spaces between the atoms.Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-6 Semiconductor Diode For any given type of material the forbidden energy gap may be large, small or nonexistent. ‘The classification of materials as insulators, conductors or semiconductors is mainly dependent on the widths of the forbidden energy gap. The energy associated with forbidden band is called energy gap Eg and measured in the unit electron-volt (eV). LeV = 16x10 3 1.3.1 Classification of Materials Based on the energy gap Eg, the materials are classified as 1. Conductors 2. Insulators 3. Semiconductors. In conductors, large number of free electrons exist at room temperature so Eg does not exist. The valence and conduction band are overlapped. This is shown in the Fig. 1.4(a). The examples are copper, aluminium, sliver etc. In insulators, the energy gap Eg is large of the order of 7 eV. At very high temperature or under high voltage also, these materials do not conduct. The energy band diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.4(b). The examples are wood, mica paper, glass etc. The semiconductors are materials in which energy gap Eg is about 1 eV. At normal temperature, few free electrons exist. But at absolute zero, these are perfect insulators. The energy gap depends on temperature, At 27°C, silicon has Eg = 1.12 eV while germanium has Eg = 0.78 eV. As temperature increases, these materials can conduct heavily as more free electrons are generated. The energy band diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.4(c). The most important semiconductor materials are silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge). Energy Energy Energy Conduction Yo wands Serene conden {a) Conductor ( Insutator (¢) Semiconductor Fig. 1.4 Energy band diagramsElectronic Devices and Circuits 1-7 Semiconductor Diode 1.4 Intrinsic Semiconductors A sample of semiconductor in its purest form is called an intrinsic semiconductor. The impurity content in intrinsic semiconductor is very very small, of the order of one part in 100 million parts of semiconductor. 4.4.4 Crystal Structure of Intrinsic Semiconductor Consider an atomic structure of an intrinsic semiconductor material like silicon. An outermost shell of an atom is capable of holding eight electrons. It is said to be completely filled and stable, if it contains eight electrons. But the outermost shell of an intrinsic semiconductor like silicon has only four electrons, Each of these four electrons form a bond with another valence electron of the neighbouring atoms. This is nothing but sharing of electrons. Such bonds are called covalent bonds. The atoms align themselves to form a three dimensional uniform pattern called a crystal. The crystal structure of germanium and silicon materials consists of repetitive occurrence in three dimensions of a unit cell. This unit cell is in the form of a tetrahedron with an atom at each vertex. But such a three dimensional structure is very difficult to represent pictorially. Hence a symbolic two dimensional structure is used to represent a three dimensional crystal form, as shown in the Fig, 1.5 (a). The Fig. 1.5 (a) shows two dimensional representation of a germanium crystal structure, Germanium has a total of 32 electrons. So its first orbit consists of 2 electrons, second consists of 8, thicd consists of 18 and the valence shell consists of 4 electrons. As there are 4 valence electrons, it is called tetravalent atom. Germanium Covalent Valence Shared valence @) ) Fig. 1.5 Two dimensional representation of germanium crystalElectronic Devices and Circuits 1-8 Semiconductor Diode The covalent bonds are represented by a pair of dotted lines encircling the two electrons forming the covalent bond. The more clear understanding of the covalent bonds can be obtained from the Fig. 1.5 (b) which shows the sharing of valence electrons. Both the electrons are shared by the two atoms, Hence the outermost shell of all the atoms is completely filled and the valence electrons are tightly bound to the parent atoms. No free electrons are available at absolute zero temperature. Such an intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator at absolute zero temperature. 1.4.2 Electrons and Holes in Intrinsic Semiconductors Let us see what happens at room temperature. At room temperature, the number of valence electrons absorb the thermal energy, due to which they break the covalent bond and drift to the conduction band, Such electrons become free to move in the crystal as shown in the Fig. 1.6 (a). Generated electron hole pair A) a) Breaking of covalent bond (b) Electron-hole pair in a (©) Energy band diagram germanium crystal Fig. 1.6 Once the electrons are dislodged from the covalent bonds, then they become free. Such. free electrons wander in a random fashion in a crystal. The energy required to break a covalent bond is 0.72 eV for germanium and 1.1 eV for silicon, at room temperature. When a valence electron drift from valence to conduction band breaking a covalent bond, a vacancy is created in the broken covalent bond. Such a vacancy is called a hole. Whenever an electron becomes free, the corresponding hole gets generated. So free electrons and holes get generated in pairs. The formation of electron-hole pair is shown in the Fig. 1.6 (b) while the corresponding energy band diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.6 (c). Such a generation of electron-hole pairs due to thermal energy is called thermal generation.Electronic Devices and Circuits 4-9 Semiconductor Diode The concentration of free electrons and holes is always equal in an_ intrinsic semiconductor. The hole also serves as a carrier of electricity similar to that of free electron. An electron is negatively charged particle. Thus a hole getting created due to electron drift is said to be positively charged 1.4.3 Conduction by Electrons and Holes When battery is applied to an intrinsic material, free electrons move towards positive of battery and responsible for the flow of current. This current is called an electron current. The free electron move in conduction band Valence electron —. oe in| ©@e battery ° Now consider three atoms of ‘Ge in which one of the atom has a hole. Now hole is positively charged. Then valence electron of atom 2 tries to occupy hole of atom 3. When it does so, the hole ‘Atom 4 Atom 2 Aom3 now gets shifted to atom 2. Hole Again valence electron of movement atom 1 fills the hole of atom 2 and hole further moves to atom 1. Thus valence electrons move to fill the holes and holes move in opposite direction to valence electrons. The holes keep on moving towards negative of battery. No free electrons are involved in this action. ~<—— Hole movement @ aa wees] O@)o °° Fig. 1.7 Movement of hole As holes are _ positively charged, the movement of holes cause the current called hole current. The hole current is in opposite direction to that of an electron current. 1.4.4 Conventional Current The current which flows trom positive of battery to ihe negative of battery, external to the batiery is called a conventional current It is always the combined effect of electron and hole movement in the semiconductors. The conventiona! current direction is opposite to the direction of movement of free electrons while it is same as the direction of movement of holes, in the semiconductors.Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-10 Semiconductor Diode Most of the electronic appliances, devices and circuits are analysed using the flow of conventional current. Hole movement +— Direction of electron flow ac ———>_ Direction of conventional current Electron movement ‘Semiconductor onverana Cc SS pret qo V (Battery) Fig. 1.8 Conventional current direction opposite to direction of an electron flow Why intrinsic materials are not used ? The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature is very small. Very few electron-hole pairs get generated at room temperature. Similarly conductivity due to application of voltage also has very little practical significance. Hence the intrinsic semiconductors in the purest form is not used in practice for manufacturing of electronic devices 1.5 Extrinsic Semiconductors In order to change the properties of intrinsic semiconductors a small amount of some other material is added to it. The process of adding other material to the crystal of intrinsic semiconductors to improve its conductivity is called doping. The impurity added is called dopant. Doped semiconductor material is called extrinsic semiconductor. The doping increases the conductivity of the basic intrinsic semiconductors hence the extrinsic semiconductors are used in practice for manufacturing of various electronic devices such as diodes, transistors etc Depending upon the type of impurities, the two types of extrinsic semiconductors are, 1.mtype and 2. p-type 1.5.1 Types of Impurities The impurity material having five valence electrons is called pentavalent atom. When this is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, it is called donor doping as each impurity atom donates one free electron to an intrinsic material. Such an impurity is called donor impurity. The examples of such impurity are arsenic, bismuth, phosphorous etc. This creates an extrinsic semiconductor with large number of free electrons, called n-type semiconductor.Electronic Devices and Circuits 4-11 Semiconductor Diode Another type of impurity used is trivalent atom which has only three valence electrons. Such an impurity is called acceptor impurity. When this is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, it creates more holes and ready to accept an electron hence the doping is called acceptor doping. The examples of such impurity are gallium, indium and boron The resulting extrinsic semiconductor with large number of holes is called p-type semiconductor. 1.6 n-Type Semiconductor When a sinall amount of pentavalent impurity is added Pure sificon ‘atom to a pure semiconductor, it is (4vatence electrons) called n-type semiconductor. The pentavalent impurity has five valence electrons. These elements are such as arsenic, Irpurty a “Extrafreeelection bismuth, phosphorous and Fy cealed antimony. Such an impurity is @a called donor impurity. Consider the formation of Fig. 1.9 n-type material formation Ripe” uaaterial, “by adding arsenic (As) into silicon (Si). The arsenic atom has five valence electrons, An arsenic ator fits in the silicon erystal in such a way that its four valence electrons form covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. The fifth electron has no chance of forming a covalent bond. This spare electron enters the conduction band as a free electron. Such n-type material formation is represented in the Fig. 1.9. This means that each arsenic atom added into silicon atom gives one free electron. The number of such free electrons can be controlled by the amount of impurity added to the silicon. Since the free electrons have negative charges, the material is known as n-type material and an impurity donates a free electron hence called donor impurity 1.6.1 Conduction in n-Type Semiconductor When the voitage is applied to the n-type semiconductor, the free electrons which are readily available due 10 added impurity, move in a direction of positive terminal of voltage applied. This constitutes a current, Thus the conduction is predominantly by free electrons. The holes are less in number hence electron current is dominant over the hole current Hence in n-type semiconductors free electrons are called majority carriers while the holes which are small in number are called minority carriers. The conduction in n-type material is shown in the Fig. 1.10Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-12 Semiconductor Diode Free electrons large in number majority) — n-type material Holes small in number (minority) Direction of conventionat Direction current i— of electrons Fig. 1.10 Conduction in n-type matorial 1.7 p-Type Semiconductor When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-type semiconductor. The trivalent impurity has three valence electrons. These elements are such as gallium, boron or indium. Such an impurity is called acceptor impurity. Oe © Fs Pure silcon atom . (4valence electons ) og Zo ™ ‘Added Gallium atom ~ (3 valence electrons ) B. Impurity atom Hole created due to koxko he’ Incomplete bond Fig. 1.11 p-type material formation Consider the formation of p-type material by adding gallium (Ga) into silicon (Si). The gallium atom has three valence electrons. So gallium atom fits in the silicon crystal in such a way that its three valence electrons form covalent bonds with the three adjacent silicon atoms. Being short of one electron, the fourth covalent bond in the valence shell is incomplete, The resulting vacancy is called a hole. Such p-type material formation is represented in the Fig. 1.11. This means that cach gallium atom added into silicon atom gives one hole. The number of such holes can be controlled by the amount of impurity added to the silicon. As the holes are treated as positively charged, the material is known as p-type material. At room temperature, the thermal energy is sufficient to extract an electron from the neighbouring atom which fills the vacancy in the incomplete bond around impurity atom. But this creates a vacancy in the adjacent bond from where the electron had jumped, which is nothing but a hole. This indicates that a hole created due to added impurity is ready to accept an electron and hence is called acceptor impurity. Thus even for a small amount of impurity added, large number of holes get created in the p-type material.Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-13 Semiconductor Diode 1.7.1 Conduction in p-Type Semiconductor If now such p-type material is subjected to an electric field by applying a voltage then the holes move in a valence band and are mainly responsible for the conduction. So the current conduction in p-type material is predominantly due to the holes. The free electrons are also present in conduction band but are very less in number. Hence holes are the majority carriers while electrons are minority carriers in p-type material. The conduction in p-type material is shown in the Fig. 1.12 p-type. _Holes (majority) material ze __ Birection of holes: Direction of conventional curent I Fig. 1.12 Conduction in p-type material 1.8 P-N Junction The two type of materials namely p-type and n-type are chemically combined with a special fabrication technique to form a p-n junction, The p-n junction forms a popular semiconductor device called diode. The diode is the basic element of number of electronic circuits. Hence the knowledge of p-n junction and its behaviour is very important in understanding the operation of number of electronic circuits, applications and devices. 1.9 Unbiased P-N Junction If in a given material if the doping is not uniform then at one place large number of charge carriers exist while at other place small number of charge carriers exist. In a high charge carrier concentration area, all charge carriers are of similar type, either electrons or holes and hence start repelling each other. Due to this, charge carriers start moving from high concentration srea towards a low concentration area, to achieve uniform Fig. 1.13 Initial diffusion concentration all over the meterial. This process is called diffusion and exists when there is (© E5) Hole diffusion Eledron diffusion (=== @Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-14 Semiconductor Diode nonuniform concentration of charge carriers in the material. In a p-n junction, on n side there are large number of electrons while on p-side electrons are minority in number. So there is high concentration of electrons on n-side while low concentration of electrons on p-side. Hence diffusion starts and electrons start moving from n-side towards p-side. Similarly the holes from p-side diffuse across the junction into the n-region. The initial diffusion 1s shown in the Fig, 1.13, 1.9.1 Formation of Depletion Region As holes enter the n-region, they find number of donor atoms. The holes recombine with the donor atoms. As donor atoms accept additional holes, they become positively charged immobile ions. This happens immediately when holes cross the junction hence number of positively charged immobile ions get formed near the junction on n-side. Junction Atoms on p side are acceptor atoms. The : : electrons diffusing from n-side to p-side recombine with the acceptor atoms on p-side. As acceptor atoms ; accept additional electrons, they become negatively a charged immobile ions. Such large number of negatively charged immobile ions get formed near the junction on p-side. The formation of immobile ions near the junction is shown in the Fig. 1.14 As more number of holes diffuse on n-side, large positive charge gets accumulated on n-side near the junction. Eventually the diffusing holes which are positively charged, get repelled due to accumulated positive charge on n-side. And the diffusion of holes stops. Fig. 1.14 Formation of immobile ions Similarly due to large negative charge accumulated on p-side, the diffusing electrons get repelled and eventually the diffusion of electrons also stops Thus in thermal equilibrium, in the region near the junction, there exists a wall of negative immobile charges on p-side and a wall of positive immobile charges on r-side. In this region, there are no mobile charge carriers. Such a region is depleted of the free mobile charge carriers and hence called depletion region or depletion layer. The depletion region is also called space-charge region. In equilibrium condition, the depletion region gets widened upto a pi t where no further electrons or holes can cross the junction. Thus depletion region acts as the barrier. The physical distance from one side to other side of the depletion region is called width of the depletion region Practically width of the depletion region is very small of the order of few mucrons where 1 micron = 1 = 107° m,Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-15 Semiconductor Diode 1.9.2 Barrier Potential Due to immobile positive charges on n-side and negative charges on p-side, there exists an electric field across the junction, This creates potential difference across the junction which is called barrier potential, junction potential, built-in potential or cut-in voltage of p-n junction. Direction of electri field Electron Hole Potential through junction lv, Barrier 4 potential Fig. 1.15 Open circuited p-n junction ‘The barrier potential depends on, 1. Type of semiconductor 2. The donor impurity added 3. The acceptor impurity added 4. The temperature 5. Intrinsic concentration Semiconductor material ‘Symbol Barrier potential Silicon si os Vv Germanium ce o2v The barrier potential is called height of the depletion region and expressed in volts. Symbolically it is denoted as V,, V, or V, 1.10 The P-N Junction Diode The p-n junction forms a popular semiconductor device called p-n junction diode. The Pp-7n junction has two terminals called electrodes, one each from p-region and n-region Due to the two electrodes it is called diode ie. di + electrode.Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-16 Semiconductor Diode To connect the n and p-regions to the external terminals, a metal is applied to the heavily doped n and p-type semiconductor regions. Such a contact between a metal and a heavily doped semiconductor is called ohmic contact. Such an ohmic contact has two important properties, 1. It conducts current equaily in both the directions. 2. The drop across the contact is very small, which do not affect the performance of the device. Thus ohmic contacts are used to connect n and p-type regions to the electrodes. The Fig. 1.16 (a) shows schematic arrangement of p-n junction diode while the Fig. 1.16 (b) shows the symbol of p-n junction diode. The p-tegion acts as anode while the reregion acts as cathode. The arrowhead in the symbol indicates the direction of the conventional current, which can flow when an external voltage is connected in a specific manner across the diode. Direction of conventionat current Ohmic contacts => fs ange canoae ae Electrode 1 Ek mut Electrode 2 p-ype ndtype (a) Two electrodes (b) Symbol of a diode Fig. 1.16 1.10.1 Biasing of P-N Junction Diode Applying external dc. voltage to any electronic device is called biasing. As seen, there is no current in the unbiased p-n junction at equilibrium. Key Point: The usefulness of p-n junction lies in the fact that it allows current flow only in one direction, under biased condition. Depending upon the polarity of the d.c. voltage externally applied to it, the biasing is classified as Forward biasing and Reverse biasing, 1.10.2 Types of Diodes When forward current flows under torward biasing, diode gets heated. Hence forward current should not exceed the particular maximum value, Similarly the diode can be damaged due to large reverse vollage applied to it during reverse biasing. This vollage also must be maintained below the particular maximum value. These maximum values are specified in the manvfacturer’s datasheet Key Point : Practically the diodes which can carry large forward current and handle large reverse vollage are physically large in size. ‘The diodes which are small in size can carry low forward current and can handle low reverse vollage. The Fig. 1.17 shows the types of diodes based on forward current carrying and reverse voltage withstanding capacity.Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-17 Semiconductor Diode c" diode ana cage Cathode <2 band (@) Low current (b) Medium current (c} Large current . 1.17 Types of diodes Sr.No.| Diode | Forward current capacity | Reverse voltage capacity 1 Low current Upto 100 mA Upto 75 V 2. Medium Upto 400 mA Upto 200 V current 3. Large current | Few amperes Several hundred volts Let us see in detail, behaviour of a p-n junction under two biasing conditions. 1.11 Forward Biasing of P-N Junction Diode If an external dic. voltage is connected in such a way that the p-region terminal is connected (0 the positive of the dc. voltage and the n-region is connected to the negative of the dic. voltage, the biasing condition is called forward biasing. The p-n junction is said to be forward biased. Key Point: Forward biasing means connecting p-region to +ve and n-region to -ve of the battery. Curren! ling 4 ; (a) Forward biasing (b) Symbolic representation 1.18 The Fig. 1.18 (a) shows the connection of forward biasing of a p-n junction. To limit the current, practically a current limiting resistor is connected in series with the p-n junction diode. The Fig 1.18 (b) shows the symbolic representation of a forward biased diode.Electronic Devices and Circuits 1-18 Semiconductor 1.11.1 Operation of Forward Biased Diode When the p-n junction is forward biased as long as the applied voltage is less than the bartier potential, there cannot be any conduction. When the applied voltage becomes more than the barrier potential, the negative terminal of battery pushes the free electrons against barrier potential from n to p-region. Similarly positive terminal pushes the holes from p to r-region. Thus holes get repelled by positive terminal and cross the junction against barrier potential. Thus the applied voltage overcomes the barrier potential. This reduces the widih of depletion region. As forward voltage is increased, at a particular value the depletion region becomes very much narrow such that large number of majority charge carriers can cross the junction. The large number of majority carriers constitute a current called forward current. Once the conduction electrons enter the p-region, they become valence electrons. Then they move from hole to hole towards the positive terminal of the battery. The movement of valence electrons is nothing but movement of holes in opposite direction to that of . electrons, in the p-region. So current Junction Holecurrent_! Bectron current in the p-region is the movement of holes which are majority carriers This is the hole current. While the ay —— current in the n-region is the — | ——— t movement of free electrons which fnting St are majority carriers. This is the feteiey | electron current. Hence the overall oe oe tf ee ! forward current is due to. the aa Ww. ctiinonmowmens ‘TAotity charge carriers. The action conventional current is shown in the Fig. 1.19. These majority carriers can then travel around the closed circuit and a relatively large current flows. The direction of flow of electrons is from negative to positive of the battery. While direction of the conventional current is from positive to negative of the battery as shown in the Fig. 1.19, Key Point : The direction of flow of electrons and conventional curren! is opposite to each other. Fig. 1.19 Forward current in a diode 1.11.2 Effect on the Depletion Region Due to the forward bias voltage, more electrons flow into the depletion region, which reduces the number of positive ions. Similarly flow of holes reduces the number of negative ions. This reduces the width of the depletion region. This is shown in the Fig. 1.20.