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Begriffsschrift

Conference Paper · November 2015

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Alessandro Duarte
Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro
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Logical system of BS

September 26, 2016

1 / 43
 Sintax

• Sintax Alphabet
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax • Latin letters (terms used to express generality) — two kinds (§1
• Semantics of BS)
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference 1. a, b, c, d, x, y, z — mostly used for conceptual contents
• Rules of inference
2. f, g, h, F — mostly used for functions
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms • Gothic letters: (§11 of BS)
• Axioms
• a, b, v, d — ranging over conceptual contents
• Axioms
• Axioms • F — ranging over functions
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 2 / 43
 Sintax

• Sintax
Conceptual Contents they are divided in judgeable contents and
• Sintax
• Sintax non-judgeable contents (§2)
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Semantics
• Judgment stroke: (§2)
• Semantics
• Semantics • Content stroke: (§2)
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 3 / 43
 Sintax

• Sintax
• Conditional stroke: (§5)
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax • Negation stroke: (§7)
• Sintax
• Semantics • Identity of content: ≡ (§8)
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Universal quantifier: (§11)
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference Rules of well-formation
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms • If A is a term expressing a judgeable content, then A will be
• Axioms
• Axioms a term
• Axioms
• Axioms
• If A and B are terms, so B will be a term
• Axioms A
• Observation
• Axioms
• If A is a term, so A will be a term
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 4 / 43
 Sintax

• Sintax
• Sintax
• If A and B are terms expressing conceptual contents, A ≡ B
• Sintax will be a term
• Sintax
• Sintax
• If T is a n-ary function and u1 , u2 , . . . , un express conceptual
• Semantics contents, so T (u1, u2 , . . . , un ) will be a term
• Semantics
• Semantics • If T (u1, u2 , . . . , un ) express a judgeable content, then
• Rules of inference T (u1, u2 , . . . , un ) will be a term
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference • If T (u) is a term, then a T (a) will be a term.
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Formulas are obtained when attaching the judgment stroke to
• Axioms terms A: A
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 5 / 43
 Sintax

• Sintax
The aim of content stroke is to eliminate the use of parentheses.
• Sintax
• Sintax Suppose that Frege had only the conditional stroke. How could he
• Sintax
• Sintax
express p → (q → p) e (p → q) → p?
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Semantics p
• Rules of inference q
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference p
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms p
• Axioms q
• Axioms
• Axioms p
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 6 / 43
 Semantics

• Sintax
• Conditional stroke
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax Given two judgeable contents A and B , there are 4 possibilities:
• Sintax
• Semantics 1. A is the case and B is the case
• Semantics
• Semantics
2. A is the case and B is not the case
• Rules of inference 3. A is not the case and B is the case
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference 4. A is not the case and B is not the case
• Rules of inference
• Translations The formula B 1 precludes the line 2. So the conditional stroke is
• Axioms
• Axioms
A
• Axioms the material implication.
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
1
• Observation A → B is true.
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 7 / 43
 Semantics

• Sintax • Negation stroke

• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax Given a judgeable content A, there are two possibilities
• Sintax
• Semantics 1. A is the case
• Semantics
• Semantics
2. A is not the case
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference A rules out the line 1.
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 8 / 43
 Semantics

• Sintax
• Identity of contents
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax A ≡ B will be the case, if A and B express the same conceptual
• Sintax
content; it will not be the case, otherwise.
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Quantification
• Rules of inference
a F (a) wil be the case, if F (a) is the case independently what
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference a can express
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 9 / 43
 Rules of inference

• Sintax • Modus Ponens

• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax B
• Semantics A
• Semantics A (§6)
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
B
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference • Rule of uniform substitution for conceptual contents
• Translations
• Axioms • Let the formula be: a
• Axioms
b
• Axioms
• Axioms a
• Axioms
• Axioms
• This is a tautology. Substitute d for b
• Observation c
• Axioms • The resulting formula a will be a tautology
• Observation
• Prova d
• Observation
• Observation
c
• Observation a
• Axioms
• Axioms 10 / 43
 Rules of inference

• Sintax
• Rule of uniform substitution for functions
• Sintax
• Sintax • Let the formula be: F (c)
• Sintax a F (a)
• Sintax
• Semantics • This is a logical truth. Substitute H(Γ) for the function F Γ
• Semantics
• Semantics
G(Γ)
• Rules of inference • We get the formula H(c) , that is still a logical truth.
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference G(c)
• Rules of inference a H(a)
• Translations
• Axioms G(a)
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 11 / 43
 Rules of inference

• Sintax
• Sintax
• Rule of universal generalization: from F (a), we can get
• Sintax a F (a)
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 12 / 43
 Rules of inference

• Sintax
• Rule of confinement of universal quantifiers to consequent: from
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax T (u),
• Sintax
• Semantics
A
• Semantics
• Semantics
where u do not occur in A, we can derive
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
a T (a),
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
A
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 13 / 43
 Translations

• Sintax
• All A are B : aB(a)
• Sintax
• Sintax A(a)
• Sintax
• Sintax
• ∀x(A(x) → B(x))
• Semantics • No A are B : a B(a)
• Semantics
• Semantics A(a)
• Rules of inference • ∀x(A(x) → ¬B(x))
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference • Some A are B : a B(a)
• Rules of inference
• Translations
A(a)
• Axioms • ¬∀x(A(x) → ¬B(x))
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Some A are not B : a B(a)
• Axioms A(a)
• Axioms
• Axioms
• ¬∀x(A(x) → B(x))
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 14 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax a (Axiom 1)
• Sintax
• Sintax b
• Sintax a
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Semantics • ⊢ a → (b → a)
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 15 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax c (Axiom 2)
• Sintax
• Sintax a
• Sintax b
• Semantics
• Semantics a
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
c
• Rules of inference b
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
a
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• ⊢ a → (b → c). → .(a → b) → (a → c)
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 16 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax c (Axiom 8)
• Sintax
• Sintax a
• Sintax b
• Semantics
• Semantics c
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
b
• Rules of inference a
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations • ⊢ a → (b → c). → .b → (a → c)
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 17 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax a (Axiom 28)
• Sintax
• Sintax b
• Sintax b
• Semantics
• Semantics a
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• ⊢ a → b. → .¬b → ¬a
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 18 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax a (Axiom 31)
• Sintax
• Sintax a
• Sintax
• Semantics
• Semantics
• ⊢ ¬¬a → a
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 19 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax a (Axiom 41)
• Sintax
• Sintax a
• Sintax
• Semantics • a → ¬¬a
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 20 / 43
 Observation

• Sintax
In preface to BS, Frege suggested that it is possible to derive
• Sintax
• Sintax formulas 31 and 41 from the following formula: ( a ≡ a), that
• Sintax
• Sintax
could be included as axiom in his logical system. Frege did not
• Semantics present the derivation in BS, that would depend on axiom 52 and
• Semantics
• Semantics theorem 57.
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 21 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax F (b) (Axioma 52)
• Sintax
• Sintax F (a)
• Sintax (a ≡ b)
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Semantics • ⊢ a ≡ b → (F (a) → F (b))
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 22 / 43
 Observation

• Sintax
From the axiom 52, Frege derived the formula 57 (theorema 57):
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax
F (a) (Teorema 57)
• Semantics F (b)
• Semantics
• Semantics (a ≡ b)
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference From these two formulas (52 and 57), he could get the formulas 31
• Rules of inference
and 41 if Frege had introduced ( a ≡ a) as axiom.
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 23 / 43
 Prova

• Sintax
• Sintax
• Assume that ( a ≡ a)
• Sintax • By the rule of uniform substitution for conceptual contents (in 52),
• Sintax
• Sintax we get: F (a)
• Semantics F ( a)
• Semantics
• Semantics ( a ≡ a)
• Rules of inference • By the rule of uniform substitution for functions we can get by
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference substituting Γ for F (Γ): a
• Rules of inference a
• Translations
• Axioms ( a ≡ a)
• Axioms • By modus ponens, we get: a
• Axioms
• Axioms a
• Axioms • The formula 41 would be obtained in the same way, by using the
• Axioms
• Observation theorem 57.
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 24 / 43
 Observation

• Sintax
In general it is believed that the axiom 52 belongs to Frege’s logic of
• Sintax
• Sintax predicates. But indeed it belongs also to Frege’s propositional logic.
• Sintax
• Sintax
It is true that one of Frege’s critics to Boolean logic is just the
• Semantics separation between primary and secundary propositions. In his view,
• Semantics
• Semantics there is no such division in begriffsschrift
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 25 / 43
 Observation

• Sintax
• Indeed because of content stroke there is a residue of such
• Sintax
• Sintax division and this will be entirely surpassed when the content
• Sintax
• Sintax
stroke is transformed in the horizontal that now stands for a
• Semantics concept:
• Semantics

• Semantics
• Rules of inference
 = V, se ∆ é V


• Rules of inference 

• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
∆
• Translations




• Axioms
= F, se ∆ não é o V

• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 26 / 43
 Observation

• Sintax
In BS, 2 is not well-formed, therefore it cannot have a truth-value.
• Sintax
• Sintax In Grundgesetze (GGA), 2 is well-formed and stands for the
• Sintax
• Sintax
False (F), since 2 is not the True
• Semantics In BS, 2 is not well-formed. Therefore, in the formula a, ‘a’ can
• Semantics
• Semantics 2 a
• Rules of inference only express judgeable contents.
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
In GGA, 2 is well-formed and stands for the True (T). It is an
• Rules of inference 2
• Translations
• Axioms
instance of a and therefore we can assert: 2
• Axioms a 2
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 27 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax c≡c (Axiom 54)
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 28 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax f (c) (Axiom 58)
• Sintax
a f (a)
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Semantics
• Semantics
• ⊢ ∀xF (x) → F (c)
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 29 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax Mβ f (β) (Axiom 58*)
• Sintax f
• Sintax Mβ f(β)
• Sintax
• Semantics
• Semantics • ⊢ ∀F Mβ F (β) → Mβ G(β)
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 30 / 43
 Axioms

• Sintax
• Sintax Mαβ f (α, β) (Axiom 58**)
• Sintax f
• Sintax Mαβ f(α, β)
• Sintax
• Semantics
• Semantics • ⊢ ∀F Mαβ F (α, β) → Mαβ G(α, β)
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 31 / 43
 Example of derivation in BS

• Sintax
• Sintax
a
• Sintax a
• Sintax Assume the axiom 2
• Sintax
• Semantics c
• Semantics
• Semantics
a
• Rules of inference b
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
a
• Rules of inference c
• Translations
• Axioms b
• Axioms a
• Axioms
• Axioms and substitute a for b and a for c.
• Axioms a
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 32 / 43
 Example of derivation in BS

• Sintax
So we get:
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax
a (1)
• Semantics a
• Semantics
• Semantics a
• Rules of inference a
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference a
• Rules of inference
• Translations
a
• Axioms a
• Axioms
• Axioms
a
• Axioms a
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 33 / 43
 Example of derivation in BS

• Sintax Assume the axiom 1

• Sintax
• Sintax a
• Sintax
• Sintax
b
• Semantics a
• Semantics
• Semantics
and substitute a for b. So we have
• Rules of inference a
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference a (2)
• Rules of inference
• Translations a
• Axioms
• Axioms
a
• Axioms a
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 34 / 43
 Example of derivation in BS

• Sintax
Applying modus ponens between (1) and (2), we get:
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax
a (3)
• Semantics a
• Semantics
• Semantics a
• Rules of inference a
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference a
• Rules of inference
• Translations Again in the axiom 1 substitute a for b, so obtaining :
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms a (4)
• Axioms
• Axioms a
• Axioms a
• Observation
• Axioms
Applying MP between 3 and 4, we get the desired formula.
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 35 / 43
 Definitions

• Sintax
• Definition of heredity (second-order concept)
• Sintax
• Sintax
δ
 
• Sintax   F (α)
 d a F (a) ≡ (heredity)
• Sintax
α f (δ,α) 
• Semantics  f (d, a) 
• Semantics  
• Semantics F (d)
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference • A property F is hereditary in a relation f iff for any objects x, y if
• Rules of inference
• Translations x has the property F and x is in the f-relation to y , then y has
• Axioms
the property F
• Axioms
• Axioms • Herα,β (F (α), f (α, β)) =def ∀x∀y(F (x)&f (x, y) → F (y))
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 36 / 43
 Definitions

• Sintax
• Definition of strong ancestral (first-order concept)
• Sintax
γ
• Sintax
 
F
≡ ∼ f (xγ , yβ )

• Sintax F(y) (strong ancestral)
• Sintax  a F(a)  β 
• Semantics
  
f (x, a)
 
• Semantics  
• Semantics

 δ F(α)  
• Rules of inference  
• Rules of inference
α f (δ,α)
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations • y follows x in the f-relation iff for any property F , if F is
• Axioms
• Axioms hereditary in the f-relation and for any z , if x is in the f-relation to
• Axioms
• Axioms
z , then z has F , so y has the property F .
• Axioms • f ∗ (x, y) =def ∀F {[Herα,β (F (α), f (α, β))&∀z(f (a, z) →
• Axioms
• Observation
F (z))] → F (y)}
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 37 / 43
 Definitions

• Sintax
• Definition of weak ancestral (first-order concept)
• Sintax
• Sintax  γ 
(z ≡ x) ≡ ∼ f (xγ , zβ )
!
• Sintax
 (weak ancestral)
• Sintax
γ β
• Semantics  ∼ f (xγ , zβ ) 
• Semantics β
• Semantics
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference • y belongs to the f-sequence beginning with x iff y is a strong
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference ancestral of x or y is the same as x.
• Translations
• f ∗= (x, y) =def f ∗ (x, y) ∨ y ≡ x
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 38 / 43
 Definições

• Sintax
• Definition of functionality (second-order logic)
• Sintax
• Sintax  
  δ
• Sintax e d a (a ≡ e) ≡ I f (δ, ǫ) (functionality)
• Sintax  ǫ
• Semantics 
 f (d, a)  

• Semantics
• Semantics
f (d, e)
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference • F uncαβ f (α, β) =def ∀x∀y∀z(f (x, y)&f (x, z) → y ≡ z)
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 39 / 43
 Theorems

• Sintax
• Theorem 81 (mathematical Induction)
• Sintax
• Sintax
• Sintax F (y) (Teorema 81)
• Sintax γ
• Semantics ∼ f (xγ , yβ )
• Semantics
β
• Semantics δ F (α)
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference α f (δ,α)
• Rules of inference F (x)
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 40 / 43
 Prova de 81

• Sintax
• Sintax
Assuma (1) F (x), (2) ∀x∀y(F (x)&f (x, y) → F (y)) e
• Sintax (3)∀F {[∀x∀y(F (x)&f (x, y) → F (y))&∀z(f (x, z) →
• Sintax
• Sintax F (z))] → F (y)}. Devemos derivar F (y). Instanciando
• Semantics universalmente (3), temos
• Semantics
• Semantics (4)
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
[∀x∀y(F (x)&f (x, y) → F (y))&∀z(f (x, z) → F (z))] → F (y)
• Rules of inference (Frege usará o axioma 58* e as substituições apropriadas para
• Rules of inference
• Translations
funções e aplicará MP). Instanciando universalmente em (2),
• Axioms obtemos (5) F (x)&f (x, z) → F (z). Uma vez que F (x), então
• Axioms
• Axioms temos (6) f (x, z) → F (z)2 . Portanto, generalizando
• Axioms universalmente, obtemos (7) ∀z(f (x, z) → F (z)). Uma vez que
• Axioms
• Axioms temos (2) e (7), podemos formar a conjunção que exatamente o
• Observation
antecedente de (4). Aplicando MP, obtemos F (y).
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
2
• Observation p&q → r, p ⊢ q → r
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 41 / 43
 Theorems

• Sintax
• Theorem 98 (transitivity of strong ancestral)
• Sintax
• Sintax γ
• Sintax ∼ f (xγ , zβ ) (Teorema 98)
• Sintax β
γ
• Semantics
• Semantics
∼ f (yγ , zβ )
β
• Semantics γ
• Rules of inference ∼ f (xγ , yβ )
• Rules of inference β
• Rules of inference
• Rules of inference
• Translations
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 42 / 43
 Teoremas
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• Sintax • Teorema 133

• Sintax
• Sintax γ
• Sintax ∼ f (mγ , yβ ) (Teorema 133)
• Sintax β
• Semantics γ
• Semantics ∼ f (yγ , mβ )
• Semantics
β
γ
• Rules of inference ∼ f (xγ , yβ )
• Rules of inference β
• Rules of inference γ
• Rules of inference ∼ f (xγ , mβ )
• Translations β
• Axioms δ
• Axioms I f (δ, ǫ)
• Axioms ǫ
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Axioms
• Observation
• Axioms
• Observation
• Prova
• Observation
• Observation
• Observation
• Axioms
• Axioms 43 / 43