Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ORIENTATION PROBLEMS
In VFR conditions, you obtain your orientation mainly through your vision. On
the other hand in IFR conditions or at night your body relies upon your vestibular and
kinesthetic sense. Since these senses are unreliable, disorientation may occur.
Fatigue, anxiety, workload, alcohol, drugs increase the risk of disorientation.
There are two types of disorientation; spatial and vestibular.
Spatial disorientation occurs when there is a conflict between central vision and
peripheral vision. For example; one feels himself moving as the vehicle next to him is
moving while he is in a stationary vehicle.
As an example; Atlasjet Flight 4203 can be mentioned I think. In November
2007 it crashed during its approach to Isparta. The authorities declared that the
accident was caused by pilot error as a result of the condition known as spatial
disorientation.( The pilot is believed to have lost the sight of line for the horizon and
instead of trusting the flight instruments, diverted the aircraft to the route where the
crash occurred.)
Vestibular disorientation is caused by misleading signals sent from vestibular
system in inner ear to brain. For example, in a prolonged constant rate of turn, you
will not sense the bank after a while and if you level the aircraft you will sense as if
you bank the opposite side. (A rapid acceleration during takeoff can create the
illusion of being a nose-up attitude and abrupt change from climb to straight and level
flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards.)
(Kinesthetic sense is the term used to describe the awareness of position obtained
from nerves, joints and muscles. This sense is unreliable because the brain can not tell
the difference between gravity inputs and g-load inputs.)
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GPWS (also known as TAWS [Terrain Access Warning System] by FAA)
Ground Proximity Warning System is a system designed to alert pilot, if aircraft is
in danger of flying into the ground or an obstacle. To warn pilot about the closure of
impact, this system combines some data which are: R/A, barometric altitude,
configuration, vertical speed, present position, gear, flap and throttle positions, glide
slope deviation, approach minima, and in Enhanced mode DTED, In EGPWS wind
shear is also shown. EGPWS reduces the risk of CFIT almost 50 times. Since 2005,
GPWS is mandatory on public transportation aircrafts with a maximum take-off mass
(MTOM) of over 5700 kg.
Atlasjet Flight 4203 is a proper example I think, to prove the importance of
GPWS. In November 2007, it crashed during its approach to Isparta. One of the
reasons to this accident was that GPWS was not working properly.
(DTED: Digital Terrain Elavation Data)
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CRM
Crew Resource Management is the effective use of all available resources
such as equipment, procedures and people. Applying CRM, promotes safety and
improves the efficiency of operations.
CRM is used primarily for improving air safety and mainly focuses on some
cognitive and interpersonal skills. In this context, cognitive skills are defined as the
mental processes used for situational awareness, solving problems and taking
decisions. Interpersonal skills are regarded as communications and a range of
behavioural activities associated with teamwork. These are often difficult skills to
master, as they may require significant changes in personal habits, interpersonal
dynamics, and organizational culture.
Importance of CRM first appeared in 1978 with the crash of United Airlines
Flight 173. The plane ran out of fuel while the flight crew were troubleshooting a
landing gear problem. As a result of this accident United Airlines was the first airline
to provide CRM training for its cockpit crews in 1981.
Basicly there are 5 steps in CRM process in cockpit;
Address the individual - "Hey Chief," or "Captain Smith," or "Bob,"
State your concern-"I'm concerned that we may not have enough fuel to fly around this storm system"
State the problem as you see it - "We're only showing 40 minutes of fuel left,"
State a solution - "Let's divert to another airport and refuel,"
Obtain agreement - "Does that sound good to you, Captain?"
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DUTCH ROLL
If the aircraft is yawed to the right, the left wing advances (sideslip) and
generates more lift, while the right wing slows down and produces less lift. The result
of this imbalance in lift is rolling in the direction of the initial yaw. The advancing wing
also produces greater drag due to the larger areas exposed to the airflow, which
causes the aircraft yaw in the opposite direction. This results in the right wing
producing more lift than the left wing, reversing the direction of the roll. The final
result is rolling and yawing oscillation which have the same frequency.
Dutch Roll is mainly caused by relatively weaker positive directional stability
than positive lateral stability. Sweepback and dihedral wings have more tendencies
to Dutch Roll. Yaw dampers prevent Dutch Roll on swept-wing aircrafts.
To recover from a Dutch Roll motion, you shoud apply a sharp aileron input
towards the upcoming wing. It’s not advised to use rudder to correct Dutch Roll,
the roll is much more visible than the yaw, so easier to correct.
ADVERSE YAW
Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift or in other saying
outside wing produces more lift and induced drag, the same wing slows down
slightly. This creates opposite side yawing motion. This is called adverse yaw.
This is more common at lower airspeeds. Application of rudder is used to
correct adverse yaw. As a result, all the turns should be coordinated turns.
AERODYNAMIC FLUTTER
Flutter is an unstable oscillation of fixed or movable surfaces of an aircraft;
such as wings, stabilizer, ailerons or elevator. Flutter can damage these surfaces.
Manufacturers should design aircrafts in such a way that they will not suffer
from flutter below VNE or below VMO/MMO (Max Operating Velocity or Mach number).
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HOLDING PROCEDURES
Holding procedures are mainly used to provide separation between traffics. There
are two types of holding; Standard and nonstandard. In standart holding right hand
turns, in non standard holding left hand turns are made. If it’s not instructed or
published, standard holding is performed. Each circuit of holding begins and ends at a
certain fix. These fixes may be navaid, intersection or a certain DME distance.
Inbound leg of holding is always towards the fix.
There are two ways of holding procedure; first one is done by timing and the
second one is done by leg length. In timing procedure inbound leg is flown one
minute at or below 14000 feet and above 14000 feet one and a half minutes. If holding
is to be performed by leg length, no timing is required.
If holding speed is not published on the chart, ICAO standards are used;
• Up to 14000 ft : max 230kts
• 14000 ft to 20000 ft : max 240kts
• 20000 ft to 34000 ft : max 265kts
• Above 34000 ft : max M0.83
There are three methods used to enter a holding pattern. Parallel, direct
and teardrop entry. The entry procedure depends on your heading and inbound course
of the holding pattern.
TOP OF DESCENT / BOTTOM OF DESCENT
Top of descent is a point that an aircraft starts its descent to reach a point in
a designated altitude with a specific vertical speed or descent angle.
Bottom of descent point is the end point of the descent, as calculated by
FMS or RNAV.
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STABILIZED APPROACH
A stabilized approach is the safest profile, and it is one of the most
critical elements of a safe approach and landing operation. There are five
basic elements for a stabilized approach:
1) The aircraft should be in the landing configuration early in the
approach.
2) The aircraft should be stabilized on profile before descending through
1000 feet.
3) The optimum descent rate should be 500-700 fpm.
4) Indicated airspeed should be not more than VREF + 5 and never less
than VREF.
5) The engine speed should be at a setting that allows best response if a
rapid power increase or a go-around is needed by the pilot.
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STRAIGHT IN LANDING and STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH
Straight-In Approach is an instrument approach in which final approach
is begun without a procedure turn or holding. Straight-in approach is not
related with the landing procedure. A straight-in approach can be followed by
a circle to land or straight in landing.
Straight-In Landing is a landing made on a runway aligned within 30°
of the final approach course. Any circle to land is not a straight-in landing.
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ILS CATEGORIES
CategoryI ILS has minimums of 200ft DH and 800m visibility or 550mRVR.
Category II ILS has minimums of 100-200 ft DH and 350 m RVR.
Category III has three sub-categories.
III A ILS has minimums of below 100 ft DH and 200 m RVR.
III B ILS has minimums of below 50 ft DH and 50-200 m RVR.
III C ILS has no minimums.
EQUIPMENT
CAT-1 AIRCRAFT: The plane has to be equipped apart from the devices for
flying in IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) conditions also with the ILS system and a
marker beacon receiver.
CAT-2 AIRCRAFT: The plane has to be equipped with a radio altimeter or
an inner marker receiver, an autopilot link, a raindrops remover and also a
system for the automatic draught control of the engine can be required. The crew
consists of two pilots.
CAT-3 A AIRCRAFT: The aircraft has to be equipped with an autopilot with
a passive malfunction monitor or a HUD (Head-up display).
CAT-3 B AIRCRAFT: A device for alteration of a rolling speed to travel speed.
BASIC SYSTEMS FOR ILS: VHF localizer transmitter, UHF glide slope
transmitter, marker beacons, approach lighting system
TACAN
Tactical air navigation system is a navigation system used by military aircraft. It
is a more accurate version of the VOR/DME system that provides bearing and range
information for civil aviation. The DME portion of the TACAN system is available for
civil use; at VORTAC facilities where a VOR is combined with a TACAN, civil
aircraft can receive VOR/DME readings.
ALDIS
It was named after Arthur Aldis who was the British inventor of this signal lamp.
LIGHT FORM GROUND AIR
Steady green Clear to take off Clear to land
Return and wait for
Flashing green Clear to taxi
landing signal
Give way to other
Steady red Stop
aircraft
Flashing red Vacate runway Do not land
Return to starting
Flashing white ----
point
Alternating red green Caution caution
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PAPI, VASI, PVASI, T-VASI
PAPI: Precision Approach Path Indicator lights are used for visual
precision approach. PAPI consists of 4 lights and normally installed left of the
runway with a glide angle of 3°. These lights are visible from 5 NM in day and
20 NM at night. “Two white two red on the path”.
VASI: Visual Approach Slope Indicator lights have 2 types. One is 2-bar
VASI and the other one is 3-bar VASI. VASI lights are normally visible from 3-5 NM
in day and 20 NM at night. VASI provides a glide angle of 3°. Short description
for 2-bar VASI is “red over white you are all right”.
PVASI: Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator lights are visible from
4 NM in day and 10 NM at night. “steady white you are all right".
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T-VASI: consists of 20 light units. 10 either sights of the runway. They
form a cross shape with: 6 lights in a line with the runway, 4 across in a bar.
When high on the approach; 4 lights in each bar show white; and depending
on how high one is, 1, 2 or 3 white lights are visible beyond the bar.
When below the approach path: 4 lights in the bar show red. Depending
on how low one is, 1, 2 or 3 red lights are visible in front of the bar.
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AIRPORT LIGHTING
AERODROME BEACON
It's actually a green and white beacon. It helps pilots locate the airport visually,
and identifies what kind of airport it is. The combination of light colors from an airport
beacon indicates the type of airport. For example;
• Flashing white and green for civilian land airports;
• Flashing white and yellow for a water airport;
• Flashing white, yellow, and green for a heliport; and
• Two quick white flashes alternating with a green flash identifying a military airport.
(Two types of beacon: Identification Beacon and the Location Beacon. An Identification Beacon flashing a two
letter identification code in green.
Where the aerodrome is also situated well away from areas of high background lighting, the Location Beacon
would display a flashing White light.
Where the aerodrome is situated in an area where there is a high level of background lighting, such as in the
vicinity of a city where a flashing white light would be difficult to see, the Location Beacon would display a green light
flashing alternately with a white light.)
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TAXIWAY LIGHTING
At those aerodromes equipped for low visibility operations, taxiways are equipped
with green centreline lighting, otherwise blue edge lighting is provided.
OPTICAL ILLUSION
Vision is the most important element especially for a safe approach and
landing. Optical illusions are mostly encountered during landing. These
illusions are related with runway width and slope.
A narrow runway causes an illusion that aircraft is higher, so you tend to
make a lower approach. Wider runway causes the opposite.
A downsloping runway also causes a higher approach and upsloping
runway causes the opposite.
To prevent optical illusions, using VASI, PAPI, glideslope, VDP and
checking altimeter frequently are useful.
Hydroplaning
Is caused by a thin layer of standing water that separates the tires
from the runway. It causes reduction of friction between the tires and runway
surface. High aircraft speeds, water, slush, and runway texture are the
reasons for hydroplaning. Braking action is reported by ATC like" good, fair,
poor, nil". If it is nil, directional control may be impossible. If hydroplaning
occurs, landing roll may be longer than the one on smooth ice. You can
estimate the minimum hydroplaning speed;
sqrt of tire pressure times 8,6.
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TORA-TODA-TORR-ASDA(EMDA)-LDA-LDR
TORA - Takeoff Runway Available is the usable length of the runway
available.
The physical length of runway pavement.
Clearway - Obstacle-free area at the end of the runway with the dimension
of 75 m. Either side of the extended runway centerline.
TORR - Takeoff Run Required is the measured run required to the unstick
speed (Vr) plus one-third of the airborne distance between the unstick and the
screen height.
(The take off part of the flight is the distance from the brake release
point (BRP) to the point at which the aircraft reaches a defined height.
This defined height is termed the “screen height”.
The screen height varies from 35 ft for class A aeroplanes to 50 ft for
class B aeroplanes.)
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ISA- INTERNATIONAL STANDART ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
At sea level;
Density: 1.225 kg/m3, Pressure: 29.92 inch mercury or 1013.25 mb,
Temperature: 15°, Environmental Lapse Rate : 2˚C / 1000ft
ATMOSPHERE LAYERS
Troposphere 0 - 36000 ft
Stratosphere 36000 - 160000 ft
Mesosphere 160000 - 280000 ft
Thermosphere over 280000 ft
3
Ozone layer is characterized by high concentration of O , about 80000ft.
This special type of oxygen molecule absorbs the harmful solar energy and
increases the temperature in that part of atmosphere.
The lapse rate is defined as the rate of decrease with height for an
atmospheric variable. At lower altitudes –I mean, up to approximately 40000ft,
temperature decreases with altitude at a fairly uniform rate. (2º/1000’)
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WS (Weather SIGMET) or SIGMET (Significant Meteorological Info)
SIGMET is a meteorological broadcast about hazardous weather for all
aircrafts. SIGMETs warn pilots about; severe icing, severe and extreme
turbulence, duststorms, sandstorms, or volcanic ash.
A Convective SIGMET (WST) is issued for hazardous convective weather
such as tornadoes, thunderstorms, hail and covers severe or great
turbulence, severe icing, and low-level wind shear.
Q CODES
QDM - Magnetic bearing (radial) TO the station
QDR - Magnetic bearing (radial) FROM the station
QFE - Zeros the altimeter on the airfield
QNE - 29.92 set by the transition altitude
QNH - Local altimeter setting that altimeter indicates AMSL
QUJ - True bearing TO the station
QTE - True bearing FROM the station
VISIBILITY / RVR
Meteorological Visibility is defined as the greatest horizontal distance
at which a specified object can be seen in daylight conditions. Visibility is
reduced when there are particles in the atmosphere such as; water, ice,
pollution, sand, dust, volcanic ash which absorbs the light.
Runway Visual Range is defined as the greatest horizontal distance a
pilot can see on the runway.
- RVR is not normally reported if it is over 1500m.
- Between 1500 and 800m > it is reported in steps of 100 m.
- Between 800 and 200m > it is reported in steps of 50 m.
- Below 200m > it is reported in steps of 25 m.
RVR is one of the main criterias for especially ILS approach minimums.
INVERSION
When there is an inversion in lapse rate, warm air cannot rise up and
even temperature may increase with altitude. This is called inversion.
Radiation cooling from ground at clear cool nights and warm air mass over
cold air mass cause inversion. Inversion usually causes low visibility, fog,
low ceiling with no wind and no turbulance conditions. At low levels, an
inversion may also cause pollution, with possible adverse effects on health.
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VERTICAL (CROSS) WIND COMPONENT
Crosswind component of wind can be computed by this formula:
Wind strength x Sin (Rwy Hdg - Wind direction)
AIRMASSES
Air masses are large body of air that have fairly same temperature and
moist. Colder air masses are named as polar or arctic, while warmer air
masses are named as tropical. Fronts are the boundaries between air masses.
FRONTS
Fronts are the boundaries between air masses and generally bring hazardous
weather. Shift in wind direction is the main indication of a frontal passage.
There are 4 types of fronts which are cold, warm, stationary and occluded fronts.
Warm front occurs when a warm air mass moves and slides over a cold
air mass. The boundary between them is named as warm front. It causes low
visibility, low ceiling, rain or snow.
If a pilot flies towards a warm front, he will face cirrus, cirrostarus, altostratus
and nimbostaratus clouds with precipitation and low ceiling progresively. Wind
blows from south, south east.
Cold front occurs when a cold air mass moves and slides under a warm air
mass. The boundary between them is named as cold front. It causes low visibility,
heavy rain, hail even tornadoes, thunderstorm, lightning and gusty winds.
If a pilot flies towards a cold front, he will face poor visibility, rain, lightning,
gusty winds, more cumuluform clouds with decreasing barometric pressure and
lots of weather hazards.
Cold fronts are fast approaching with little or no warnings and they make complete
weather change in few hours. Weather clears rapidly after passage of cold front and
unlimited visibility and dry air develops. On the other hand warm fronts provide advance
warning of their approach by developing stratiform clouds and takes time to pass
through a region.
Stationary front occurs when the forces of two air masses are equal
and affects the local area for some time.
Occluded front; occurs when a faster cold air mass catches a slower
warm air mass. Warm front weather immediatly followed by cold front weather.
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TS occurrence
TS's are one of the most dangerous weather hazards that pilots should avoid.
TS’s are associated with cumulonimbus clouds. It occurs in these conditions;
1. Unstable lapse rate (instability)
2. Some type of lifting action
3. High moisture
There are 3 steps of TS occurrence; cumulus stage, mature stage,
dissipating stage. There are several hazards of thunderstorms such as wind
shear, gusty winds, turbulence, hail, icing, lightning, low visibility and
radio/com interference. Pilots should avoid TS at least 20-25 NM.
Embedded TS is one which is obscured by massive cloud layers and
cannot be seen.
SQUALL LINE
Is a narrow band of active thunderstorms. It develops on or ahead of
cold front, in moist and unstable air. This line is too wide to bypass and too
severe to penetrate.
It forms rapidly and reaches its max. strength at late afternoon and first few
hours of darkness.
TURBULENCE
Turbulence is the swirl motions in the atmosphere. It may cause stress on
the airframe. There are several types of turbulence which are Low Level
Turbulence, Clear Air Turbulence and Wake Turbulence.
Low Level Turbulence may be faced below 15000ft and occurs
because of surface heating, friction, or ground shapes.
Wake Turbulence is generated by preceding aircraft's wingtips. It is also
called wingtip vortices. Wake turbulence is greatest when the preceding
aircrafts is slow, heavy, in clean configuration and at high AoA.
Generally wingtip vortices stay in the air for several minutes. According to
ICAO rules, there is supposed to be separation between aircrafts.
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WAKE TURBULANCE SEPERATION
H DISTANCE SEPERATION
6
5
4
L
Others 3 NM
H M
5
TIME SEPERATION
T/O TIME LNDG
All 2 min All
Intersection T/O 3 min L M/H
TURBULENCE PENETRATION
Maintain level attitude, use VRA as penetration speed and accept
variations in airspeed and altitude.
If you encounter turbulence during approach, increase the airspeed
slightly above normal approach speed to gain more positive control.
VRA: Rough Air Speed (Tubulence Penetration Speed)
( virga: water droplets or ice particles falling down from a cloud and evaporating
before reaching the ground )
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CLOUDS
Mainly there are 4 categories of clouds. These are low level, middle
level, high level and vertically developed clouds.
Low level clouds: this type of clouds are seen from ground to 6500' AGL.
these clouds may contain supercooled water droplets and create icing hazard.
Types of low clouds are stratus, nimbostratus, stratocumulus and fog.
Middle Level clouds are seen from 6500' to 20000' AGL. İn these clouds,
severe icing, moderate turbulence might be faced. Types of middle clouds are
altostarus and altocumulus.
High Level clouds are seen above 20000'AGL.Turbulence an icing are
seldom. Types of this clouds are cirrus, cirrostarus and cirrocumulus.
Vertically developed clouds are independent of altitude. They show lifting
and unstability. All weather hazards such as icing, turbulence, lightinig,
windshear etc can be seen. Types are towering cumulus and cumulunmbus.
FOG
Fog is a cloud that begins within 50ft of the surface. Fog forms when the
difference between temperature and dew point is generally less than 2.5 °C
or 4 °F. At this point, water vapor in the air condenses and becomes visible
in the form of fog.
Fog is distinguished from mist only by its visibility: Fog reduces visibility to
less than 1 km, but mist reduces visibility not less than 1 km.
A visibility of less than 5 km but greater than 999 m is considered to be mist
if the relative humidity is 70% or greater – below 70% haze is reported
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ICING
There are mainly two types of icing; first one is induction, second one is
structural icing.
Induction icing occurs in carburetor or air intake of the engine. It is most likely
to occur when OAT is between -7 and 21C and humidity is above 80%.
Structural icing builds up on any surface of an aircraft causing lost of lift,
increase in weight and control problems. There are two types: rime and clear ice.
Rime ice is normally encountered in stratus clouds. İt has an opaque
appearance. Major hazard of rime ice is the change of the shape of the airfoil and
destroy the lift.
Clear ice normally encountered in cumulus clouds or in freezing rain. It can
glaze the aircraft surface. It is the most serious form of icing because it has the
fastest rate of accumulation.
Freezing rain is most likely to have highest rate of accumulation.
Ice, snow or frost having a thickness of sandpaper can increase the drag by
40% and decrease the lift by 30 %.
When you encounter icing immediate action is for cumulus clouds change of
route/course and for stratus clouds change altitude and switch on all deice
systems. When you encounter freezing rain immediately climb if not possible
make a 180 degrees turn .
There are four levels of icing; trace, light , moderate, severe icing.
Trace: no need for deice/antiice operation
Light: for prolonged exposure (more than one hr) de-ice/anti-ice necessary
Moderate: Deice/anti-ice is immediately necessary
Severe: is beyond capability of deice/anti-ice systems
Frost is hazardous especially at take-off.It is essential to clear frost before take-
off.
Anti-ice : prevents the formation of ice
Deice: remove the ice after it has been accumulated.
The devices used for deice/anti-ice are: Thermal anti-ice, pneumatic deice
boots, windshield anti-ice, alcohol, windshield heater, pitot heater, propeller antiice
Estimating freezing level: (OAT/2)x1000 AGL. It is the altitude where you
likely to encounter icing.
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RVSM
Reduced vertical seperation minimum reduces the vertical seperation from
2000' to1000' between flight levels FL290 and FL410. Only aircrafts with
specially certified altimeters and autopilots may fly in RVSM airspace.
Additionally, operators must be certified to conduct opertations in RVSM
airspace. But state aircrafts are excepted from this requirement.
To fly in RVSM airspace aircrafts must have the following equipment;
- 2 independent working altimeters.
- altitude alert system.
- autopilot
- XNDR with mode C
ISOLATED AERODROME
Isolated aerodrome term is used when there is no alternate aerodrome. It
depends on the required distance to nearest aerodrome, fuel and time. For turbine
power aircraft additional fuel will be required to fly for 2hrs at normal cruise
power.
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FIRST AID KIT REQUIREMENT
According to JAR -OPS 1745, first aid kit requirements is dependent
upon the number of passenger seats installed;
For 0 – 99 > 1 kit
100 – 199 > 2 kits
200 – 299 > 3 kits
300 and more > 4 kits are required.
TYPES OF TURBINE ENGINES
There are 4 types of turbine engines;
Turbojet, Turbofan, Turboprop, and Turboshaft.
Basically Turbofan and Turbojet engines are similar to each other. The
only difference is that the turbofan engine has an additional fan in the inlet
section that separates the inlet air into two parts. One is bypassing the engine
to provide engine cooling and fuel efficiency and helps noise suppression. The
second air flow just like turbojet engine passes through the compressor,
combustor, turbine and exhaust to provide thrust.
Turboshaft and Turboprop are basically the same. Turboshaft engine
drives a shaft that is connected to a gearbox or a transmission while a
turboprop engine is connected to a propeller.
There are 5 sections in an engine;
Inlet, Compressor, Combustor, Turbine (Expansion) and Exhaust.
CRITICAL ENGINE
When one of the engines on a typical multi-engine aircraft becomes inoperative, a thrust
imbalance exists between the operative and inoperative sides of the aircraft. This thrust
imbalance causes several negative effects in addition to the loss of one engine's thrust. The left
engine of a conventional twin-engine propeller-driven aircraft is typically considered critical.
There are two main reasons why the number 1 engine is the critical engine;
(1) Slipstream Effect: If the propellers are rotating clockwise then only the number 1
engine will produce a sideways slipstream force on the fin.
(2) Asymmetric Blade Effect: Propeller blades produce more thrust in the downward
rotation than in the upward rotation
1. Trailing Edge Flaps increases the lift by extending from the trailing
edge of the wing and has five types.
A. Plain flaps; just change the chord line therefore AOA and lift increases.
B. Split flaps; almost same as the plain, produce just a bit more lift but
more drag as well.
C. Slotted flaps; is like plain flap with gaps between wing and leading edge
of flap. Slotted flap change the chord line thus the AOA and lift. Besides, the
gaps provide higher pressure air to flow upwards of wing to accelerate the
boundary layer over the wing to delay separation of airflow.
D. Fowler flap; is a type of slotted flap change both chord line and area of
the wing, thus increases lift.
E. Slotted fowler flap; is like fowler flap associated with some slots on it to
delay separation of airflow.
2. Leading Edge Flaps; increases the lift by extending from the leading
edge of the wing and has four types.
A. Fixed slot; a nozzle shaped opening that ducts the air onto the top of
the wing to increase the lift at high AOA.
B. Movable slat; is like fixed slot but this time it is deployable by the
operator.
D. Leading edge cuffs; are fixed aerodynamic devices, that bends the
leading edge, to increase both CL and camber of the wing. It delays stall.
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WINGLET FUNCTION
Winglets are aerodynamically efficient surfaces added to wingtips. As it is
known, the high pressure airflow below the wing surface tries to escape upper part of
wing where there is lower pressure at the wing tip. This flow creates wing tip vortices
which is the reason of induced drag. Winglets at the tip of the wings act as a dam to
prevent this flow to decrease the wingtip vortices, eventually the induced drag to
increase the efficiency of wings.
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STALL
Stall is occurred when the critical angle of attack is exceeded. After this
point, the airflow above the upper surface of airfoil begins to separate
therefore lift production is decreased dramatically. This effect is called stall.
2. Icing conditions eases the separation of airflow and increases the stall
speed.
5. Flaps usage decreases the stall speed since they increase the
coefficient of lift. Aircraft can fly at lower speed without exceeding the critical
angle.
IMSAFE CHECKLIST
I-Illness M-Medication S-Stress A-Alcohol F-Fatigue E-Eating
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CABIN PRESSURIZE SYSTEM
Cabin pressurization is the pumping of compressed air into an aircraft
cabin to maintain a safe and comfortable environment for crew and
passengers when flying at high altitudes.
Pressurization is essential above 10000ft to protect crew and passengers
from some physiological problems such as; hypoxia, altitude sickness,
decompression sickness, barotraumas.
The most common source of compressed air for pressurization is bleed
air from the compressor stage of a gas turbine engine. Today, the majority of
modern commercial aircrafts have fully redundant, duplicated cabin
pressurization system with a manual back-up control system.
The cabin altitude of an aircraft planning to cruise at 40000ft is
programmed to rise gradually to around a maximum of 8000ft and then to
reduce gently during descent until it matches the ambient air pressure of
destination.
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HYPOXIA
Hypoxia is basically caused by lack of oxygen. Symptoms may change
individually, however the common symptoms are headache, euphoria,
cyanosis, increased response time, impaired judgement, limping muscles,
drowsiness and dizziness. There are 4 types of hypoxia.
1. Hypoxic Hypoxia occurs when there are not enough oxygen
molecules in sufficient pressure. This can occur very suddenly at rapid
decompression.
Altitude: Time of useful conciseness:
45000. 9-15 sec.
40000. 15-20 sec.
35000. 30-60 sec.
30000. 1-2 min
25000. 3-5 min
18000. ~40 min
2. Hypemic Hypoxia occurs when CO amount is greater than O2.
Because, blood carries CO easier than O2. This can be seen in piston engine
aircrafts with faulty cabin heating system.
3. Stagnant Hypoxia occurs when there are circulation problems.
G maneuvers, cold weather operations or heart problems may increase the risk.
4. Hystotoxic Hypoxia: occurs when the cells are unable to use O2
effectively. Alcohol, drug or smoking may increase the risk.
FIRE
Class A Fires consist of ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper,
trash or anything else that leaves an ash. Water is used to extinguish.
Class B Fires consist of flammable or combustible liquids such as oil, gasoline
and other similar materials. Dry powder, Halon or foam are used to extinguish.
Class C Fires are energized electrical fires. De-energize the circuit and
use Carbon dioxide to extinguish.
Class D Fires are combustible metal fires such as Magnesium and
Titanium. Only Dry Powder is used to extinguish.
Class K Fires are kitchen or galley fires such as cooking oils, grease or
animal fat. Dry-chemical agent Purple-K is used extinguish.
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ORGANISATIONS MEMBERS
JAA - Joint Aviation Authorities. EASA
Euro Control - Plan/optimize European air traffic management
IATA-International Air Transport Association-is the trade association for
the world's airlines. It represents some 240 airlines or more than 84% of total
air traffic. It was founded in 1945 and its headquarter is in Montreal, Canada.
ICAO-International Civil Aviation Organization is body of the United
Nations. It organises the principles and techniques of international air
navigation. Air Navigation Commission is the technical body within the
ICAO. It was founded in 1947 and its headquarter is in Montreal. ICAO was
formed by Chicago Convention in1944
ECAC-European Civil Aviation Conference-is an intergovernmental
organization which was established by ICAO and Council of Europe. It has 44
members including Turkey. It was founded in 1955 and its headquarter is in Paris.
EASA-European Aviation Safety Agency. It is agency of the Eurpean Union
and taking over the functions of Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA). It was
founded in 2003 and its headquarter is in Cologne (Germany).
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MOCA, MORA, MCA, MRA, MHA, COP, MEA, MAA, MSA
MOCA; Min. Obstruction Clearance Altitude is the min altitude which
provides obstacle clearance for the entire route, but provides signal
coverage only within 22NM of VOR. 7500T shows MOCA
MORA; Minimum Off-Route Altitude is the minimum altitude which
provides obstacle clearance 10 NM off the route in each side by 1000 or
2000 feet in mountainous area.
Grid MORA; Min.Off-route Altitude is the min altitude published on
enroute chart grid block that provides obstacle clearance of 1000 or 2000 ft in
mountainous area within the grid. It is depicted in blue as first two digits.
MCA; Minimum Crossing Altitude is the min altitude that has to be
gained before reaching that point.
MRA; Minimum Reception Altitude is the lowest altitude that ensures
adequte reception of navigation signals to identify that intersection.
COP; Change Over Point is the point that guiding frequency for that
airway has to be changed to the preceding navaid frequency.
MEA; Minimum Enroute Altitude is the lowest altitude which is depicted
on the airway that provides signal coverage and obstacle clearance for that
part of enroute segment.
MAA; Maximum Authorized Altitude is the maximum altitude for that
airway that provides accurate signal coverage for that part of airway. Above
this altitude the guiding signal may be confused with another navaid.
MSA; Minimum Sector Altitude or terminal arrival altitudes are
established for each aerodrome and provide at least 1000ft obstacle
clearance within 25 NM of the navigation aid, initial approach fix, or
intermediate fix associated with the approach procedure for that aerodrome.
LIFT
Lift is the force generated by the pressure difference between the upper
and lower surface of an aerofoil which is facing the air with a certain speed. An
aerofoil is cambered on its top side and flattened on its bottom, so the air
facing aerofoil separates into two parts. The air on top of the wing travels
faster than the air on the bottom. Faster air produces less pressure than
slower air as in the Bernoulli principle. Lift can be formulated as;
CL depends upon the angle of attack and shape of that specific wing. By
moving the elevators, basically AOA is changed therefore the lift. Lift is
assumed to be acting on center of pressure of the aerofoil. CP moves forward
as the AOA increase and moves backward as the AOA decrease.
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DRAG
Drag is the resistance to motion of an aircraft through the air. It’s parallel
to the relative airflow. It has 2 major components;
PARASITE DRAG
Parasite drag is caused by the relative motion of the aeroplane wing to
the air. Parasite drag increases directly with speed because more air
molecules resist the motion of the aircraft through the air.
Parasite Drag α CAS²
INDUCED DRAG
Induced drag is caused by the production of lift and it’s related with the
wing-tip vortices. Induced drag is greatest at lower speeds due to the high
angles of attack required to maintain the necessary lift.
Vmd (Minimum drag speed)
Vmd is the speed at which parasite and induced drag values are equal.
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SPEED STABILITY
Speed stability is the behavior of the speed after a disturbance at a
fixed power setting.
Speed stable:
1. An increase in speed means an increase
in drag, thus causing a return to the original speed.
2. A decrease in speed means a decrease
in drag, thus causing return to the original speed.
Speed unstable:
1. A decrease in speed means an
increase in drag. This causes a further
decrease in speed.
2. A increase in speed means a decrease
in drag. This causes a further increase in
speed.
WEIGHT
The weight of an aeroplane always
acts vertically straight down from
the aeroplane’s center of gravity.
W=mg
STEADY, STRAIGHT-AND-
LEVEL FLIGHT
In straight and level flight, the flight
path and the relative airflow are
horizontal. This means that lift will
be vertical and drag horizontal.
L=W and T=D
THE GLIDE
Glide means a descent with no thrust.
D=W sinӨ
L= W cosӨ
Also;
TanӨ= D / L
This means that only lift to drag ratio determines glide range and not aeroplanes weight.
However, the heavier aircraft would have a higher airspeed than the lighter aircraft, and,
therefore, although it would glide the same distance, it would take less time to do so.
WEIGHTS
Aircraft authorized gross weight limits are laid down in the aircraft flight
manuals (AFM). The authorized operation limits may be equal to or lower than
the structural design weight limits.
Max Ramp Weight (MRW)-Max Taxi Weight (MTW) is the max weight
authorized for maneuvering (taxiing or towing) on the ground as limited by aircraft
strength and airworthiness requirements. It includes the taxi and run-up fuel.
It is greater than the maximum takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be
burned during taxi and run-up operations generally for 10-15 minutes.
Max Takeoff Weight (MTOW)-Max Brake Release Weight is the max
weight authorized at brake release for T/O, or at the start of the T/O roll.
In operation, T/O weight may be limited by; aircraft performance,
environmental conditions, runway length and altitude, max tire speed
and brake energy, obstacle clearances and enroute and landing weight
requirements.
Maximum Landing Weight (MLW) is the maximum weight authorized for
normal landing of an aircraft. The MLW must not exceed the MTOW.
In operation, landing weight may be limited by aircraft performance,
airfield characteristics, approach and landing requirements and noise
requirements.
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Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) is the total weight of the airplane
and all its contents, minus the total weight of the usable fuel on board
(unusable fuel is included in ZFW). It is the max weight permitted before
usable fuel and other specified usable fluids are loaded in specified sections of
the airplane. The MZFW is limited by strength and airworthiness requirements.
BEM+VL=DOM TOM=Ramp Mass-Taxi Fuel
DOM+TOF=OM TL+TOF=Useful Load
OM+TL=TOM DOM+TL+TOF=TOM
DOM+TL=ZFM ZFM+TOF=TOM
FORWARD CG AFT CG
Increases stability, decreases Decreases stability, increases
controlability controlability
Take-off more elevator Take-off less elevator
requires, so later lift-off requires, so earlier lift-off
Hard to climb
More drag (trim drag) Less drag (trim drag)
Needs more lift so higher stall Needs less lift so lower stall
speed speed
Requires more thrust Requires less thrust
Both range and endurance Both range and endurance
decreases increases
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TERMINOLOGY
THE CHORD LINE
Is a straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an aerofoil.
THE MEAN CHAMBER LINE
Is a line from the leading edge to the trailing edge with equal distances to the upper
and lower surfaces of an aerofoil.
ANGLE OF ATTACK
Is the angle between the chord line of an aerofoil and the relative airflow.
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
Is the angle between the chord line and the aircraft’s longitudinal datum. It’s a fixed
angle for a wing but may be variable for a tailplane.
COEFFICIENT OF LIFT (CL)
Coefficient of lift is the lifting ability of a wing. It depends on both the shape of the
wing and the AoA.
CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG)
Is a single point at which the distribution of total weight on a body is balanced.
Improper loading or accidentally shifting of cargo in the air might cause out of
range CG conditions, and may result accidents. Crash of B747-400 (National Airlines
Flight 102) in Afganistan in April 2013 was a good example for this condition. It
crashed due to shifting of its cargo during T/O.
CENTER OF PRESSURE
Is a single point where the lifting force is produced. (not a fixed point)
ASPECT RATIO
The ratio of wing span to average chord.
High aspect ratio = high lift but incapable of higher speeds because of Drag. (gliders)
Low aspect ratio = lower lift but capable of higher speeds. (fighter jets)
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TRANSPONDER CODES
7500 hijack 0033 parachuting operations
7600 comm failure 7000 VFR when no other code has been assigned.
7700 emergency
Although codes can be assigned from 0000 to 7700 the number of possible codes to
be set is 4096.
Mode A: 4 digit code entered by the pilot (Mode 3)
Mode C: Pressure altitude information is sent
Mode S: selective interrogation facilitates to transmit 24 bit address length of data to
other aircrafts Xpndr, TCAS, ACAS, and ADS-B systems. The data to be transmitted
are callsign, heading, altitude.(ADS-B: Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast)
V SPEEDS
V1: T/O Decision Speed
V2: T/O Safety Speed: The speed at which the aircraft may safely become airborne
with one engine inoperative.
VR: Rotation Speed: the speed to start raising the nose during the takeoff run.
VMCA: Min Control Speed In T/O Config – the minimum CAS at which the aircraft
is directionally controllable in flight with a sudden critical engine failure and takeoff
power on the operative engine(s)
VMCG: Min Control Speed On The Ground - the minimum airspeed at which the
aircraft is directionally controllable during acceleration along the runway with one
engine inoperative, takeoff power on the operative engine(s), and with nose wheel
steering assumed inoperative.
VX: Best Angle of Climb Speed: The airspeed that provides the best angle of climb
(highest altitude in shortest distance). It is typically a fairly slow speed, and is most
useful for taking off over obstacles like trees.
VY: Best Rate of Climb Speed: The airspeed that provides the best rate of climb
(highest altitude in least time). It is faster than Vx, and is most useful for getting to
an altitude as quickly as possible (used to avoid icing).
VRef: Landing Reference Speed: at a point 50ft above the threshold. It’s not less than 1,3
times the stall speed in the normal landing config. In simple terms, your final app speed.
VRA Rough Air Speed: Tubulence Penetration Speed
VMD Min Drag Speed is the speed at which parasite and induced drag are equal.
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IAS & CAS & EAS & TAS
IAS: is the airspeed read directly from the airspeed indicator on an aircraft. It uses the
difference between total and static pressure, provided by pitot-static system.
CAS: The airspeed indicator is subject to slight errors. These errors are caused by the
position of the Pitot Tube and Static Ports. CAS is the IAS corrected for these
instrument and position errors.
EAS: Equivalent Airspeed is the CAS which is corrected for compressibility of the air. By
the way, the air is considered as not compressible below ≈300kts.
TAS: is the speed of the aircraft relative to the airmass in which it is flying. At sea
level in the ISA and at low speeds where air compressibility is negligible, IAS equals
to TAS. TAS increases approximately 2% over IAS for every 1000ft.
NEWTON’S LAWS
1 ST LAW: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends
to remain moving at the same speed and direction.
2 ND LAW: When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its resulting
acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the body and is directly
proportional to the applied force. F=ma
3 RD LAW: Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body
always exerts on the first, a force that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
COMPASS ERRORS
There are 4 types of errors regarding the compass.
Variation error; Magnetic north and geographic north are different from each
other. In aviation difference between true and magnetic pole is called variation.
This variaton numbers are published on the charts easterly and westerly. To calculate
true heading, easter corrections should be added, while westerly corrections be
subtracted to magnetic heading. VAR WEST>MAG BEST, VAR EAST>MAG LEAST
Deviation; Local magnetic fields in aircraft affect the compass. This error is called
deviation. Compass correction card is used to compansate the error. These errors are
changable according to intended heading.
Dip error; This error occurs because of the magnetic flux enters the nort pole
vertically which makes flux parallel to surface over equator and perpendicular over the
poles. When performing a compass turn to northerly heading, you must roll out before
reaching the desired heading and visa versa in northern hemisphere.
Oscillation error; Oscillation is a combination of the other errors. To compensate
this error use the average indication.
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FLY BY WIRE TECHNOLOGY
FBW technology replaces the conventional manual flight controls, such as
tubes, rods or bell cranks. By means of this technology, pilot’s or autopilot's control
inputs are converted into electronic signals and transmitted to actuators attached to
control surfaces by wires. That is why this system is called FBW. This system help
designers to reduce weight of aircraft. On the other hand the main concern is
reliability. While traditional mechanical or hydraulics system fails gradually, FBW
system may collapse immediately and cause the aircraft be uncontrollable. To prevent
this situation, redundant systems has been developed such as completely independent
computers, wirings, actuators to take over in case one system fails. On the other hand,
in some aircrafts a mix of FBW and conventional systems as back up. Airbus 320 is
using this kind of system. However, Boeing 737 is not using FBW technology.
FUEL MANAGEMENT
Fuel management is so vital for the operation of an aircraft. At all stages of flight,
the flight crew must be vigilant regarding their fuel state and, to the maximum extent
possible, adhere to Company policies and fly the planned profile. The effects of poor
in-flight fuel management can be broadly divided into three primary categories. These
categories are Operational, Legal and Financial.
OPERATIONAL: Poor in-flight fuel management can lead to divert to a new
destination to refuel. In the worst case, poor in-flight fuel management can lead to fuel
exhaustion and forced landing with the potential of the loss of aircraft and loss of life.
LEGAL: Regulations dictate the minimum amount of fuel required for a given
flight profile. Failure to comply with these regulations can lead to enforcement action
and to the potential of administrative action (suspension of AOC, loss of licence, etc)
or financial penalties being assessed against the pilot, the Company or both.
FINANCIAL: Poor in-flight fuel management can result in inefficient use of the
available fuel leading to higher consumption and increased cost.
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GREAT CIRCLE – RHUMB LINE
GREAT CIRCLE: A great circle track is a line of shortest distance between two points
on a sphere (or a flat surface) with a constantly changing track direction as a result of
convergence.
RHUMB LINE: Rhumb lines are tracks with a constant track direction between two points
on a sphere and therefore must be a longer distance than a great circle track.
CONVERGENCY: Convergency represents the change of direction experienced along
eastwest tracks, except rhumb lines, as a result of the way direction is measured due to the
effects of converging meridians at the poles. The change of direction experienced between two
points is known as convergency. Convergency is clearly dependent on latitude; it is zero at the
equator,where the meridians are parallel, and a maximum at the poles, where the meridians
converge. It is also dependent on how far you travel.
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KARMAN LINE
The Karman Line commonly represents the boundary between the Earth's
atmosphere and outer space and lies at an altitude of 100 kilometres (62nm)
above the Earth's sea level.
AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Investigation of accidents consists of 3 phases:
a) collection of data, 1. Aircraft performance
b) analysis of data, 2. Meteorology
c) presentation of findings. 3. Systems
4. Crash Dynamics
5. Accident Side Management
JET STREAMS
SOLAR SYSTEM
• M = Mercury • J = Jupiter
• V = Venus • S = Saturn
• E = Earth • U = Uranus
• M = Mars • N = Neptune
• P = Pluto (no longer considered a planet)
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