WAVES

A disturbance that carries energy through matter or space.

A matter through which a wave travels is called medium.

 Types of Waves

Mechanical Waves -require a medium

Examples: water waves, sound waves, waves that move along a rope or spring

Electromagnetic Waves -do not require a medium

Examples: light waves, radio waves, microwaves

Pulse Waves - consists of a travelling pulse

Periodic Waves - pulses which are being created when pulses are continuously generated at one end of the
rope.

Transverse Waves - one in which vibrations are at a right angle or perpendicular to the direction of the wave.

The points where the coils of the spring are highest are called crests.

The points where the coils of the spring are lowest are called troughs.

Examples:

Light waves and other electromagnetic waves

Longitudinal Waves

- one in which the vibrations are along the direction of the wave.

The region where the coils are pressed together is called compression.

The region where the coils are spread is called rarefaction.

Examples:

Sound Waves

Condensation

When a longitudinal wave forces particles closer together.

This results in a pulse of increased density and pressure.

Rarefaction

A zone of reduced density and pressure

Surface Waves

- Combinations of transverse and longitudinal waves .

- These waves occur at the surface between two media, such as water and air.

- The particles in a surface wave move both perpendicular and parallel to the direction in which the
wave travels.

- The up-and-down motions combined with the side-to-side motions produce a circular motion.
 Examples:

Water waves

 Classifying waves by appearance

Traveling Waves

Appear to move.

Standing Waves

Do not appear to move.

 Characteristics of Waves

Waves can be characterized through the following components:

Amplitude

The maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from their equilibrium position.

The height of the crests or troughs is equal to the amplitude of the wave.

The amplitude depends on the amount of energy the wave is carrying.

Wavelength

The distance between neighboring maximum displacements.

The distance between two successive crests or troughs, or between two successive compressions or
rarefactions.

Frequency

describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a given amount of time.
1
𝑓= f – frequency; t = period
𝑡

Speed/Velocity

the speed at which a wave travels.

Wave speed is related to wavelength, frequency, and period by the equation

wave speed = frequency x wavelength.

The most commonly used wave speed is the speed of visible light, an electromagnetic wave.

Period

the time required for a wave to repeat itself, that is the time for one complete wavelength to move past a
given location.

Crests

The highest point of a wave.

Troughs

The lowest point of a wave

Parts of a Wave
  Measures of a Wave

The speed or velocity of a wave is equal to the product of the wavelength (λ) and the frequency (f) of the
wave.

v = λf

The unit for frequency is Hertz (Hz), one cycle per second.

Example:

If a dog whistle has a frequency of 30,000 Hz, what is the wavelength of the sound emitted? (Approximate
speed of sound = 340 m/s)

v = 340 m/s

f = 30,000 Hz = 30,000/s

λ = v/f

= 340 m/s/30,000/s

= 0.0113 m

 Interaction of Waves

There are four ways how waves interact depending on several conditions.

Reflection

The bouncing back of wave after it strikes a boundary that does not absorb the entire wave’s energy.

The Law of Reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

Refraction

The bending of waves due to change in speed.

Occurs when waves move at different speeds and in different mediums or materials. As waves
pass through these materials, it moves faster or slower.

Diffraction

The bending of waves around an obstacle.

The result of new series of waves being formed when the original waves strike an obstacle.

Interference

The interaction or combination when two or more waves arrive or meet at the same place and at the
same time.

Constructive Interference

Waves combine in such a way that the disturbance that results is greater than either wave alone.

Destructive Interference

The disturbance that results is less than either wave alone.

Two waves of equal amplitude but slightly different frequencies interfere destructively and constructively. The
result is an alternation of loudness called a beat.

 Sound

The movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves.

Produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate — the energy is transferred through the
substance in a wave. Typically, the energy in sound is far less than other forms of energy.

 Sound Energy

form of energy that is associated with vibrations of matter. It is a type of mechanical wave which means it
requires an object to travel through. This object includes air and water. Sound originates from the vibrations
that result after an object applies a force to another object.

If the vibrational waves of a medium changes, the sound it produces will also change.

Sounds travels through a solid much faster than through air.

Sound travels faster through a liquid such as water faster than it travels through air.

Dogs' ears are more sensitive than human ears which allow them to hear sounds that humans cannot hear.

Flies cannot hear at all.

When whales communicate with each other under water, their sound can travel up to 800 km in the ocean

 Properties of Sound

Frequency

The number vibrations per second which the ear receives.

Sounds with frequencies higher than 20,000 hertz are called ultrasonic.

Sounds lower than 20 hertz are called infrasonic.

Sounds of higher frequencies are called overtones.

Pitch

The highness or lowness of sound or tone.

Frequency determines the pitch of sound.

Intensity

The rate which sound energy moves in certain amount of time.

 It determines the loudness of sound.

The greater the intensity of sound is the louder the sound to the ear.

Intensity depends on the distance of source of sound and the kind of vibrating body.

The loudness of the sound depends on the wave’s amplitude.

Quality

Determined by the pleasantness of the sound to the ear.

Also called a timbre.

A tone is produced when the sound is regular but if the sound is irregular, it is producing noise which is
unpleasant to the ear.

Doppler Effect

the change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic event) for an observer moving relative to its source.

As the car approached with its siren blasting, the pitch of the siren sound (a measure of the siren's frequency)
was high; and then suddenly after the car passed by, the pitch of the siren sound was low.

 Parts of the Ear

The Outer Ear

The portion of the ear that sits atop the skull, which is made of flesh and cartilage.

It is the visible part which serves to protect the eardrum. It also collects and guides sound waves into the
middle ear.

Pinna (ear flap)

This is the physical portion of the ear that you see on the side of your head, which is used like a
satellite dish to collect sound and transmit it inward where it can be translated into the appropriate medium.

Meatus (ear canal)

This is the ear canal, which extends inward from the outer ear.

This 2 cm canal helps to amplify sound as it enters the middle ear so it can be interpreted properly.

This area also contains cells which produce ear wax, which helps keep debris out of the middle ear.

The Middle Ear

Contains tissue and bone but no skin, and is the area where sound is translated into mechanical energy
so it can pass through the body.

Most diseases such as ear infections will take hold in the middle ear, though some can also affect the
inner ear.

It translates sound waves from the outer ear into the form of pressure waves.

Malleus (Hammer)

The malleus or hammer of the ear is one of the smallest bones in the body.
 It is connected to the ear drum, and will vibrate as the drum is hit by the sound waves, passing the
sound on to the rest of the ear.

Incus (Anvil)

The anvil bone or the incus sits on top of the hammer, and will collect the vibrations coming from the
hammer.

Stapes (Stirrup)

The stirrup or stapes sits below the anvil, and is the final bone in the inner ear to collect and pass on sound.
These sound waves will cause the stirrup to compress, compressing the waves so they can be passed on to the
inner ear.

Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)

The eardrum, known scientifically as the tympanic membrane Is a thin piece of tissue that is stretched
between the outer and middle ear. It is called the drum because sound waves will hit it and cause it to vibrate,
which will take the sound from acting as wave energy and translate it to mechanical energy that can travel
through the rest of the ear.

The Inner Ear

The portion of the ear which is responsible for translating the message and sending it to the brain where it
can be interpreted. It is filled with fluid that helps to balance the ear organs and comprise the hearing so it can
be passed to the nerves.

Cochlea

This is a spiral tube that is covered in a stiff membrane. This membrane is filled with nerve cells,
commonly known as ear hairs. These hairs are each designed to pick up on a different type of vibration, which
hits in different frequencies. As the nerves begin to vibrate they will turn these frequencies into an electrical
pulse which will be sent up to the brain. If the ear is exposed to sound that is too high pitched or too loud,
these hair-like nerves can break off, and they will not grow back. This is one of the biggest contributors to
hearing loss.

Auditory Nerve

These nerves receive the electrical impulses generated by the ear and pass this information up to the
brain so it can be interpreted.

Semicircular Canals

These are attached to the cochlea, but do not spend much time interacting with the hearing portion of
ear function. Instead, these fluid filled tubes will turn and sway with movement, helping you keep your
balance.

 Mechanism of Hearing

 Sound energy is received by the pinna from the environment.

 The it is transmitted inward through the ear canal that helps to amplify sound as it enters the middle
ear.

 As sound reaches the tympanic membrane (eardrum), it is further amplified to enhance the reception
of soft sounds.

The high amplification of sound can be reduced to protect ear against very loud sounds.
  A sound of sufficient loudness will trigger a set of muscles that tighten the eardrum and lessen its
responsiveness to the sound.

 From the eardrum, a large fraction of the energy is passed by the three small bones known as
“ossicles” to the oval window.

 The ossicles constitute a compound lever system which multiplies sound force exerted on the oval
window.

Soft Sounds

The lever system enhances the driving force to the inner ear, increasing ear sensitivity.

Loud Sounds

The lever system is altered to reduce mechanical advantage.

The stirrup may actually pull away and break contact with the oval window, strongly attenuating the
sound signal to the inner ear.

 The amplified mechanical force transmitted to the oval window by the ossicles results in a hydraulic
pressure in the cochlear fluid.

 The pressure is transmitted throughout the fluid , creating a wavelike ripple in the basilar membrane.

The behavior of this wave as it travels through the cochlea is apparently the key to our ability to distinguish
different frequencies (pitches) of sound.

The pressure waves in the cochlea are converted to electrical impulses in the delicate organ of Corti and are
transmitted to the brain

 Loudness of Sound

Decibel (dB) is the unit used to measure a sound's strength. The decibel scale is not linear but logarithmic. This
means that noise levels can't be added directly like other numbers.

On the decibel scale, the smallest audible sound (near total silence) is 0 dB. A sound 10 times more powerful is
10 dB. A sound 100 times more powerful than near total silence is 20 dB. A sound 1,000 times more powerful
than near total silence is 30 dB.
  Disorders of the Ear

Otosclerosis

Otosclerosis is the buildup of spongy or bone-like tissue in the middle ear that prevents the ossicles,
namely the stapes in the middle ear, from working properly. The impaired movement and function reduces
the sound that actually reaches the ear. Otosclerosis usually results in conductive hearing loss, a hearing loss
caused by a problem in the outer or middle ear.

Ménière's disease

Ménière's disease affects the inner ear and the vestibular system, which is the system that helps to
maintain balance. In this disease, a part of the cochlea called the organ of Corti becomes swollen, leading to a
loss of hearing that may come and go over time. It can also cause severe dizziness, lack of balance, tinnitus
(ringing/buzzing sound in the ears), ear pain, and pressure. The disease can exist in mild or severe forms.

Otitis Media

Infections of the middle ear are one of the most common reasons for children to see a doctor. Three
out of 4 children experience ear infection (otitis media) by the time they are 3 years old. Children are more
likely to have ear infections like otitis media that come from bacteria or viruses than adults because of their
developing ear anatomy.

Tinnitus

Also called “ringing in the ears” includes noises ranging from loud roaring to clicking, humming or
buzzing. Most tinnitus comes from damage to the microscopic endings of the hearing nerve in the inner ear.
Hearing nerve impairment and tinnitus can be a natural accompaniment of advancing age. Exposure to loud
noise is probably the leading cause of tinnitus damage to hearing in younger people.

External Ear Infections

Also called Swimmer’s Ear are infections of the outer ear structures that may occur when water gets
trapped in the ear canal. In this warm, moist environment, bacteria multiply causing irritation and infection of
the ear canal.

Autoimmune Inner Ear Disease (AIED)

An inflammatory condition of the inner ear that occurs when the body’s immune system attacks cells in
the inner ear that are mistaken for a virus or bacteria.

Cholesteatoma

A skin growth that occurs in the middle ear behind the ear drum. This condition usually results from
poor eustachian tube function concurrent with middle ear infection (otitis media), but also can be present at
birth.

 Applications of Sound

Bats use echoes to determine the location of its food and to navigate the black interior of the cave.

Ships and submarines use sound waves to navigate and locate objects in the dark depths of the ocean.

Sonar is a device used in commercial fishing to locate large schools of fish.

It is also used to find oil and minerals within the interior of the earth.

Sonar is also used by cars to calculate the distance from car nearby to avoid accidents and also enables the car
to park easily and safely.

Ultrasonic waves are also used to clean jewelry, electronic components, and delicate machine parts.

Also used in medicine. It is directed into the body such as organs or bones.

Example of this is the ultrasound. Images like x-rays and developing fetus produced during an ultrasound
procedure.