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Basic Biomechanics PDF
Basic Biomechanics PDF
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MA:RG
VICTO,lI,,"',-.i,""
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BASIC BIOMECHANICS
of the
MUSCULOSKELETAL
SYSTEM
Mechanics and biology have always fascinated dents in orthopaedics Ihal during the past 10 years
humankind, The irnportance or understanding have llsed the texl. This book is written for stu-
the biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system dents and with a major input from students and
cannot be underestimated, Much a([entian has will hopefully be used to edunHe students and res-
been paid in recent years to genetic and biomo- idents for many ~Iears to come. Although the basic
leClilar research, but the stlld~' of the mechanics information contained in the book remains largely
of structure and of the whole body s}'stcm is still unchanged, a considerable amount of extra infor-
of immense importance. Musculoskeletal ail- mation has been provided throughoul. ~Ve have
ments arc among the most prevalent disorders in also made a special point to document with the
the wodd and will continue to grow as the pop- key references any significant changes in the field
ulation ages. of biomechanics and rehabilitation.
Since the days when I first studied biome- It has always been m)' interest lO bridge the
chanics in Sweden with Carl Hirsch, through my gap between engineering knowledge and clinical
years as an orthopaedic surgeon, teacher, and re- carc and praclice, This book is written primarily
searcher, I have alway's emphasized combining for clinicians such as orthopaedists, physical
basic and applied research with clinical experi- and occupational therapists, clinical ergono-
encc, This text represents my fifth effort to inte- misls, chiropractors, and olher health profes-
grate biomechanical knowledge into clinical sionals who arc acquil-ing a working knowledge
training for patient carc. It is not a simple task of biomechanical principles for use in the evalu-
but by relating the basic concepts of biomechan- ation and treatment of musculoskeletal dysfunc-
ics to everyday life, rehabilitation. orthopaedics. tion. We only hope that if you find this book in-
traumatology, and patient care are greatly en- t~resting. you will seek more in-depth study in
hanced. Biomechanics is a multidisciplinary spe- the field of biomechanics. Enjo\' it. discuss it,
cialty, and so we have made a special effort to in- and become a beller clinician and/or researchcl:
vite contributors from many disciplines so that Vve are extremely proud that Basic Biome-
individuals from dilTerent fields may feel com- clUluics oj" the !\tlllscliioskeic/lli Sysle111 has
Fortable reading this book. been designated "A Classic" by the publishers,
Together with an invaluable team, Margareta Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. We Ihank the
Nordin and I have produced Ihis third edition of readers, students, professors, and all who ac-
Basic Biol1lechanics oFthe A'lusclt!o.\'keletal Systelll, quire thc tcxt and lise it.
The new edition is shall1cncc! and improved
thanks to the input from the students and resi· VielO,. H. Frallkel, M.D., Ph.D., KNO
vii
Preface
Biomechanics uses physics and engineering con- ever possible. We retained the selected examples
cepts to describe the motion undergone by the to illustrate lhe concepts needed for basic knowl-
various body segments and forces acting on edge of the musculoskeletal biomechanics; we
these body parts during normal activities. The also have kept the important engineering con-
inter-relationship of force and motion is impor- cepts throughout the volume. We have added
tant and must be understood if rational treat- four chapters on applied biomechanics topics.
ment programs are to be applied to muscu- Patient case studies ancl calculation bo:'\cs have
loskeletal disorders. Deleterious effects may be been added to each chapter. \Ne incorporated
produced if the forces acting on the areas with flowcharts throughout the book as teaching tools.
disorders rise 10 high levels during exercise or The text will serve as guide to a deeper under-
other activities of daily living. standing of musculoskeletal biomcchanics gained
The purpose of this text is to acquaint the read- through funher reading and independent research.
ers with the force-motion relationship \vithin the The information presented should also guide the
musculoskeletal system and the various tech~ rt.'ader in assessing the literature on biomechanics.
niqucs llsed to understand these relationships. "Vc have attemptcd to provide therapcutic exam-
The third edition of Basic Biol1/eclwllics of rite ples but it was not our purpose to cover this area;
iHllScliloskeleral System is intended for use as a instead, \ve have described the undel'lying basis for
textbook either in conjunction with an introduc- rational therapcutic or exercise programs.
tory biomechanics course or for independent An introductory chapter describes the inlpor-
study. The third edition has been changed in lance of the study of biomechanics, and an ap-
many ways, but it is still a book that is designed pendix on the international system of measure-
for use by students who are interested in and ments serves as an introduction to the physical
want to learn about biomechanics. It is primarily measurements used throughout the book. The
written for students who do not have an engi- reader needs no more (han basic knowledge of
neering background but who want to understand mathematics to fully comprehend the material
the most basic concepts in biomechanics and in the book, but it is important to review the ap-
physics and how these apply to the human body pendix on the Sl System and its application to
Input from students has greatly improved this biomechanics.
third edition. We have used the book for 10 years The body of the third edition is then divided
in the Program of Ergonomics and Biomechanics into three sections. The first section is the Bio-
at New York University', and it is the students and mechanics of Tissues and Stnlcturcs of the Mus-
residents who have suggested the changes and culoskeletal System and covers the basic biome-
who have continuously shown an interest in de- chanics of bone, ligaments, cartilage. tendons,
veloping and irnproving this book. This edition muscles, and nenres. The second section covers
has been further strengthened by the contribu- the Biomechanics-of Joints, including every joint
tion or the students over the past year. \Vc formed system in the human body. Chapters range from
focus groups to understand better what thc stu- the foot and ankle through the cervical spine,
dents wanted and applied their suggestions wher- and co\'er eve I:" joint in between. The third sec-
e .-.. ---~-_.-- . _--.-._.. _------- .-.- . ----.. -.-.... -'------------~--- .. ,~".-- . . -.. ..- ...-.--..-------..
~.~ ~ -.,,"------~----- -",,--.-.---.------
tion cover~ some topics in Applied Biomechan- oFthe kluscu/oskelela/ Syslel1l will bring about an
ics, including chapters on fracture fixation; increased awareness of the imparlance of bio-
arthroplasty; silting, standing and lying; and mechanics. II has never been our intention to
gait. These arc basic chapters that sl:l\r e to intra· complL'tely cover the subject, but instead provide
c1uce topics in applied biomechanics: they arc a basic introduction to the field that will lead to
not in-depth explorations of the subject. further study or this important lopic.
Finally. we hope that the revision and expan-
sion of this third edition of" Basic 13io11leclulJIics Margarela NOf(!;11 alld Viclor H. Frankel
~
""at ~.,,;,~~~~ :,,~,~t,
Acknowledgments
_---
---------~ ..
I
i
!
!Ii This book was made possible through the out- JUlian boxes. Angela look this book to her hear
standing contributions of many individuals. The and \ve arc all the bettcr for her passion an
chapter authors' knowledge and understanding of attention to detail.
I
the basic concepts of biomechanics and their The illustrator: Kajsa Forssen. has now worke
wealth of experience have brought both breadth on all three editions of this text. Her never-failin
and depth to this work. Over the past 10 years. grasp of hiomechanical illustrations, her simp
questions raised by students and residents have city and exactness of figures, is always appr
! made this book a better teaching tool. The Third ciated. In drawing all the figures and graphs, sh
!
I
really sCnItinizcd thc Second Edition. There arc Forssen is one of the top iIIustralOrs that we hav
too many names LO list here, but we thank each ever worked wilh, and she has been an importa
student who asked a question or made a sug- member of the publication (cam.
gestion during the course of his or her studies. This book was also made when publicatio
;
Special thanks to the students who panicipated companies I11ergcd and merged again, and in th
in several focus groups. whose input was in- end we are deeply grateful to Ulila Lushnyck
valuable in finalizing the contents and design of who has with her team at Lippincott \·Villiams
the text. Wilkins been responsible ror the production. Sh
Vve are honored and grateful for the contri- has worked with tremendous energy and posiliv
butions of everyone who has worked to prepare thinking, put the book together in record spce
this new edition. 'vVe can honestly say that this and we fonvard our sincerest gratitude to he
third edition is written ror the sludent and by \Ne are also thankful for a development gra
students and residents who leave the classroom provided by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
with the knowledge to enhance our life and finance this effort.
existence. Our colleagues al the Occupational an
A book of this size with its large number of Industrial Orthopaedic Cenler and the Depar
figures, legends, and references cannot be pro- ment or Orthopaedics of the Hospital ror Joi
duced without a strong editorial team. As project Diseases Orthopaedic Institule functioned
editor, Dawn Leger's continuous effort and critical reviewers and contributors to th
perseverance and thoughtfulness shines through chapters. Special thanks is extended to Dav
the entire book. She has contributed not just to Goldsheydcl" for assislance in reviewing lh
the editing but also to logistics, and as a stylist, biomechanical calculation boxes. to Marc
as an innovator, and a friend. Our editorial Campello as a contributor and reviewer, and
assistant, Angela Lis, is a physical thcrapisl and Shira Schccter-vVeiner for contributing to th
recent recipient of the MA degree in Ergonomics spine chapteI: Much thanks to Dr. Mark Pitma
and Biomechanics from NYU. As a recent grad- 1'01' supplying vital x-rays ror the new edition. \,V
uate, Angela was also a recent USCI' of the book, are parlicularly grateful to DI: Markus Pielr
and she devoted several months to help finalize for contributing with the latcst on intr
this edition. She created the flowcharts and scru- abdominal pressure. to Dr. Ali Sheikhzadeh r
tinized all the figures, patient cases, and caku- reviewing chapters and contributing ne
-1.'- •
•
references, to Dr. Tobias Lorenz for his work on iHuscllloskeletal System was supported through-
the first section, and to all other staff at the out its production by the Research and Develop-
Occupational and Industrial Orthopaedic Center ment Foundation of the Hospital for Joint
who have been managing the center while we are Diseases Orthopaedic Institute and the hospital
absorbed wilh the book. administration, to whom we forward our sincere
\'\Fe arc most grateful to Drs. Bejjani, Lindh, gratitude.
Pitman, Peterson, and Stuchin for their COI1l1·j· To all who helped, we say' again, thank yOLi
bUlions to the second cdition which sen'cd as a and TACK SA MYCKET.
framework for the updated third edition.
The third edition of Basic Biomechallics orEiIe klargareta Nordin and Victor fl. Frankel
Contributors
xiii
Dawn Leger, Ph.D. Robert R. Myers, Ph.D.
Adjunct Assistant Professor Associate Professor
NYU-HJD Department of Orthopaedics Department of Anesthesiology
School of Medicine University of California San Diego
New York University La Jolla, CA
New York, NY
Margareta Nordin, P.T., Dr. Sci.
Jane Bear-Lehman, Ph.D., OTR, FAOTA Director, Occupational and Industrial Orthopaedic Center
Assistant Professor of Clinical Occupational Therapy (OIOC)
Department of Occupational Therapy Hospital for Joint Diseases Orthopaedic Institute
Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons !vlt. Sinal NYU Health
New York. NY Program of Ergonomics and Biomechanics
New York University
Margareta Lindh, M.D., Ph.D.
Research Professor
Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedics and Environmental Health
Department of Physical MeeJicine and Rehabilitation Science
Sahlgren Hospital School of Medicine, New York University
Gothenburg University New York, NY
Gothenburg, Sweden
Kjell Olmarker, M.D., Ph.D.
Angela Lis, M.A., P.T.
Associate Professor
Research Physical Therapist Department of Orthopaedics
Occupational and Industrial Orthopaedic Center Sahlgren Hospital
Hospital for Joint DiseasesiMt. Sinai NYU Health Gothenburg University
New York, NY Gothenburg, Sweden
Associate Professor
Physical Therapy Program Nihat bzkaya (deceased)
(orporacion Universitaria Iberoamericana Associate Professor
Bogota, COLOMBIA Occupational and Industrial Orthopaedic Center
Hospital for Joint Diseases
Tobias Lorenz, M.D.
Research Associate Professor
Fellow Department of Environmental Medicine
Occupational and Industrial Orthopaedic Center New York University
Hospital for Joint Diseases/Me Sinai NYU Health NelN York, NY
New York, NY
Lars Peterson, M.D., Ph.D.
Goran Lundborg, M.D.
Gruvgat 6
Professor Vastra Frolunda
Department of Hand Surgery Sweden
Lunds University
Malmo Allmanna Sjukhus Mark I. Pitman, M.D.
Malmo, Sweden Clinical Associate Professor
NYU-HJD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
Ronald Moskovich, M.D.
School of lvIedicine
Associate Chief New York University
Spine Surgery New York, NY
NYU-HJD Department oj Orthopaedic Surgery
Hospital for Joint Diseases Andrew S. Rokito, M.D.
School of Medicine Associate Chief. Spons Medicine Service
New York University ASSistant Professor
New York, NY NYU-HJD Department 'Of Ortllopaedic Surgery
School of Medicine
Van C. Mow, Ph.D.
New York University
Director New York, NY
Orthopaedic Research Laboratory
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
Columbia University
New York, NY
Bjorn Rydevik, M.D., Ph.D. Steven Stuchin, M,D.
Professor and Chairman Director Clinical Orthopaedic Services
Department of Orthopaedics Director Arthritis SefYice
Sahlgren Hospital Associale Professor
Gothenburg University NYU-HJD Department of Orthopaedics
Gothenburg. Sweden School of Medicine
New York University
G. James Sammarco, M.D. New York, NY
Program Director
fellowship in Adult Reconstructive Surgery Shira Schecter Weiner, M.A., P.T.
foot and Ankle Orthopaedic Surgery Program Research Physical Therapist
The Center for Orthopaedic Care, Inc. Occupational and Industrial Orthopaedic Center
Volunteer Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Hospital for Joint Diseases/Mt. Sinai NYU Health
Department of Orthopaedics New York. NY
University of Cincinnati Medical Center
Joseph D. Zuckerman, M.D.
Cincinnati, OH
Professor and Chairman
Chris J. Snijders, Ph.D. NYU-HJD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
Professor Hospital for Joint Diseases
Biomedical Physics and Technology School of Medicine
faculty of Medicine New York University
Erasmus University New York, NY
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Contents
x
BASIC BIOMECHANIC
of the
MUSCULOSKELETA
SYSTE
-~
'" I
Introduction to
Biomechanics:
Basic Terminology
and Concepts
Nihat OZkaya, Dawn Leger
Introduction
Basic Concepts
Scalars, VeCtors, and Tensors
Force Vector
Torque and Moment Vectors
Newton '$ l.aws
Free-Body Diagrams
Conditions for Equilibrium
Statics
Modes of Deformation
Normal and Shear Stresses
Normal and Shear Strains
Shl?ar·5train Diagrams
Elastic and Plastic Deformations
Viscoelasticity
Material Properties Based 011 Stress-Strain Diagrams
Principal Stresses
Fatigue and Endurance
Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System
Part I: Biomechanics of Tissues and Structures
Part 11: Biomechanics of Joints
Part III: Applied Biomechanics
Summary
Suggested Reading
Introduction manual work conforms more closely to rhe physica
limitations of the human body and to natural bod
Biomechanics is considered a branch of bioengi- rnO\'cmCnlS, these injuries rnay be combatlcd.
neering and biomedical engineering. Bioengineer-
ing is an interdisciplinary field in which the princi-
ples and methods from engineering. basic sciences. Basic Concepts
and technology arc applied to design. test, and man-
ufacture equipment for use in medicine and to un- Biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system r
derstand, define, and solve problems in physiology quires a good understanding of basic mechanic
and biology!. Bioengineering is one of several spe- The basic terminology and concepts from mechan
cialty areas that corne under the general field of bio- ics and physics arc utilized to clcscribe intcrn
medical engineering. forces of the human body. The objective of studyin
Biomechanics considers the applications of clas- thcs~ forces is to understand the loading conditio
sical mechanics 10 the analysis of biological and of soft tissues and their mechanical responses. Th
physiological svstems. Different aspects of biome- purpose of this section is to rC\'jew the basic con
chanics utilize different parts or applied mechanics. cepts of applied mechanics that are used in biome
For example, the principles of statics havc been ap- chanical literature and throughout this book.
plied to analyze the magnitude and nature of forces
involved in various joints and muscles of the nUls-
SCALARS, VECTORS, AND TENSORS
culoskeletal system. The principles of dynamics
have been utilized for motion description, gait Most of the concepts in mechanics arc either scal
analysis, and segmental motion analysis and have or vector. A scalar quanlity has a magnitude onl
many applications in sports mechanics. Thc mc~ Concepts such as mass, energy', power, mechanic
chanics of solids provides the necessary tools for work, and temperalure are scalar quantities. For e
developing the field constitutive equations For bio- ample, it is suffkicnt to say that an object has 8
logical systems that are used to evaluate their func- kilograms (kg) of mass. A vector quanlity, con
tional behavior under dilTerent load conditions. The versely, has both a magnitude and a direction ass
principles of fluid mechanics have been used to in- ciated \vith it. Force, moment, velOcity, and accele
vestigate blood flow in the circulatory system, air ation arc exall'lples of vector quanlities. To describ
flow in the lung, and joint lubl'ication. a force fully. one must state how much force is a
Research in biomechanics is aimed at improving plied and in which direction it is applied. The ma
our knowledge of a vcry complex structure-the hu- nitude of a vector is also a scalar quantity. The ma
man body. Research activities in biomechanics can nitude of any quanlity (scalar or vector) is always
be divided into three areas: experimcntal studies, positi\'c number corresponding to the numeric
model analyscs, and applied research. Experimental measure of that quantity_
studies in biomechanics arc done to determine the Graphically, a vector is represented by an arrow
mechanical properties of biological materials, in~ The orientation of the alTow indicates the line of a
eluding the bone, cartilage, muscle, tendon, liga- tion and the arrowhead denotes the direction an
ment. skin, and blood as a whole or as parts sensc of the vectm: 'If 1110re than one vector must b
constituting them. Theoretical studies involving shown in a single drawing, the length of each arro
mathematical model analy1ses have also been an im~ must be proportional to the Inagnitude of the vect
ponant component of research in biomechanics. In it represents. Both scalars and vectors arc speci
general, a model that is based on experimental find- forms of a more general category of all quantities
ings can be used to predict the efrect of environ- mechanics called tensors. Scalars arc also known
mental and operational factors without resorting to "zero-01"(Ic1· tensors," whereas vectors aJ'e "firs
laboratory experiments. order tensors." Concepts such as stress and strai
Applied research in biomechanics is the applica- conversely, are "second-order tensors."
tion of scientific knowledge to bcnefit human bc-
ings. vVe know that musculoskeletal injury and ill-
FORCE VECTOR
ness is one of the primary occupational hazards in
industrialized countries. By learning how the mus- Force can be defined as· mechanical disturbance
culoskeletal system adjusts to common work concli- load. Whcn an object is pushed or pulled, a force
tions and by developing guidelines to assure that applied on it. A force is also applied when a ball
thrown or kicked. A force <:\Cling on an object may TORQUE AND MOMENT VECTORS
deform the objecl, change its slale of m~lion, 0"1'
The effect of a roree on the object it is applied upon
both. Forces may be c1assif-lcd in variolls ways ac-
depends on how the rorce is applied and how the
cording to their effects on the objects to \vhicf'l they
object is suppo!"ted. For example, when pulled. an
arc applied or according to their orientation as con~
open door will swing about the edge along which it
pared with one another. For example, a force may
is hinged lO the wall. \-Vh'll eallses the door 10 swin cJ
be internal or external, normal (perpendicular) 0'1'
is the torque generated by the applied force abou~
tangential; tensile. compressive. 01" shear; gravita-
an axis that passes through the hinges of the door. If
tional (weight); or frictional. Any two or more forces
one stands on the free-end of a diving board, the
acting on (\ single body 111ay be coplanar (acting on
hoard will bend, What bends the board is the mo-
a lwo~dimcnsional plane surface); collinear (have a
mel1l of the body weight about the fixed end of the
common line of action); concurrent (lines of action
board. In general. torque is associated with the ro~
intersecting at a single point); or parallel. Note that
tnlional and twisting action of applied forces, while
weight is a special form of Force. The weight of an
moment is related to the bending action. However,
object on Earth is the gravitational force exerted bv
the mathematical defmition of moment and torque
Earlh on the mass of that object. Thc magnitude ~'r
is the same.
the wcighl of an object on Ea~·t11 is equal t;the mass
Torque and moment arc vector quantities. The
of the object times the magnitude of the gravita-
magnitude of the tonlue Of rnoment of a force
tional acceleration, \vhich is approximately 9.8 mt>
about a point is equal to the mannitude of the
ters pCI' second squared (111/s 1). For exampl~, a 10-k<J
object weighs approximately 98 newtons (N) o~
force times the length of the shortc:t distance be-
tween the point and the line of action of the force
Earth. The direction of weight is always vertically
which is known as the lever or moment arm. Con~
do\vl1\vard.
W)-_-I
-, ' .~ ...
"
dum implies that the body of concern is either at
rest or moving with constant velocity. For a body to
be in a slate of equilibrium, it has to be both in
translational and rotational cquilibl-iul11. A body is
in translational cquilibriun1 if the net force (vector
sum of all forces) acting on it is zero. If the Ilt:t force
is zero, then the linear acceleration (time rate of
change of linear velocity) of the body is zero, or the
linear velocity of the bod,Y is either constant or zero.
A body is in rotational equilibrium if the net mo-
ment (vector sum of the moments of all forces) act·
ing on it is zero. If the net moment is zero, then the
angular acceleration (time rate of change of angular
velocity) of the body is zero, or the angulal· yelocily
of the body is either constant or zero. Therefore, for
a body in a state of equilibrium, the equations of
motion (Newton's second law) take the following
special forms:
A ~E = 0 and ~rvl =0
rt is important to remember that force and mo-
E ment arc vector quantities. For example, with re-
spect to a rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate sys-
tem, force and moment vectors may have
components in the .'\. y, and z directions. Therefore,
if the net force acting on an object is zero, then the
sum of forces acting in each direction must be equal
lo zero (IF, = 0, IF, = 0, IF, = 0). Similarly, if the
net moment on an object is zero. then the sum of
B moments in each direction must also be equal to
w zero (lM, = 0, lM,. = 0, lM, = 0). Thel'efore, for
three-dimension force systems there arc six cOl1cii-
lions of equilibrium. For two-dimensional force sys-
[ems in lhe xy-plane, onl~: three of these conditions
Forces involved at and around the elbow joint (IF, = 0, ~F, = 0, and ~M, = 0) need to be checked.
and the free-body diagram of the lower arm.
Reprinted with permission from dzkaya. N.
(7998). Biomechanics. In W.N. Rom, Environmen- STATICS
tal and Occupational Medicine (31d ed., pp.
1437-1454). New York: Lippincott-Raven.
The principles of slatics (equations of equilibrium)
can be applied to investigate the muscle and joint
forces involved at and around the joints for various
postural positions of the human body and its seg-
ments. The immediate purpose of static analysis is
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
to provide answers to questions such as: What ten-
Statics is an area within applied mechanics that is sion must the neck extensor muscles exert on the
concerned with the anal~:sis of forces on rigid bod- head to support the head in a specined position?
ies in equilibrium. A rigid body is one that is as- \OVhen a person bends, what would be the force ex~
sumed to undergo no deformations. [n reality, evcr)' ertcd by the erector spinae on the fifth lumbar ver-
object or matcrial may undergo deformat ion to an tebra? Ho\\'" does the con1pression at the elbow,
extent when acted on by forces. (n some cases, the knee, and ankle joints vmy with externally applied
amount of deformation may be so smalllhal il may forces and with different segmental arrangements?
not affect the desired analysis and the object is as- How docs the force on the femoral head vary with
sumed to be rigid. In mechanics, the term cquilib- loads carried in the hand? \,Vhat arc the forces in~
volved in various muscle groups and joints during to call tensile and compressive forces normal o
different exercise conditions? ial forces: shearing forces are tangential forces
In general. the unknowns in static problems in- jects also deform when they are subjecled to f
volving the musculoskeletal s:'stcm arc thc magni- that cause bending and torsion, which are relat
tudes of joint reaction forces and muscle tensions. the moment and torque actions of applied forc
The mechanical analysis of a skelclal joint requires A matel"ial nwv respond differently to diff
that we know the vector characteristics of tensions loading configurations. For a given material.
in the muscles, the proper locations of muscle at- may be different physical properties that mu
tachments, the weights of body segmcnts, and the considered while analyzing the response of tha
locations of the centers of gravity of the body seg- terial to tensile loading as compared with com
mems. Mechanical models are obviously simple sive or sheai' loading, The mechanical propert
representations of c0l11plex systems. Many models mnterials are established through stress analys
are limited by the assumptions that must be made subjecting them to various experiments such as
to reduce the system under considcration to a st.ati- axial tension and compression, torsion, and
cally determinate one. Anv model can be improved ing tests.
by ~onsidering the comril)utions of other muscles,
but (hat will increase the number of unknowns and
make the model a statically indeterminate one. To
NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES
analyze the improved model. the researcher would
need additional information related to the muscle Consider the whole bone in Figure \-3;,\ that is
forces. This inforrrlalion can be gathered through jected to a pair of tensile forces of magnitude F
electromyography measurements of muscle signals bone is in static equilibriulll. To analyze the f
or by applying certain optirnization techniques. A induced within the bone, the method of section
similar analysis can be made to investigate forces be applied by hypothetically cutting the bone
involved at and around other major joints of the two pieces through a plane perpendicular to the
musculoskeletal system. axis or the bone. Because the bone as a whole
equilibrium, the two pieces must individually
equilibrium as well. This requires that at the cu
MODES OF DEFORMATION
tion of each piece there is an internal force t
When acted on by externally applied forces. objects equal in magnitude but opposite in direction t
may translate in the direction of the net force and externally applied force (Fig. 1-38). The int
rotate in the direction of the net torque acting on force is distributed over the entire cross-sec
them. If an object is subjected to externally applied area of the cut section. and E represents the resu
forces but is in stalic equilibrium. then it is most of the distributed force (Fig. 1-3C). The intens
likely that there is some local shape change within this distributed force (force per unit area) is k
the objec!. Local shape change under the effect of as stress. For the case shown in Figure 1-3. be
applied forces is known as deformation. The extent the force resultant at the cut section is perpendi
of deformation an object may undergo depends on to the plane of the cut. the cOITesponciing str
many' factors, including the material properties. called a normal or axial stress. It is customar:y t
size, and shape of the object; environmental factors the symbol (T (sigma) to refer to normal stresse
such as heat and humidity; and the nlagnitudc, di- suming that the intensity of the distributed fo
rection, and duration of applied forces. the Cllt section is uniform over the cross-sec
One way of distinguishing forces is by observing area A of the bone, then u::::: FlA. Normal stresse
their tendencv to deform the object they are applied are caused by forces that tend to stretch (elon
upon. For example. the object is said to be in ten- matcl"ials aJ"C marc specincally known as t
sion if the body tends to elongate and in compres- stresses; those that tend to shrink them are kno
sion if it tends to shrink in the direction of the ap- compressive stresses. According to the Standar
plied forces. Shear loading differs from tension and ternational (SO unit system (see Appendix), str
compression in that it is caused b:! forces acting in are measured in newton per square meter (N
directions tangent to the area resisting the forces ~ which is also known as pascal (Pa).
causing shear, whereas both tension and compres- There is another form of stress, shear s
sion are caused by collinear forces applied perpen- which is a measure of the intensity of internal f
dicular to the areas on which they act. It is common acting tangent (parallel) to a plane of cut
':,
~i
H'
r
'.i~
F .....~--I
,..-__..J-_=-
- ~- .. F
A
A
B
~-G?-
F ...... =' ~,
c
Definition of normal stress. Reprinted wirh permission from OZkaya. N. (1998j. Biome-
chanics. In W.N. Rom, Environmental and Occupatiol1<11 r..,ledicine (3rd ed., pp.
i437-145r+). New York: Lippincorr·RiNen.
example. consider the whole bone in Figure 1-4A. Assuming that the intensity of the force tangent to
The bone is subject to a number of parallel forces the cut section is uniform over the cross-sectional
that act in planes perpendicular to the long a,is of area A of the bone, then T = FlA.
the bone. Assume that the bone is cut into two parts
through a plane perpendicular to the long axis of
NORMAL AND SHEAR STRAINS
the bone (Fig. 1-48). If the bone as a whole is in
equilibrium, its individual parts must be in equilib- Strain is a measure of the degree of deformation. As
rillm as well. This requires that there must be an in- in the case of stress, two types of strains can be dis-
ternal force at the cut section that ,lets in a direction tinguished. A norm~l'l strain is deflnecl as the ratio of
tangent to the cut surFace. If the magnitudes of the the change (increase or decrease) in length to the
external forces arc known, then the magnitude F of original (undeformed) length, and is commonly de-
the internal force can be calculated by considering noted with the symbol € (epsilon). Consider the
, the translational and rotational equilibrium of onc whole bone in Figure \-5. The total length of the
d; of the parts constituting the bone. The intensity of bone is I. If the bone is subjected to a pair of tensile
!:
the internal force tangent to the Clit section is forces. the length of the -bone may increase to I' or
known as the shear stress. It is customary to usc the by an amount .1i\ = I' -I. The normal strain is the
symbol T (tau) to refer to shear stresses (Fig. 1-4C). ratio of the amount of elongation to the original
Shear strains are related to distortions caused
shear stresses and arc cornmonly denoted with t
symbol y (gamma). Consider the rectangle (ABC
shown in Figure 1-6 thm is acted on by a pair of ta
gential forces that deform the rectangle into a p
allelogram (AB'C '0). 'If the relative horizontal d
placement of the top and the bOllom of t
rectangle is d and the height of the rectangle is
then the average shear strain is the ratio of d and
which is equal to the tangent of angle y. The angle
is lIsllall~" vcry small. For small angles. the tange
F, F., of the angle is approximately equal to the angle
self measured in radians. Therefore, the avera
shear strain is "y = cllh.
Strains arc calculated by dividing two quantit
measured in units of length. For most application
the deformations and consequently the strains
A volved may be very small (c,g" 0,001), Strains c
also be gi\'en in percemages (e.g.. O.l%).
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS
Different I11mcrials may demonstrate differe
stress-strain relationships. Consid(~r the stre
B F, strain diagrarn shown in Figure 1-7. There arc
distinct points on the curve, which arc labeled as
P, E, Y, U, and R. Point 0 is the origin of the Sli'e
strain diagram, which corresponds to the initial (
load, no deformation) state. Point P represents t
proportionality limit. Between 0 and P. stress a
strain are linearly proportional and the stre
strain diagram is a straight line. Point E represen
the clastic limit. Point Y is the .\"ield point, and t
stress (T.. corresponding to the yield point is call
the yield slrength of the material. At this Slr
level, considerable elongation (yielding) can occ
without a corresponding increase of load. U is t
highest stress point on the stress-strain diagra
The stress (r is the ultimate strength of the mat
ll
Definition of shear stress. Reprintecl with permis- ial. The last point on the stress-strain diagram is
sion {rom Ozkaya, N, (I 99B). Biomechanics. /11 W.N. \vhich represents the nq)ture or failure poinl. T
Rom, Environmenlal and Occupational Medicine stress at which lhe failure occurs is called the ru
(3rd ed" pp. 1437-/454). New York: Lippincorr- ture strength of the material. For some materials
Raven. may not be easy to distinguish the elastic limit a
the yield point. The yield strength of sLieh materi
is determined by the offset method, which is a
plied b.y drawing a line parallel to the linear secti
length, or E = c,11 1. If the length of the bone in- of the stress-strain diagram that passes through
creases in the direction in which the strain is cal- strain level or approximately 0.2 % • The intersecti
I
culated. then the strain is tensile and positive. If of this line with the stress-strain ClWVC is taken
the length of the bone decreases in the direction be the vielel point, and the stress corresponding
in which the strain is calculated, then the strain is this po-int is called the ~\pparent yield strength
compressive and negative. the material.
"nfj
,
----,-
I' ~ .; .:.\
F
~
"'"
,
I
'.l/
-- - -.
):
I
...... F
Definition of normal strain. Reprinted with permission from 6zkaya. N. (/998). Biome-
chanics. In W.N. Rom, Environmental (1nd Occupational !v1edione (lrd ed., pp.
/437-1454). New York: Lippi(lCOfl-R(l~'efl.
•
Note that a given material may behave dilTcr~ ELASTIC AND PLASTIC DEFORMATIONS
ently under different load and environmental con~
ditions. If the curve shown in F'igurc 1~7 repre-
Elasticit:-.· is defined as lhe ability or
a material to
resume its original (stress-free) size and shape on
sents the stress"strain relationship for a material
under tensile loading, there ma).o' be a similar but removal of applied loads. 1n other words, if a load
different curve representing the stress-strain rela-
tionship for the same material under compressive
or shear loading. Also. temperature is known 10411-
leI' the relationship between stress and strain. For
some materials, the stress-strain relationship may
also depend on the rate at which the load is ap- u
A
plied on the material.
y
I_ d 'I
B S' ~C
/ - - - - - - - - - 7 C'
/ /
/
h r1.t / /
/ / ,l- ,
/ /
AL----;-.-------';0
F
•
is applied on a material such that the Stress gener-
ated in the material is equal to or less than th~
elastic limit, the deformations that took place in G
the material will be cOlllpletcl.v recovered once the
applied lands arc removed. An elastic material
\vhose stress·strain diagram is a straight line is
called a linearly clastic material. For such a matc-
the stress is linearly proportional to strain.
slope of the stress-strain diagram in the e1as-
region is called the elastic or Young's rnodulus
of the material. which is commonly denoted by E. E
,Therefore, the relationship between stress and
strain for linearly elastic materials is a := E€. This
equation that relates normal stress and strain is
called a material function. For a given material.
different material functions may exist for different
modes or derormation. For example, SOme materi-
; als may exhibit linearly elastic belHwior under
shear loading. For such materials, the shear stress linearly elastic material behavior. Reprinted wirh
T is linearly proportional to the shear strain y, and
permission from OZkclycl, N. (1998)_ Biomecll<lflics. In
the constant of proportionality is called the shear W.N. Rom. Environmental and Occupattonal MecH-
modulus, or the modulus of rigidity. If G repre- cme (3rd cd., pp J437-1Li54.J. Ne....,; York: Lippincott-
sents the modulus of rigidity, then ,. = Gy. Combi- Raven
nations of all possible material functions for a
given material form the constitutive equations for
that material.
Plnsticity implies permanent deformations. Ma-
VISCOELASTICITY
terials may undergo plastic deformations follo\ving
elastic deformations when they are loaded beyond \·Vhcn they are subjected to relatively low stress
their elastic limits. Consider the stress-strain dia- els, many materials such as metals exhibit ela
gram of a material under tensile loading (Fig.I-7). material behavior. They undergo plastic defor
Assume that the stresses in the specimen arc tions at high stress levels. Elastic materials defo
brought to a level greater than the yield strength of instantaneously when they are subjected to ex
the material. On removal of lhe applied load. lhe nally applied loads and resume their original sha
material will recover the elastic deformation that almost instantly when the applied loads are
had taken place by following an unloading path par- mo\·cd. For an elastic material, stress is a function
allel to the initial linearly elastic region. The point strain only, and the strcss-strain relationship
where this path cuts the strain axis is called the unique (Fig. 1-8). Elastic materials clo not exh
plastic strain. which signifies the extent of perrl1a~ time-dependent behavior. A different gl'OUp of m
nent (unrecoverable) shape change that has taken rials, such as polymer plastics, metals at high t
place in the material. peratures, and almost all biological materials,
Viscoelasticity is the characteristic of a material hibits gradual deformation and recovery w
that has both fluid and solid properties. Most ma- subjected to loading: and unloading. Such mater
terials arc classified as eilher fluid or solid. A solid are called viscoelastic. The response of viscoela
material will deform to a ccrLain extent when an materials is dependent on how quickly (he loa
exlernal force is applied. A continuously applied applied or removed. The extent of deformation
force on a Ouid body will cause a continuous de- viscoelastic materials undergo is dependent all
formation (also known as flow). Viscosity is n fluid rate at which the deformation-causing loads are
property thut is a quantitative measure of rcsis· plied. The stress-strain relationship for a viscoela
tance to flow. Viscoelasticity is an example of how material is not unique but is a f1.lI1ction of time or
areas in applied mechanics can overlap, because it rate at which the stresse.s and strains are develo
ulilizes the principles of both fluid and solid me- in the material (Fig. 1·9). The word "viscoelastic
chanics. made of two words, Viscosity is a fluid property
-~
'by straining the Olalcriallo a level and maintaining
,
'U
the constant strain while observing the stress re-
sponse of the material. Under a stress-relaxation
lcst, an elastic mater-ial will respond with a stress
developed insw.ndy and maintained at a consWnl
level (Fig. I-II B). That is, an elastic malcrial will
not exhibit a stress-relaxation behavior. t\ viscoelas- A '0
lie material. conversely', will respond with an initial cr
high stress level that will decrease over time. If the
m;terial is a viscoelastic solid, the stress level will
nevcr rcduce to zcro (Fig, I-lie), As illuSlrated in
Fiourc
o I-II D, the stress will evct11uallv
zero for a viscoelastic nuid.
. reduce to
B
o·u to
0"0 = E,
a
MATERIAL PROPERTIES BASED
U:
ON STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS
The stress-strain diagrams of two or Il"wrc materials
can be compared to determine \vhich m<:ucrial is rei·
atively stiffer, l1C:lrdcl~ tougher, more ductile, or more
brittle. For example, the slope of the stress-strain di~ 10
C
agram in the clastic region represents the clastic G
modulus that is a measure of the relative stiffness of
l1-
materials. The higher the elastic modulus, the stiffer
the material and the higher its resistance to defor-
mation. A ductile material is one that exhibits a large
plastic deformation prior to failure. A britlie mater-
ial, such as glass, shows a sudden failure (rupture) 10
without undergoing a considerable plastic deforma- D
tion. Toughness is a measure of the capacity of a ma-
terial to sustain permanent defonllation. The tough-
ness of a matedal is measured b~: considering the Stress-relaxation experiment. Reprinted with per-
total area under its stress-strain diagram. The larger mission from Ozkaya, N. (1998). Biomechanics. In
this area, the tougher the malerial. The ability of a WN. Rom. Environmental and Occupational Medicine
material to store or absorb energy without perma- (Jrd ed.• P.o. 1437-1454). Ne~··1 York: Lippincott-Raven.
nent deformation is called lhe resilience of the ma-
terial. The resilience of a material is measured by its
modulus of resilience, which. is equal to the area un-
der the stress-strain curve in the elastic region. one: element for which the normal stresses
Although thcy arc not directl\' rclated to the maximum and minimum. These maxin1lrm
stress-strain diagrams, other important concepls minimum normal stresses arc called the princi
are used to describe material properties. For cxam~ stresses, and the planes whose normals are in
pie, a material is called homogeneous if its proper- directions of the maximum and minimum stJ"e
ties do not vary from location to location within the are called the principal plancs, On a princi
material. A material is called isotropic if its proper- plane, (he normal stress is either maximum
lies are independent of direction. A material is minimum. and the sheal" stress is zero. It is kno
called incompressible if it has a constant denSity. that fracture or material failure occurs along
planes of maximum stresses, and structures m
be designed by taking into consideration the m
PRINCIPAL STRESSES
/ imulll stresses involved. Failure by yielding
There are infinitely many possibilities of con- cessive deformation) n.lay occur whenever
structing elements around a given point wilhin a largest principal stress is equal to the y
structure. Among these possibilities, there may be strength of the material or failure by rupture m
occur whenever the largest principal stress ,is
equal to the ultimate strength of the material. For
a given structure and loading condition. the prin- A a
cipal stresses ma~" be within the limits of opera-
I
tional safely. However, the structure must also be
checked for critical shearing stress. called the
maximum shear stress. The maximum shear SlI-es$
:· · . . .
o max - - ..... "7" - - ] -
(j"
- - - .......-
: ..'
-
•••••
- -
Tension
- - -
•••••
••
•••••
lime
1 cycle Compression
FATIGUE AND ENDURANCE
Principal and maximum shear stresses are useful in
predicting the response of materials (0 static load-
B
ing configurations. Loads that Illay not cause the
failure of a structure in a single application may
cause fracture when applied repeatedly. Failure may
occur aher a few or many cycles of loading and un-
loading, depending on factors such as the amplitude
of the applied load, mechanical properties of the
material, sIze of the structlire, and operational con-
ditions. Fracture resulting from repeated loading is
called fatigue.
Several experimental techniques have been de-
veloped to understand the fatIgue behavior of ma-
terials. Consider the bar shown in Figure 1-12;:1.
Assume that the bar is made of a material whose °0- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ultimate strength is U'w This bar is first stressed to
a mean stress level (1m and then subjected to a L-_,---'---,---,--N
stress fluctuating over time, sometimes tensile 10' 10' 10'
and other times compressive (Fig. 1-128). The c
amplitude (T:, of the stress is such that the bar is
subjected to a maxImum tensile stress less than
the ultimate strength of the material. This reo
versible and periodic stress is applied until the Fatigue and endurance. Reprinred with permission
bar fractures and the number of cycles N to frac- from Olkaya, N. (1998). Biomechanics. In W.N. Rom,
ture is recorded. This experiment is repeated all Environmeniat and Occupational Medicine (3rd ed.,
pp. 1437-1454). New York: Lippincou-Raven.
specimens having the same material properties by
applying stresses or varying amplitude. A typical
result of a fatigue test is plotted in Figure 1-12C
on a diagram showing stress amplitude versus The fatiguc behavior or a material depends on
numbct· of cycles to failure. For a given N. the cor- several factors. The higher the temperature in
responding stress value is called the fatigue which the material is used, thc lower the fatigue
strength of the material at that nun1ber of cycles. strength. The fatigue behavior is sensitive to surface
For a given stress level, N represents the fatigue imperfections nnd the presence of discontinuities
life of the material. For some matel"ials, the stress within the material that can cause stress concentra-
amplitude versus number or cycles curve levels tions. The fatigue failure starts \vith the creation of
off. The stress CT, at which the fatigue curve levels a small crack on the surface of the material. which
off is called the endurance limit of the material. can propagate under the effect of repeated loads, re-
Below the endurance limit, the material has a sulting in [he rupture of [he material.
high probability of not failing in fatigue, regard- Orlhopaedic devices lII)dergo repeated loading
less of how many cycles of stress are imposed on and unloading as a result of the activities of the pa-
the material. tients and the actions of their 111uscles. Over a pe-
riod of vears. a weight-bearing prosthetic dc\·icc or b~"clinicians (Q provide an introducLor~: level
a'fi;.;:ati~n device can be subjected to a consiclerabk knowh:dge about each joint s~'stem.
number of cycles of stress reversals as a result or
noHnal daily activity. This cyclic loading and un-
PART III: APPLIED BIOMECHANICS
~~ .•l;"N can cause faLigue failure of the device.
A new section in the third edition of this book
troduces important issues in applied biomechani
These include the biomechanics of fracture fixati
Biomechanics arlhroplasty; sitting, standing. and lying; and gait
the Musculoskeletal System is important for the beginning studenl to und
stand the application or biomechanical principles
even a simple task c.'\ecuted b.v the clirfcrcnt clinical areas.
musculoskeletal svstcm requires a broad. in-depth
:~;' knowledge of various fields that ma~' include 1110-
tor control, neurophysiology, physiology. physics. Summarv
and biomechanics. For example, based on the pur-
pose ancl intention or a task and the sensOl'~' infor- 1 Biomechanics is a young and dynamic fidd
mation gathered from the ph~'sical cndronmcnl study based on the recognition thaI conventio
;~;
and orielllatioll of tilL' body and joints, the central cllginccl'ing thcorks and methods can be useful
nervous system plans a strategy for a task execu- understanding and solving problems in physiolo
:;.: lion. According to the strategy adoptc:d. Illuscles and medicine. Biomcclwnics considers the appli
/ . '.,' will be recruited lO provide Lh<..' forces and 1110- tions of classical rncchanics to biological problem
mcnts required for the movement and I.Jalance of The flcld of biomechanil:s flourishes from the co
the s.)'slem. Consequently, the internal forces will eration among life scientists, physicians, enginee
be changed and soft tissues will experience differ- and basic scientists. Such cooperation require
ent load conditions. certain amount of common vocabulary: an engin
The purpose or this book is to present a \\'cll~ must learn some anatom~: and ph)'siology, nnclm
balanced synthesis of information gatllCred frorn ical personnel need to understand some basic c
various disciplines. pro\'iding a basic understanding cepts of physics and mathematics.
of biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system. The
2 The information presented throughout t
material presented here is organized (0 cover three
textbook is drawn from a large scholarship. The
areas of musculoskeletal biomechanics.
thors aim to introduce some of the basic concepts
biolllechanics related to biological tissues a
PART I: BIOMECHANICS OF TISSUES joints. The book does nOl intend to provide a co
AND STRUCTURES prehensive review of the literature, and readers
encouraged to consult the list of suggcsted read
The material presented throughout this textbook below to supplcmcnt theil' knowledge. Some ba
provides an introduction to basic biolllechanics of textbooks arc listed here, and studcnts should c
the musculoskeletal system. Part I includes chap- sult peer-revicwed journals for in-depth presen
ters on the biomechanics of bone. articular carti- Lions of the latest research in specialty arcas,
lage, tendons and ligaments, periphcral nerves, and
skeletal muscle. These are augmcnted wilh case
studies to illustrate the imponarll concepts for un- SUGGESTED READING
derstanding the biomechanics of biological tissues. Black. J. (19SS). Onhop'lcdic Bionmleriuls in R,'sl,.'ardl and P
til:c. New York: Churchill Li\·in!!stonc.
Brollzino. J.D. (Ed.) (1995). The -Biom(.'dic<ll Engincl.'ring H.
PART II: BIOMECHANICS OF JOINTS book. 80(:01 R:llOn. rL: CRC Press.
B(lrst('in, A.H., & \Vright. T.~'I.( 1993). Fundamellt;lls of Or1hop<
Part II of this textbook covers the major joiots of the Biolllc:dmnics. Ballirnorl': Williams & Wilkins.
human body, from the spine to the ankle. Each Chaffin. 0.8.. & All{krsson. G.B.J. (1991). O<::cupational Bio
ch~lllics (2nd l'<'I.). Nl'\\' York: John Wiley & Sons.
chapter contains information about the structure
Fung. Y.c. (1981). Biolllec!wnics: Mechanical Properties of Li
and functioning of the joint. along with case studies Tissul.·s. New York: Springl.'r·\\:rJag.
illuminating the clinical di~lgnosis and management FUll!!. yc. (1990). Biomcch~l1lics: ;\·Iotioll, Flo\\" Slrcss, :llld Gro
of joint injlll)' and illness. The chnpters are written New York: Springl'r,Vl'rlOIg.
... :':.
H~l\'. J.G ..
6:.. RI..'id. J.G. (1988). .'\nalOllw. '\lcchanil:s .md Human Mo- OZk:IY;\. N.. & Nordin. M. (1999). Fundamelltals of Biolll<.'ch'lllics:
-lioll (2nd cd.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pn:llIkc-Hall. Equilihrium, :\lotioll. <lnd Dcfonlwtioll (2nd I..'d,). Nt:\\" York
Kelly, O.L. (1971). Kinl.'siology: FLllldaml.'llWls of \Iolion D~·StTip· Sprin!.!(,I~Vl.'rlag.
lion. En!.:.lcw()od Cliffs, NJ: Prelltice-Hall. Schmid.Schonbl'i;l, G.\\'., \\'00. 5.1...·).... & Z\\"eifach. B.\V. (Eds.).
\Iow, Vc.. &: Hayes, w.e. (1997). Basic Orthopaedic Biorncch.mics (1985). Frontiers in Biomechanics. ~·h.'\\" York: Springer.Verlag:,
(2nd cd.). New York: Raven Press. Skal<:lk, R" & Chkn, S. (Eds.). (!98i). Hllndbonk or BiOi..'ngincering.
,\low. \I.e., Ratdiff, A".& Woo. S.L.·Y. (Eds.). (1990). BicHlll.:chanics New York: McGraw·Hill.
or {)i~tl"(llrodial Joinls. Nr.:\\' York: Sp.-jnga-Verlag. Thompsoll. C. W. (1989). :\·tanu'll of Stlllt'lur<ll Kinl~si()log~' (11th
NahulIl. A.M .. &. Md\'in. J. (Etls.). (19S5). The BiOlllcch:lI1il:s of cd,). 51. Louis. MO: ·fill1l..'s Mirror/:\·Iosbv.
TI'UUll'l. Norwalk. CT: l\ppl('ton-Ct:llhll~'.Crofts. Williams. M., & lissner, H.R. (1992). Bion;l.'chanics of !·luman ;\'to-
Nordin, M .. Andersson. G.B.J., & Po\X", M.H. (Eds.). (1997). ~plllSCll lion (3r<l cd.). Phibddphin: Sallll(k:rs,
1()sk..:k'IJI Disonk'J1; in the \VorkpbcL'. Philadclphin: :\'1osby,Ycilr Wintcl'. D.!\. (1990). Biol1lcchnnics :Illd ~:lolor Control or Hum"n
Book. Behavior (2nd I..'d.). New York: John Wiky &: Sons.
Nordin. ~L & Franb,:1. \l.H. (Eds.l. (1989). Basit- OiolUl.'chanics of Willlel'S. J,!lil.. &. Woo. S.L-Y. (Eds.), (1990). Multiple Muscle Sys-
lhe :\hlst.:uloskdctal S,\':o;'lClll (2nd t:d,), Philaddphi:l: 1...:<.\ & Il'IHS. New York: Springcr.verktg.
F.:bi"'.:r
OzkaYil,eN.·( 1998). Bi(Hn~d1iJnics. III W.N. Rom, EnvirorH1H:nlal and
OCCllp<:lliollal :\kdicill~' Ord cd., pp. 1437-1454). New York:
Li ppi m:olt -RaVCll.
The System
International
d'Unites (51)
Dennis R. Carter
MOMENT FORCE
OF FOACE new Ion
qp ,- - . .
kg m/s 2 PRESSURE & STRESS
pascal
ACCELERATION N/m 2
speED
~\ . \l/~
ENERGY & WORK
~
\' Il/' _~r;)
joule
Nm
DENSITY
~~ ~,I //'/~'" POWER
VOLUME
;~:::::<':~:~~J" J , ,~/~,:'!j watt
JIS
~DERIVED~
,~m'?I~~'TS i~
TEMPERATURE
AREA degree Celsius
K'- 273.15
radian (fad)
PLANE ANGLE
- -----
SUPPLEMENTARY UNIT
BASE UNITS
19
Specially Nanzeel Units The 51 unit of pressure, the pascal, is therefore
defined in terms of the base 51 units as:
Other dedved units are similarl.v established from I Pa = IN I I 111"
the base units but have been given special names
Allhough the S[ base llnil of temperature is the
(Fig App-I and Table App-I). These units are defined
through the lise of fundarnental equations or physi- kc.:lvin, the derived unit of degree Celsius (OC 01' c) is
cal laws in conjunction with the arbitrarily defined much marc commonly used. The degree Celsius is
Sf base units. For example, Newton's second law of equivalent to the kelvin in magnitude. but the ab~
motion states that when a body that is free to Il10vC solute value of the Celsius scale differs frol11 that o
is subjected to a force. it will experience ~m ~lCcelcr the Kelvin scale such that °C = K - 273.15.
alion proportional to thai force and inversely pro- ,",Vhen the 51 s~'stcm is used in a wide variely o
portional to its own mass. i\Jlathcmatically, this prin- measurements, the quantities expressed in terms
ciple can be expressed as: of the base. supplemental. or derived units ma~t be
either very large or very small. For example, the
force = Illass X acceleration arca on the head of a pin is an extremely small
The Sf unit of force, the newton (Nl, is lherefore number when expressed in terms of square meters
defined in terms of the base SI units as: Conversely, the weight of a whale is an extremely
large number when expressed in terms of newtons.
1N = 1 kg X I I11/S:! To accomrnodate the convenient representation o
small or large quantities, a system of prefixes has
The Sf unit or pressure and stress is the pascal
(Pa). Pressure is defined in hydroslaties as the force been incorporated into the SI system (Table
divided by the area of force application. Mathem4ll- App-2), Each prefix has a fixed meaning and can
icall~l, this can be expressed as:
be used with all 5Iunils. \!\Then used with the name
or the unit, the prefb: indicates that the quanti!}!
pressure = force/area described is being expressed in some multiple o
~._.m ..__ .._ __.__._.__.. _
I
; Definitions of Sl Units
Base 51 Units
meter (01) The meIer is the length eqllal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation
corresponding to the transition belween the levels 2PHi and Sd" of the krypton-86
atom.
kilogram (kg) The kilogram is Ihe unit of mass and is equallO the mass of the international proto·
type of the kilogram.
second (s) The second is the duration of 9.192,631,770 periods of Ihe radiation corresponding to
the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133
atom.
kelvin (k) The kelvin. a unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the ther-
modynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
Supplementary SI Unit
radian (rad) The radian is the plane angle between two radii of a circle that sub tend on the circum~
ference of an arc equal in length to the radills.
Derived SI Units With Special Names
newton (N) The newton is that force \tvhich, when applied to a rpass of 1 kilogram, gives it an aC-
celeration of 1 meter per second squared. 1 N= 1 kg rn/s / .
pascal (Pa) The pascal is the pressure produced by a force of 1 newton applied. with uniform dis-
tribution, over an area of 1 square meter. 1 Pa = 1 N/m~.
joule (J) The joule is the work done when the point of application of a force of 1 newton is
displaced through a dist~nce of 1 meter in the direction of the force. 1 J = 1 Nm.
wall (W) The watt is the power that in 1 second gives rise to the energy of 1 joule. 1 W ::: 1 J/s.
degree Celsius (C) The degree Celsius is a unit of thermodynamic temperature and is equivalent to K -
273.15.
Standard Units Nmned
Factors and Prefixes for Scientists
SI Prefix SI Symbol
giga G One of the more interesting aspects of the SI
is its lise of the names of famous scientists a
mega Iv1
dard units. In each case, the lInit was named
kilo k
scientist in recognition of his contribution
hecla h Geld in which that unit plays a major role
deka da App-3 lists a number of Slullits and the scien
deci d which each was named.
centi c For example. the unit of force. the neWlo
named in honor of the English scientist Si
rniJli rn
Ncwlon (1624-1717). Hc wa' cducalcd 'II
micro I' College at Cambridge and later rclurned to
nana n College as a professor or mathematics. Early
pica p career, Newton made fundamental contribut
malhcmalics Ihat formcd Ihc basis of diffc
Reprinred wirh permission from Ozkaya. N.. & Nord,-n. M.
(1999). Fundamentals oi Blomechani(!>: Equilibrium. Mo·
and integral calculus. His other major disc
tion. and Deiormatlon (2nd ed.) New York: Springer·lJer/ag. were in the fields of optics. astronomy. grav
p, iO. and mechanics. His work in gravitation wa
portedly spurred by being hit on the head by
ple falling from a tree. It is perhaps poetic
ten times the unit used. For example. the millime· that the SI unit of one newton is approxi
'tel' (mm) is used to represent one thousandth (10"·1) equivalent to the weight of a medium-sized
of a meter and a gigapascal (Gpa) is uscd to denotc Newton W~lS knighted in t 705 by Qucen i\lt
one billion (10') pascals. his monumental contributions to science.
---_._--------
, SI Units Named After Scientists
Symbol Unit Quantity Scientist Country of Birth Oates
A ampere electric current Amphere, Andre·tvtarie France 1775-1
( coulomb electric charge Coulomb, Charles Augustin de France 1736-1
O( degree celsius temperature (elsius. Anders Sweden 1701-1
F farad electric capacity Faraday, Michael England 1791-1
H henry inductive resistance Henry, Joseph United States 1797-1
Hz hertz frequency Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph Germany 1857-1
J joule energy Joule. James Prescott England 1818-1
K kelvin temperature Thomson, William (lord Kelvin) England 1824-1
N newton force Newton, Sir Isaac England 1642-1
fl ohm eleclrlc resistance Ohm. Georg Simon Germany 1787-1
Pa pascal pressure/stress Pascal, Blaise France 1623-1
5 siemens electric conductance Siemens, Karl Wilhelm (Sir William) Germany (England) 1823-1
T testa magnetic flux density Testa. Nikola (roatia (US) 1856-1
V volt electrical potential Volta, (ount Alessandro Italy 1745-1
W walt power Watt, James Scotland 1736
Wb weber magnetic flux Weber, Wilhelm Eduard Germany 1804-1
Conversion of Units
1 pound mass (1 brn) = 0.4536 kilogr~lm (kg) 1 revolution (rev) :=: 360"
Force Temperature
1 kilogram force (kgf) = 9.807 Nevvton (f\J) <>( '" "r~ ~ 273.2
1 pound iorce IIbO = 4448 N
I dyn / em' = O. I Pa
Reprinted with pefFnisslon from OZkaya. 1'1., & No~dJn. l'1i. (1999). Fundamentals oi Biomechanics: EqUllib·
rium. Motion. and DeformatIon (2nd ed.) New York: Spnnger-verlag. p. 11.
The unit of pressure and stress. the pascal. was ucated at the Universit.\· of Glasgo\\" and at C
named after the French physicist, mathematician, bridge University. Early in his career, Thol11son
and philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623-1662). Pascal vcstigated the thermal propcnies of steam at a
conducted important investigations on the <.:harnc- entific laboratory in Paris. At thc age of 32,
teristics of vacuums and barometers and also in- returned to Glasgo\\" 10 accept the chair of Nalu
vented a machine that would make mathematical Philosophy. His meeting with James JOllie in 1
calculations. His work in the area of hydrostatics stimulated interesting discussions on the natur
helped lay the foundation for the later developmenl heat, which eventually lecl to the establishmen
of these scientific ficlds_ In addition to his scicntific Thomson's absolute scale of temperature, the Ke
pursuits, Pascal was passionalely interested in reli- scale. In recognition of Thomson's contribution
gion and philosophy and tllllS wrote extensively on the field of thermodynamics, King Edward VIl c
a wide range of subjects. fen-cd on him the title of Lord Kelvin.
The base unit of temperature, the kelvin. was The commonly llsed unit of temperature, the
named in honor of Lord Vv'illiam Thomson Kelvin gree Celsius, \\ as named aftcr the Swedish
(1824-1907). Named William Thomson, he was cd· lronomcl and lmenlO! Anders CelsiLl' (1701-17
Celsius was appointed professor or astronomy at the (slich as the English system). the units of len
Inii"p-",i,\' of Uppsala at the age of 29 and remained time, and force arc arbitrarily' defined, and o
the university until his death 14 years latec [n units (including mass) are derived from these b
1742, he described the centigrade thermometcl- in a units. Because lhe units of force in gravitational
paper prepared for the Swedish Academ!' of Sci- tems are in fact the It'eights of stan(~"\rd masses.
The name of the centigrade temperature version to 51 is dependent on the acceleration
waS officially changed to Celsius in 1948. mass due to the Earth's gravity, By' internati
agreement. the acceleration due to gravity
9.806650 m/s'. This \'aille has been lIseel in estab
to Sf From Other ing some of the conversion factors in Box App-I.
of'Measurement
REFERENCES
Box App·t contains the formulae for the conversion
F~ircr, J.L. (19i7). SI .\leu;£' /-land/wok. Nt'w York: Ch
~f measurements expressed in English and non-Sl StTibll('r'S Sons.
units into Sf units. One fundamental source of Ozbva, N., ~ Nordin, ~'l. (1999). FWlfl(llllell1o!s Bior
connJSlon in converting from one system to another c/;(wics: EquilihriulJI, .\lotioll, (lut! DejtmJ/(//ioll (2nd
is that (wo basic t~'Pes of Illeasun:menl systems exist. N<:w York: 5pringcr-Vl·r1ag.
Pennychuick, C.J. {1974l. lIulldy .\!tllrif:l's oj" VI/il Crntl't'
In the "ph\'sical" system (such as SI). the units of
Pi/oon (or Riolof!..\' amI .\lcclulJI;cs. New York: John W
length. time, and nUlSS arc arbitrarily defined, and &: Son~.
other units (including force) are derived fron1 these \Vorld Health Org~lnizalion. (19i7). The SI /01' t!le fha/til
,. base units. In "technical" or "gravitational" systems jt's$iol1s. Gl.'llt'\"C WHO.
Biomechanics
of Tissue and
Structures of the
Musculoskeletal
System
Biomechanics of
Bone
Victor H. Frankel, Margareta Nordin
Introduction
Bone Composition and Structure
Biomechanical Properties of Bone
Biomechanical Behavior of Bone
Bone Behavior Under Various loading Modes
Tension
Compression
Shear
Bending
Torsion
Combined l.oading
Influence of Muscle Activity on Stress Distribution in Bone
Strain Rate Dependency in Bone
Fatigue of Bone Under RepetitivE: Loading
!nfluence of Bone Geometry on Biomechanical Behavior
Bone Remodeling
Degenerative Changes in Bone Associated With Aging
Summary
References
Flow Charts
l
""''''''----------.--.:~.",-----
_
of the tissue. Bone scn·cs <.lS a rcsen/Oir for esse
lJitijoduction minerals in the bod~·. particularly calcium.
Bone minend is embedded in variousl~« orie
TbJ:i~~rpose or the skeletal system is to protect in-
fibers of the protein collagen, the fibrous po
te.r~.~V:"organs, provide rigid kinematic links and
~~ls:ctEtattachmcnt sites, and facilitate Illuscle ac·
of the extracellular matrix-the inorganic ma
Collagen ribers (type l) are tough and pliable
:·:::;:~"pJ:tf91iYli~9,body movement .. Bone has unique stl·UC·
they resist strelching ~lnd have lillie L'xtensib
'-:/:::"'{:<'Y~lit~I.-.rI1d mechanical properties that allow it to
,,:~,<,:;;::,/,):',si;(rrY()llt;these roles. Bone is among the body's
CollagL'1l composes ~\PPJ'().\.irnatdy 9(YYo of the
tracellular matrix and accounts for approxima
,::)},:;;ll~lrci~~tstrllctllres; onl)' dentin and enamel in the
25 lO 3W>'r' of the dr~! wl'ight of bone. A univ
:,:;:::';:,:::':i:,..'./t~¢th.>qreharder. It is one of the most dynamic and
::",';;::;.~/'i,1;i',.~t. ?9Pp'.cally active tissues in the body and re· building block of the body, collagen also is
>.";'\1.lAiri,S::~\ctiv0 throughollt life. A highl~; vascular tis- chie!" fibrous component of other skddal s
s~e'.-.it has an excellent capacity for self-repair and tures. (A detailed descriplion 01" the microstnlc
tan ~lter its properties and configuration in rc- and mechanical behavior of collagen is provide
. spOI~~e" to changes in mechanical demand. For ex- Chapters 3 and 4.)
ample, changes in bone dcnsit~1 arc commonly The gelatinous ground substance slIlToun
obsei~·ed after pL:riods of disuse and of greatly in-
thc mineralized collagcn fibers consists mainl
creased use; changes in bone shapL' are noted dur· protein polysaccharides, or gl~"cosarninogl
iog fracture healing and after certain operations. (GAGs), primarily in the form of cOlllplt:x ma
·-'1
.;: Thus, bone adapts Lo the mechanical demands molecules called protcoglycans (PGs). The G
s~rvc as a cementing substance between laye
placed on i l.
This chapter (iL'scribcs the composition and mineralized collagen fibers. Thcs~ GAGs, a
structure of bone tissue, the mechanical properties wit.h various noncollagcI1ous glycoprotcins, co
of bone, and the behavior or bone under different tute approximately 5% of the extracellular rna
loading conditions. Various factors that affect the (The structure or PG:-:, whi,:h arc vital compon
mechanical behavior of bone in vitro and in vivo of artie, i:il' '_·;l~·{iL\gt·. is described in delail in C
kr .) ..1
also are disclissed.
\Vater is fairl~: abundant in live bone. accoun
for up to 25% of its total weight. Approxim
Bone Composition and Structure 85°10 of the walt.'r is found in the organic ma
around the collagen fibers and ground sllbsta
Bone tissue is a specialized connective tissue whose and in the h.vdl·ation shells surrounding the
solid composition suits it for its supportive and pro- crysl~ds. The other 15% is localed in the canals
teclive roles. Like other connective tissues, it con· cavities that house bone cells and carry nutrien
sisrs of cells and an organic extraccllular matrix of t h~ bone tissuc.
fibers and ground substance produced by the cells. At the microscopic level, the fllndamcmal S
The distinguishing reature of bone is its high con· lllralunit of bone is the osteon, or haversian sy
tent of inorganic materials, ill the form of mineral (Fig. 2·1). At the center of each osteon is a s
salts, that combine intimately with the organic ma- channel, called a haversian canal, lIlat con
trix (Buckwalter et al., 1995). The inorganic compo· blood vessels and nerVe fibers. The osteon itself
nent of bone makes the tissue hard and rigid, while sists of a concentric series of layers (lamella
the organic component giv~s bone its flexil)ility and mineralized rnatrLx surrounding the central can
resilience. The composition of bone dirrers depend- configuration similar to growth ring~ in a
ing on site, animal age. dietar:.y histol)', and the pres· trunk.
ence or disease (Kaplan et aI., 1993). Along the bOllndflries of each layel: or lamella
In normal human bone, the mineral or inorganic small cavities known as lacunae, each cOl1la
portion of bone consists primarily of calcium and 011(.' bone cell. or ostcocyte (Fig. 2-1 C). Nume
phosphate, mainly in the form of small crystals rc· small channels, called canaliculi, radiate from
sembling synthetic hydroxyapatite crystals \vith lacuna, connecling the lacunae or adjacent lam
the composition Ca",(PO,)o(OI-l),. These minerals, and ultimately reaching the haversian canal.
which a~count for 60 to 70% of ilS dry weight, give processes extend from the osteocytes into the ca
bone its solid consistency. "Vatcr nccounts for 5 to culi, allowing nutrients '[Tom the blood vessels i
SOk and the organic matrix makes tip the J'cmainder haversian canal to reach the osteocyles.
.. , ..~l.'
Lamellae
OsteocYle~
Lacuna-----
A. The fine structure of bone is illustrated schematically haversian canal. Adapled irom Torrora G.J.. & Anagno
in a section of the shaft of a long bone depicted with- takas. N.P. (198:1). Principles of Anatomy and Physiolog
out inner marrow. The osteom. or haversian systems. edJ. Ne~·v York: Harper gRow. C, Along the boundar
are apparent as the structural units of bone. The haver- the lamellae are small cavities known as lacunae, e
sian canals are in the center of the osteons, which form of which contains a single bone cell, or osteocyte.
the main branches of the circulatory network in bone. ating from the lacunae are tiny canals, or canalicu
Each osteon is bounded by a cement line. One osteon is into which the cytoplasmic processes of the osteoc
shown extending from the bone (20x). Adapted from extend. Adapted from Torrora G.;.. & AOclgflosrak05. N
Basset!, CAL. (1965). £/ecrrical effects in bone. SCI Am, (1984). Principles of AnalOmy and Physiology (4th edJ.
213.18. B, Each osteon consists of lamellae. concentric York: Harper & Ro~"/.
rings composed of a mineral matrix surrounding the
•
At the pcriphcl)! of each osteon is a cement line, A typical osteon is approximately 200 micr
a nrtrrow area of cement-like ground SubSlrtllCe tcrs (J..l) in (lin·rnctcr. Hence, evclY point in th
composed primarily of GAGs. The canaliculi of Ihc teon is no more than 100 J..llll from the central
osteon do not pass this cement line. Like the canali- catcd blood supply. In Ihe long bones, the os
culi, the collagen fibers in the bOl1e matrix intercon- usually run longitudinally. but they branch
nect from one larndla to another within an osteon quelltly and anaslOmose extensively with
but do not cross the cement line. This intertwining othcl:
of collagen fibers within the osteon undoubtedly in-, Jnterstitial lamellac span the regions bet
creases the bone's resistance to mechanical stress complete O!"h:ons (Fig: 2-1..1). They arc contin
and probably explains _~vhy the cement line is the with the ostcons and consist of the same mater
weakest portion of the bonc's microstructure. a difTerent geol11ctric configuralion. As in th
Frontal longitudinal section through the head. neck,
greater trochanter, and proximal shaft of an adult fe-
mur. Cancellous bone, with its trabeculae oriented in
a lattice, lies within the shell of cortical bone.
! Reprinted with permission from Gray, H. (T 985). Anatomy
of the Human Body. (73(h American ed.J. Philadelphia:
1
Lea & Febiger.
.
- -
- --
•
•
- '--
-
-
- " -
Lamellar
~ .f v~~, J
l
/'i .\ } ,
,~. \. \ \) '("'1::.;,
.~
Woven
•
Biomechanical Properties strength, stiflness, and other mechanical proper
of Bone of the structure can be gained b~' examining
curve.
Biomechanically, bone tissue may be regUl~ded a~ a A hypothetical load-deformation curve for
t\v9~ph~,lse (biphasic) c01JlposiL(;~ I1),aterial;" with the somewhat pliable fibrous structure, such as a l
mineral as onCjJhase and the collagen and ground bone, is shown in Figure 2·6, The i1~~lial (strai
substance as_.the o~her. In such matcl"'ials (n nonbio~ line) portion of the curve, the c1asticJ'cgion. reve
logic-al exal,'lple is fiberglass) in which a strong. brit- the elasticity bf the structure, th:u is, its capacity
tle material is embedded in a w~akcc more Oexible returning io its original shape after the load is
one, the combined substances ;:tre stronger for their moved, As· the load is applied, deformati911 occ
weight than is either substance alone (Bassett, btll is not permanent; th-e structure recovers its o
1965), inal sllape \\'hen unloaded. As loading c·ontinues.
Functionally, the most important mechanical outcrni"ost fibers of the struCture begin to yield
properties of bone are its strength and stiffness. some point. This yidd poinl signals the elastic li
These and other characteristics can best be under- of the structure, As, the load exceeds this limit,
stood for bone, or any other structure, by e:'\amin- structure exhibits plastic behavior, I'cflecl~d in
ing its behavior under .loading, that is, under the in- second (curved) portion of the eurvc, the p!as,tic
nuence of externally applied forces. Loading causes gion. The structure \\~i11 no longer return to its or
a deformation, or a change in the dimensions, of 11al dimensions when the load has been releas
the~-strllctllre. \·Vhen a load in a known direction is some residual deformation will be permanent
imposed on a structure, the deformation 01" that loading-is progressively increased, the structure
structure can be rncasurcd and ploued 011 a load- fail at'somc point (bonc' will fracturc), This poin
deformation curve. I\lluch information about the indic~-iled by the ultimate failure point on the CU
acterizing a bone or other structure in terms o
Plastic region c material of \vhich it is composed, independent o
geometry, requires standardization of the tes
1'- i conditions and the size and shape of the test sp
'" Yield / D Ultimate
D 1
ro point 1 failure mens. Such standardized testing is useful for c
1
S 1 point paring the 111echanical properties of two or m
/ Energy
1 materials, such as the relative strength of bone
1
1 tendon tissue or the relative stiffness of various
1
1
1 terials used in prosthetic implants. More pre
1 units of measurement can be used when stand
A D' ized samples are tested-that is, the load per un
Deformation area of the sample (stress) and the amount of de
mation in terms of the percentage of change in
sample's dimensions (strain). The curve generat
Load-deformation curve for a structure composed of
a stress-strain curve.
a somewhat pliable material. If a load is applied Stress)s:the load, or force, per unit area tha
within the elastic range of the structure (A to B on velops on a plane surface within a struc:lll['e.)1
the curve) and is then released, no permanent defor- sponse'iO'exteI~ililll)' applied loads. The three ~
mation occurs. If loading is continued past the yield most commonly used for measuring stress in s
point (B) and into the structure's plastic range (B to C dardized samples of bone are ne\vtons per cent
on the curve) and the load is then released, perma- ter squared (N/cm:;); newtons per meter squared
nent deformation results. The amount of permanent pascals (N/m 2 ,Pa); and megancwtons per m
deformation that occurs if the structure is loaded to sqmii;cd; or mega pascals (MN/m 2 , MPa).
point 0 in the plastic region and then unloaded is
Strain is the clef()l'mation (change in dimens
represented by the distance between A and D. If
loading continues within the plastic range, an ulti-
that develoP?~yithiI1.~ls:tTuctureirl"I:t::sponse to
mate failure point (C) is reached.
ternallyapplied loads. The two basic types of st
are ii'near strain, which causes "a- chang~ ill
• lengtl;"'6f'dlcspecimen, and shear strain, w
causes }i"'~I~~i:~¥?i~.(ll~angulari'·clationships \v
the structure. Linea-I'· strain is measured as
Three parameters for determining the strength of amoliiltofflIlear de[ormati()n (lengthening or sh
a structure are reflected on the load-deformation ening}"6fthesiilnple di\'ided by the sample's orig
Clll-ve: 1, the load that the structure can sustain be- length. It is a nondim<;nsj()llal paramel<;r expre
fore failing; 2, the deformation ihat it cansustain as a percentage (e.g:, centimeter per centime
before failing; and 3, the erler¥.Y that it CaIlstore be~ She'~1'1:'stt'~lTI1"is measured as the all"1Q.~lIlL.of ang
fore failing. The strel1gth in terms of loaclancLde- ch~~!!.g,~. ,,,(Y)_i,l'-adglif _ ~~lj:~leI )'i l1gi"I"i.t}l<; pl.nne.o
fm:"mation, or ultimate strength, is in,clicatedOllJhe terest in the sample. It is expressedil"il'actians
curve by the ultimate failure point. The streI,lgtl1 in radian-'e(ill~llsai)proximately57.3°) (Internatio
terms of energy storage is indicated by the size of Society of Biomechanics, 1987).
lhe area under the entire cun'e. The larger the area, Stress and strain values can be obtained for b
the greater the energy that build~up in tfle struc- by placing a standardized specimen of bone ti
ture as the load is applied. The stiffness of the in a testing jig and loading it to failure (Fig. 2
structure is indicated by theslope of tl).<::.curve in These values can then be plotted on a stress-st
the elastic region. Thesteepei::::the slope, the stifrer curve (Fig. 2-8). The regions of this curve are s
the material. lar to those of the load-deformation cUll/e. Load
the load-deformation curve is useful for deter- the elastic region do not cause perll1aD.<;nL~I~J(
Inining the mechanical properties of whole struc~ lion, buC6ncc:the yield point is excee.deeJ,s()ll1c
turessuch as a whole bone, an entire ligament or Formation L5 permanent. The strengthoftheJl1~l
tendqn, or a metai implant. This knowledge is help- inl in terms of energy' storage is repre~ent~elby
ful in the study of fracture behavior and repail~ the area .~II1~1.<::I·theyntire curve. The stifFness is re
response of a struetlJre to physical stress, or the er~ sented h.ytheslope of th<? curve in the~Iasticreg
fect of various treatment programs. However, char~ A value for stiffness is obtained by dividing
stress at ~ __point ir~_.thc clastic (straight line) porti()11 (Ke"""ny & Hayes, 1993). The physical differen
of trlC"cllI"\'e by i·he-~t~,~~·in ~t that point. This -isvalue betwecn the two bone tissucs is quantified in ter
caITedtTle-nl0dlll~I~~ o!:-elastfcity (Young's modulus). of the apparent density of bone, which is ddined_
Young'S modulus (E) is d~,T;'ed from Ihe relalionship the mas~_.<?Ip·9ii~jI~~u£:i?,:·~~~ntin a unit of bon~ \
betw';-en str"ss ('T) an~.strain(~): ~~f11e (gram per cubic ccn-titnctci:Tglcc]):-Frg"Llre
depicts typical stress-strain qualities of cortical a
E=<r/E
trabecular bone with different bone densities tes
The elasticity 01" a material or the Young's modulus under similar conditions. In general, it is
E is equal to the slope of the stress (<r) and strain (E) enough lo describe bone strength with a sin
diagram in the clastic linear region. E represents the number. A bctter way is to examine the stress-str
stiffness of Ih" material, such Ihat Ihe higher the curve for the bone tissue under the circumstan
elastic modulus or Young's modulus, the stiffer the tested.
material (Ozkaya & Nordin, 1999). To better understand th" relationship of bone
Mechanical propcrties differ in the two bone other materials, schematic stress-strain curves
types. Cortical_bq__,!_c ~~ s~.Hfer_tlla!,! canccllQus_ bone, bone, metal, and glass illustrate the differences
withstanding greater stress but less strain before mechanical behavior among these matcrials (F
falllll·c. C:-1-n~c~ITol-i-s -bolic-rn·-\'itl:-O--~~·~I~-~;jn lip to 2~10). The variations in stiffness are rcOecled in
50% of strains before yielding. \vhile cortical ~)(?nc different slopes of the cun'cs in the clastic regi
viclds and fractures when the strain exccec!s 1.5 Metal has the steepest slope and is thLis the stiff
10 2.00/0. 8cc~\i.isc---<.)r ·ils~·I)O-'·()lis---stl~ucl·ure, ca..Q~J~I.~_ material.
IOlls~~~=_.I:..'~_s a la-j";gc c~:.pa.::itS~_ (61~ enei·gy..sto,~ge
C
C' .•• ---- .. -••• -------- ••••........••••........••••....
PlastiC region
B'
A B" C"
•
Apparent Densily scnce of a plastic region on the stl"L'ss-strain cur
..... 0.30 glee By contrasl, metal exhibits cxtensh·t: deformati
~
:::1 . CortIcal bone
- - . 0.90 glee
- - 1.85 glee
before failing, as indicalC'd b~' a long plastic reg
on the ClitYC. Bone also deforms before failing
to a rnuch lesser extent than metal. The differen
~ in the plastic behavior of metal and bone is the
100
~ suit or differences in microlllcchanical events
iii yield. Yielding in melal (tested in tension,
50
/
/ -------------- pulled) is caused b~' plastic rIow and the fonrwti
of plaslic slip lines; slip lines art: formed when
Trabecular bone
/
o.j.........,=.:...:..:".+"..:..:. ".:....:..:.:. :".:."
-'<":..:.":..:..:. :.c •.c.;":..:•.:.":...".f.:.c.;".:.":..".:.."---<
..c.;.,:..:.":..
. .:..:... molecules of lhe latticc structurc of mctal dis
o 5 10 15 20 25 cate. Yielding in bone (tested in tcnsion) is caus
Strain (%)
Met
Example of stress-strain curves of cortical and trabec-
ular bone with different apparent densities, Testing
was performed in compression. The figure depicts the
difference in mechanical behavior for the two bone
structures. Reprinted with permission from Ke,1'.'eny.
T M., & Hc1yes, \tV. C. (1993). Mechanical properri(;.ls of cor- Glass
tical ancl rfDoecular bone, Bone. 7, 28S·]t]4,
Ceramic
Alumina 300 350 <2
Biological
Cortical bone 100-150 10-15 1-3
Trabecular bone 8-50 2-4
Tendon, ligament 20-35 2.0-4,0 10-25
1t - - - - - - - -
II
i
Ductile fracture
I
I
Brittle fracture
-. I
~
I
,urface' of sample, of a ductile and a br;ttle
material. The broken Jines on the ductile material in- Scanning electron photomicrograph of a human co
dicate the original length of the sample. before it tical bone specimen tested in compression (30X). A
deformed. The brittle material deformed very little rows indicate oblique cracking of the osteons. Courtesy
before fracture. Dennis R. Carter, Ph.D.
•
200
MPa
----
Strain
Anisotropic behavior of cortical bone specimens from a the neutral axis of the bone, tilted 60", and transver
human femoral shaft tested in tension (pulled) in four (T). Data from Frankel, V.H., & Burstein, A.H. (1970).
directions: longitudinal (L). tilted 30" with respect to lhopaedic Biomech<1nlcs. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
•
10
f·7jgure 2-14 shows the variations in strength and
stiffness for cortical bone samples from a human
remoral shah, tested in tension in four directions
(Frankel & Burstein c 1970; Carterc 1978). The values B
for both parameters are highest for the samples
loaded in the longitudinal direction. Figures 2·9 and
2·15 show trabecular bone slI-cngth and stiffness
6
tesled in two directions: compression and tension.
Trabecular or cancellous bone is approximately 25%
as dense, 5 to look; as stiff, and five times as ductile
as conical bone. 4
Although lhe relationship bel ween loading pat-
lerns and the mechanical properties of bone
throughout the skeleton is extremely complex, it
generally can be said that bone strength and stiff- 2
ness are greatest in the dircction in which daily
loads arc most commonly imposed.
0-1----1----1----1---+--"'"-1
o 2 4 6 B
..
of the pe-roneus brevis tendon and fractt,lres
the calcaneus adjacent to the attachment of
AchUlqs tendon. Figure 2-18 shows a tensile frac
through the calcaneus; intense contraction of
triceps surae muscle produces abnormall,Y high
Tension Compression Bending
sile loads on the bone.
• I'~.
Compression
DUling compressive loading, equal ~nd opposite lO
I are applied toward the surface of the structure
•
I i compressive stress and strain. result inside the st
eli
C..J
ture. Compressive stress can be thought of as m
small forces directed into the surface of the stluct
Maximal compressive stress occurs on a plane
pendicular to the applied load (Fig. 2-19). Under c
Shear Torsion Combined
loading
pressive loading, the structure shortens and widen
Clinically, COin pression fractures are commo
~L.-.- _
found in the vertebrae. which are subjected to h
compressive loads. These fractures are most o
seen in the elderly with osteoporotic bone tis
1
Schematic representation of various loading modes.
Figure 2-20 shows the shortening and widen
Tension
During tensile loading, equal and opposite loads are
applied olltward from the surface of the structure,
ancCtensile stress and strai"n result inside the struc-
ture. Ten'sile stress can be thought of as manv small
forces directed· <.nva:v from the -;'urface of th~ stlJIC- Tensile loading.
that takes place in a human vertebra subjected to a Compression fracture of a human first lumbar ver
high compressive load. In a joint, compressive load- bra. The vertebra has shortened and widened.
ing to failure can be produced by abnormally
strong contraction of the surrounding muscles. An •
example of this effect is presented in Figure 2-2 t;
bilateral subcapilal fractures of the Femoral neck
were sustained by a patient undergoing electroc
vulsive therapy; strong contractions of the mus
around the hip joint compressed the femoral h
against the acetabulum.
Shear
L
Before loading Under shear loading
o
ues for ultimate stress uncleI' compressive, tensile,
and shear loading. Cortical bone can withstand
greater stress in compression (approximately 190
Mpa) than in tension (approximately 130 !\Ilpa) and
greater stress in tension than in shear (70 r\'lpa). The
D CJ
<> 0 1 <>
***
Unloaded Under Under
~
lensile compressive
loading loading
I
F-
.
The presence of shear strain in a structure loaded
'---------
tension and in compres.sion is indicated by angula
_ Shear loading. deformation.
1
-~
Cross-section of a bone subjected to bending, show-
ing distribution of stresses around the neutral axis.
Tensile stresses act on the superior side, and compres-
sive stresses act on the inferior side. The stresses are
highest at the periphery of the bone and lowest near
the neutral axis. The tensile and compressive stresses
are unequal because the bone is asymmetrical.
..
1_/_ _
..
B_-----.JO
stresses may not be equally distributed.
Bending may be produced by thl'qe forces (th
point bendiilg) Ol:.Xour forces (roUI'~point bend
(Fig. 2-26). Fractures produced b)' both type
bending are commonly observed clinically, par
lady in the long bones.
Three-point bendirlgtakesplace when t
forces acting on a structure pn)c!uce two equal
mcnts, each being the product of one of the t\\'
ripfle!~;;liforces and its perpcndicular distance.
the axis of rotation (the point at which the mi
Two types of bending. A, Three-point bending. Forceis applied) (Fig. 2-26;\). IF loading conti
B, Four-point bending.
to the )-'iele! point, the structure, if homogene
symmetrical, and with no structural or tissue
Four~point bending takes place when two fo
couples acting on a stl'uclurc produce two eq
moments. A force couple is formed when two par
lei forces or equal magnitude but opposite direct
~ ,"'''' are applied to a structure (Fig. 2-28;\). Because
o Fatigued muscle ~
, ~ ~~ _"~ ~ " ~ ~ ~"_c magnitude of the bending moment is the sa
throughout the area between the two force coupl
the structure breaks at its weakest point. An exa
ple of a FourNpoint bending FraclUre is shown in F
ure 2-28B. A stifT knee joint was manipulated inc
rectl y' during rehabilitation of a palient with
postsurgical infected femoral fracture, During
61, .
@.-
,:
Shear
Compression
formation of an initial crack parallel to the neu
axis of the bone. A second crack usually fo
along the plane or maximal tensile stress. Suc
pattern can be seen in the experimentally produ
<J)
, Ii'
,i<? torsional fracture of n canine femur shown in
ure 2-31.
,,, ,!' ....... 1
Tension
'-.-'
I Combined loading,
Allhough each loading mode has been conside
separately, living bone is seldom loaded in one m
Schematic representation of a small segment of bone only. Loading of bone in vivo is complex for
,;
loaded in torsion. Maximal shear stresses act on principal reasons: bones .~.re ~onstantly subjecte
planes parallel and perpendicular to the neutral axis. multiple indeterminate loads and their geome
Maximal tensile and compressive stresses act on structure is irregulm: In vivo mcasurement of
planes diagonal to this axis.
strains on the antcrol11cdial surface of a hum
adull tibia during walking and jogging dcm
SlrateS the comph.:.xil.V 01" the loading patterns dur- crcas~d both the str~ss and the strain Oil the lib
ing these cOl11mon ph.'·siological activities (Lanyon (Lan.'·on ct aI., 1975). This increase in strain w
el aI., 1975). Stress values calculated from these grt,,:atcr speed was confirmed in studies or locom
strain measurel~lents by Carter (1978) showed thal lion in sheep, which ckmonslratcd a fivefold
during normal walking, the strc.i.~es wcre COlllP.I"CS- crcase in slrain values from siD\\" walking to f
s.ivc dllring heel strike, tensile during- thc--s_t-~!.nce lrotting (Lanyon & Bourn, 1979).
ph~y~·,·,indi1¥aill--c()il·~prcssive-.~Iu'ri,~,lg- pLlsl.1~off (Fig.
2-3"2A). VaI"ucs for shear stress \\'cn.:.~ relatively high
INFLUENCE OF MUSCLE ACTIVITY ON STRESS
in the later portion of the gait c)ldc, denoting sig-
DISTRIBUTION IN BONE
nificant torsional loading. This torsional loading
\vas associated with external rotation of the tibia When bone is loaded in vivo, the contraction of t
during stance ancl push-ofr. muscles attached to the bone alters dlC stress dist
Dul"ing jogging. the stress pattern was quite dif- bution in [he bone. This muscle contraction d
rerent (Fi-g. 2:328). The COlJlP.~·.~~.~~c_slrcssPFcdom- cr<.:ases 01· eliminates [ensile stress on the bone
inatin!! at lac strike was followed bv high tensile producing compressi\'c SlI-CSS thal neutralizes it
stress~di.iring r>ll-sh-ofr. The sllenr slrcss~:vi~~--'o\V ther partially or totall~·.
tfil'oughout 'tlle strich:\ denoting 111ini;lwl torsional The effect of muscle contraction can be ill
loadhig"pl~o(lllced by slight e~'\tern~" and inlcrm~l 1'0- trated in a tibia subjected to three-point bendin
tatiOll or-the tibia in an-ahernating pallcrn. The in- Figure 2~33A represents Lhe leg of a skier who
crease--fll specd from slow walking LO jogging in- falling: forward, subjecting the tibia Lo a bendi
10
Tensile
Walking (1.4 m/sec) 8 Compressive
4
Stress Shear (external rotation)
Tensile Shear (internal rotation)
3
Compressive 6
2 Shear (external rotation) rn
a.
~
~
z
1 I1
~
~
~
iii
4
4·
h.
HS
i
l,\
FF
r
HO s
2· "'\ ii
\i
1\
HO TO 4 .l---=-E--=~'-:':::------
TS TS·TO
A B
A. Calculated stresses on the anterolateral cortex of a 8, Calculated stresses on the anterolateral cortex of a
human tibia during walking. HS, heel strike; FF, foot human tibia during jogging. T5, toe strike; TO, toe o
flat; HO, heel-off; TO. toe off; S, swing. Calwlated from Calwfared [rom Lanyon. L.E.. Hampson. W.G.)., Goodship
Lanyon, L.E.. Hampson. W'.G.J., Goodship. A.E.. et af. AE., et al. (1975). Bone deformation recorded in vivo fro
(1975). Bone deformation recorded in vivo (rom srrain strain gaoges aClacIJed ro the human tibial Shaft. Acta
gauges c1tr<elched to the human tibial sharr. ACla Orlhop Orthop 5cand. 46. 256. Figure courtesy 01 Dennis R. Carte
Scand, 46. 256. Figure coortesy of Dennis R. Carler, Ph.D Pll.D.
, ,-, , bone is loaded (Le., the rate at which the load is
,, ""
•
plied and removed). Bone is stifTer and sustain
higher load to failure when loads are applied
higher rates. Bone also stores more energy be
r:~
, , failure at higher loading rates, provided that th
,, ''
: I
rates are within the physiological range.
The in vivo claily' strain can vary considerab
The calculated strain rate for slow walking is 0.
per second, \vhile slow running displays a st
rate of 0.03 per second.
In general, when activities become more stre
ous, the strain rate increases (Keaveny & Ha
1993). Figure 2-35 shows cortical bone behavio
tensile testing at different physiological strain ra
B As can be seen from the figure, the same chang
strain rate produces a larger change in ultim
stress (strength) than in elasticit.\' (Young's mo
lus). The data indicates that the bone is appr
A. Distribution of compressive and tensile stresses in mately 30(/0 stronger for brisk walking than for s
a tibia subjected to three-point bending. B, Contrac-
tion of the triceps surae muscle produces high com-
pressive stress on the posterior aspect, neutralizing
the high tensile stress.
:
'
'
ma.y fail in compression. ,
Muscle contraction produces a similar effect in "
the hip joint (Fig. 2-34). During locomotion, bend-
ing moments are applied to the femoral neck and
tensile stress is produced on the superior cortex.
Contraction of the gluteus medius muscle pro-
duces compressive stress that neutralizes this ten-
sile stress, with the net result that neither com-
pressive nor tensile stress acts on the superior
cortex. Thus, the muscle contraction allows the
femoral neck to sustain higher loads than would Stress distribution in a femoral neck subjected to
otherwise be possible. bending. When the gluteus medius muscle is relax
(top), tensile stress acts on the superior cortex an
compressive stress acts on the inferior cortex. Con
STRAIN RATE DEPENDENCY IN BONE
traction of this muscle (bottom) neutralizes the te
Because bone is a viscoelastic material, its biome- sile stress.
chanical behavior varies with the rate at which the
400 were produced, and displacement of the fragme
was pronounced.
Clinically, bone fractures fall into three gene
categories based on the amount of energy releas
1500/sec
300
at fracture: low-energy!, high-energy, and VCI)' hi
300/sec energy. A low-energy fracture is exemplifled by
simple torsional ski fracture; a high-energy fract
is often sustained during automobile accidents; a
I~" a very high-energy fracture is produced by v
l::l 200 ~--- O.lIsec high-muzzle velocity gunshot.
'I" - - - - - O.Ollsec
iii Brisk walking
FATIGUE OF BONE UNDER
O.OOl/sec
REPETITIVE LOADING
100 Slow walking Bone fractures can be produced b:v a single lo
that exceeds the ultimate strength of the bone
by repeated applications of a load of lower mag
tude. A fracture caused by a repeated load appli
o'l'---+---+---+------i tion is called a fatigue fracture and is lypically p
0.0 0.5 1.5 2.0 duced either by few repetitions of a high load or
many repetitions of a relatively normal load (C
Study 2-1).
The interplay of load and repetition for any m
Rate dependency of cortical bone is demonstrated at
te!"inl can be plotted on a fatigue curve (Fig. 2-3
five strain rates. 80th stiffness (modulus) and For some materials (some metals. for exampl
strength increase considerably at increased strain thc fatiguc curve is asymptotic, indicating tha
rates. Adapted from McElhaney, J.H. (1966). Dynamic the load is kept below a certain level, theoretica
response of bone and muscle tissue. J Appl Physio1, 2}, the material will remain intact no matter h
many repetitions. For bone tested in vitro,
I, /23/-/236.
curve is not asymptotic. \,Vhen bone is subjected
III
repetitive low loads, it may sustain microfractur
Testing of bone in vitro also reveals that bone
tigues rapidly when the load or deformation
walking. At very high strain rates (> I per second) proaches its yield strength; that is, the number
representing impact trauma, the bone becomes repetitions needed to produce a Fracture dim
more brittle. In a full range of cxperimentaltesting ishes rapidly.
for ultimate tensile strength and elasticity of corti- In repetitive loading of living bone, the fatig
, cal bone, the strength increases by a factor of three process is affected not only by the amount of lo
and the modulus by a faclor of two (Keaveny & and the number of repetitions but also bv
Hayes, 1993). number of applications of the load within a giv
The loading rale is clinically significant because it time (frequency of loading). Because living bon
innuences both the fracture paUern and the amount self-repairing. a fatigue fracture results only wh
of soft tissue damage at fracture. \Vhen a bone frac- the remodeling process is outpaced by the fatig
tures. the stored energy is released. At a low loading process-that is, when loading is so Frequent t
rate, the energy can dissipate through the formation it precludes the remodeling necessary to prev
of a single crack; the bone and soft tissues remain failure.
relatively intact, with little or no displacement of the Fatigue fractures are llsually sustained dur
,. bone fragments. At a high loading rate, however, the continuous strenuous physical activity, wh
;'·',greater energy stored cannOt dissipate rapidly causes the muscles to become fatigued and redu
:~ enough through a single crack, and comminution of .' their ability to contracl. As a result, the.v are l
bone and extensive soft tissue damage resull. Figure able to store energy aI~d thus to neutralize
. 2-36 shows a human tibia tested in vitro in torsion stresses imposed on the bone, The resulling al
at a high loading 1'4ue; numerou:j bone fragments ation of the stress distribution in the bone cau
;;J'
Human tibia experimentally tested to failure in torsion at a high loading rate. Dis-
placement of the numerous fragments was pronounced.
B"ne Overloading vent failure. iVluscie fatigue occurred as a result of the abno
mal loading pattern and the intensive uaining, It affected th
23-year-old military recruit was exposed to an intensive
A
" , ' heavy physical training regime that included repetitive
continuous crawling in an awkward position for several
muscle function in the neutralization of the stress imposed,
leading to abnormal loading and altered stress distribution
(Case Study Fig. 2-1-1 B).
weeks (Case Study Fig. 2-1-1 A). The repeated application of
After 4 \-veeks of strenuous physical activity, the damage
loads (high repetitions) and the number of applications of a
accumulation from fatigue at the femoral shaft lead to an
load during a short period of time (high frequency of loading)
oblique fracture.
surpassed the time for the bone remodeling process to pre-
Case Study Figure 2-1-1A. Abnormal loads at the femoral shaft occurred.
duced more slowl~'; the remodeling is Icss casily o
paced by the fatiguc process and the bone may
proceed to complete fracture.
,'. This theol)1 of muscle fatigue as a cau~e of
".3
m Injury tigue fracture in the lower extremities is outlin
in the schema in Flowchart 2-1 on p. 41.
Figure 2-38 shows typical strain ranges for
man femoral cortical bone during different act
tics and distances. Resistance to fatiguc behavio
Repetition great.er in compression than in tension (Keaveny
Hayes, 1993). On average, approximately 5,000
clcs of experimental loading correspond to
number of steps in to miles of running. One m
The interplay of load and repetition is represented
on a fatigue curve.
lion cycles corresponds to approximately 1,
miles. A total distance of less than 1,000 m
• could cause a fracture of the cortical bone tiss
This is consistent with stress fractures repor
abnormally high loads to be imposed, and n fatigue among military recruits undergoing strenu
damage accumulation occurs that Illav lead to training of up to 1,000 miles of nll1ning ove
a fracture. Bone may fail on the tensil~ side, on short period of timc (6 weeks). Fracturcs of in
the compressive side, or on both sides. Failure on vidual trabeculae in cancellous bone have been
the tensile side resulls in a transverse crack, and the served in postmortem hUlllan specimens and I
bone proceeds rapidly to complete fracture. Fatigue be caused by fatigue accumulation. Common s
fnlctures on the compressive side appear to be pro- arc the lumbar vcnebrae, the femoral head, a
the proximal tibia. It has been suggested that th
o Compression fractures may playa role in bone remodeling
Miles
II ::1
• TenSion well as in age-related fractures, collapse of s
10 100 1000 chondral bone, degeneraLive joint diseases, a
I I !
• • other bone disorders.
'E 0006
l~
INFLUENCE OF BONE GEOMETRY ON
I~ 0 004 vlgorous,-:":::!::::""~~S~'b-'<:::::::-;:;-~ BIOMECHANICAL BEHAVIOR
Ii g~ 0.002
exercise
Running -----------===--:::- The geometrv of a bone greatl\' influences its m
· tI) Walking chanical bel~avior. In Le~lsion' and compressi
I 0.0001+0-0--1---+---+----+---!------I
1~ 1~ 1~ the load to failure and the stiffness arc prop
Number 01 Cycles tional to the cross-sectional area of the bone. T
"i larger the area, the stronger and stiffer the bo
lam
I -------- In bending, both the cross-sectional arca and
distribution of bone tissue around a neutral a
Fatigue testing showing the number of cycles (x-axis) affcct the bone's mechanical behavior. The qu
and strain range (y-axis) expressed as stress rangel tity that takes inLO account these two factors
modulus in human cortical bone specimens loaded in
bending is called the area moment of inertia
tension and compression. Typical strain ranges are
larger moment of inertia results in a stron
shown for walking, running. and vigorous exercises.
and stiffer bone. Figure 2-39 shows the in
. Note that resistance to fatigue fracture is greater in
ence of the arc,) moment of inenia on the l
I compressive loading. Ten miles represent approxj·
to failure and the stiffness of three rectangu
I mately 5,000 cycles, corresponding to the number of
steps running during that distance. Aclapared from Slruclures thal have the same area but differ
I
'
,i
Carrer. D.R., Cater. W.E., Spengler, O.M.. Frankel, \l.H.
(J 98 1). Fatigue behavior of adtilt cortical bone: the influ-
shapes. In bending, beam III is thc stillest of
lhree and call withstand the highest load beca
i ence of mean srrc1ilJ anel strain range. Acra Orthop Seane!. the greatest amount of material is distribuLed a
i 52.48/-490. distance from the neulral axis. For rectangu
4 ){ 1 2x2 1x 4
I II III
Three beams of equal area but different shapes subjected to bending. The
area moment of inertia for beam I is 4/12; for beam II, 16112; and for beam
111,64/12. Adapted hom Franke', VH .. & Burstein, AH. (970). Orthopaedic Bio-
mechanics. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
inertia is the width (8) multiplied by the cube of The factors that affect bone strength and stiff
the height (1-1') divided by 12: in torsion are the same that operate in bending:
cross-sectional area and the distribution of bone
B· H'
sue around a ncutral axis. The quantity that ta
12 into account these two factol's In torsional load
Because of its large area moment of inertia. bean"'! is the polar moment of inertia. The larger the p
III can withstand four times more load in bending moment of inertia. the stronger LInd stiffer the b
limn can beam I. Figure 2-41 shows distal LInd pl'oximnl cr
A third factor, the length of the bone, influences sections of a tibia subjected to torsional loading
the strength and stillness in bending. The longer the though the proximal section has a slightly sma
bone, the greater the magnitude of the bending mo- bony area thun docs the distal section, it has a m
ment caused by the application of a force. ,In a rec- higher polar moment of inertia because much o
tangular structure, the magniwde of the stresses bone tissue is distributed at a distance from the
produced al the point of application of Ihe bending tral axis. The distal section, while it has a la
moment is proponional to lhe length of the StI1.IC- bony area. is subjected to much higher shear st
lure. Figure 2-40 depicts the forces acting on two bccause much of the bone tissue is distributed c
beams with the same width and height but different to the neutral axis. The magnitude of the sh
lengths: beam B is twice as long as beam A. The stress in the distal section is approximately do
bending moment for the longer beatn is twice that that in the proximal section. Clinically, torsi
for the shorter beam; consequently, the stress mag~ fractures of the tibia commonly occur distnlly.
nitudc throughout the beam is twice as high. Be- When bone begills to heal after fracture, b
cause of their length, the long bones of the skeleton vessels and connective tissue from the periost
are subjected to high bending moments and. there- migrate into the region of the fracture. formin
fore, to high tensile and c01npressive stresses. Their cuff of dense fibrous lissue, or callus (woven bo
tubular shape gives them the ability to resist bend- around the fracture site. stabilizing that area (
ing moments in all directions. These bones have a 2-42A). The callus significantly increases the
large area moment of inertia because much of the and polar moments of inertia. thereby increa
bone tissue is distributed at a distance from the neu- the strength and stiffness of the bone in ben
tral axis. and torsion during the healing period. As the r
l
Stress
~-"'~~-<:;magnilude S
-r-_I-L---... -L • I
Stress
magnitude =, 25
2L _____
- - - - - - 2L
----.I
as as
bending moment. Hence, the stress magnitude
throughout beam B is twice as high. Adapted from
VH., & Burstein, A.H. (7970), Orthopaedic Bio·
mechanics. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
A, Early callus formation in a femoral fracture fixe
with an intramedullary nail. B, Nine months after
jury, the fracture has healed and most of the callu
cuff has been resorbed. Courtesy of Robert A. vVinqu
MD
Contro
Burstein and associates (1972) showed the effect
of stress rabel's produced by' screws and by empty
screw holes on the energy storage capacity of rab-
bit bones tested in torsion at a high loading rate.
The irnmediatc effect or drilling a hole and insert-
ing a screw in a rabbit femur was a 74% decrease
in energy stOl'age capacily. After 8 weeks, the stress
Open section
Deformation
Bone Remodeling
Bone has the ability to remodel, b)' altering its siz
shape, and structure, to meet the mechanical d
mands placed on it (Buckwalter et aI., 1995). Th
phenomenon, in which bone gains or loses cance
lous and/or cortical bone in response to the level
stress sustained, is summarized as \'VqJJr's la
which states that the, remodeling of bone is infl
enced and modulated by mechanical stress
(Wolff, 1892): .
Load on the~,keleton can b~,,,~lc.l.:(?I""l~plished by e
tht:;,I.:,IX1~~_?(.:lc,activily or gravity. A positive correlatio
exists b~twcen bOI1e mass and body we-ight. A gr~at
body weight has been associated \vitha larger bo
mass (Exner et al., 1979). Conversely, a prolong
condition ohveightlcssness, such as that expedenc
during space travel, has been found to result in d
creased bone mass in weight-bearing bones. Astr
nauts experience a fast loss of calcium and co
sequent bone loss (Rambaut & Johnston, 197
\Vhedon, 1984). These changes are not complete
reversible.
~'------- Normal
A patient sustained a tibial fracture through a surgi-
I cally produced open section defect when she tripped
I a few weeks after the biopsy.
I
..-----------------
open section defect, only the shear stress at the pe-
riphery of the bone resists the applied torque. As the
shear stress encounters the discontinuity, it is
forced to change direction (Fig. 2-44B), Throughout
the interior of the bone, the stress nms parallel to Deformation
the applied torque, and the amount of bone tissue
resisting the load is greatly decreased.
In torsion tests in vitro of human adult tibiae, an Load-deformation curves for vertebral segments L5
open section defect reduced the load to failure and to L7 from normal and immobilized Rhesus monkeys
energy storage to failure h,v as much as 90'10. The de- Note the extensive loss of strength and stiffness in
formation to failure was diminished by! approxi- the immobilized specimens. Adapted from Kazarian,
mately 70% (Frankel & Burstein, 1970) (Fig. 2-45). L.L.. g Von Gierke, H.E. (1969) Bone loss as a result of
Clinically, the surgical removal of a piece of bone immobilization and chelation, Preliminary results in
can greatly \veaken the bone, particularly in torsion. ivlacaca mulatta. (lin Orthop. 65. 67.
UW
nl
.... '------------------
,'- ." Vertebral cross-sections from autopsy specimens of
young (A) and old (8) bone show a marked reduction in
c
S_i_"_"_i_J_rv_lo_d_,_";_.S_,_2_2_'_.
mined by the geometry and n1mcrial properties of around scrcws is illustrated in Figure 2-49. A
each structure (Case Stud)' 2-2). A large plate, car- plate was applied to a femoral neck fracture and
rying high loads, unloads the bone to a great ex- bone hypcrtrophied around the scrcws in resp
tent; the bone then atrophies in response to this di- to the increased load at thesc sites. H.~lpert
minished load, (The bone may hypertrophy at the may also result if bone is repeatcdly subjecte
bone-screw interface in an altcmpt to reduce the high mechanical stresses within the normal ph
rnicrol1lotion of the screws.) logical range. Hypertrophy of normal adult bon
Bone resorption under a plate is illustrated in response to strenuous exercise has been obse
Figure 2-48. A compression plate made of a mater- (Dalen & Olsson, 1974; Huddleston et aI., 1
ial approximately 10 times stifTer than the bone \Vas Jones et aI., 1977), as has an increase in bone
applied to a fractured ulna and remained after the sity (Nilsson & Wesllin, 1971),
fracture had healed, The bone under the plate ear-
ried a lower land than normal; it was partially re-
sorbed, and the diameter of the diaphysis became
markedly smaller. A reduction in the size of the Degenerative Changes in Bone
bone diameter greatly decreases bone strength. par- Associated With Aging
ticularly in bending and torsion, as it reduces the
area and polar moments of inertia. A 20(M, decrease A progressive loss of bone density has been
in bone diameter may reduce the strength in tor- sCI·veci as part of the normal aging process. The
sion by 60%. Changes in bone size and shape illus- gitudinal trabeculae become thinner, and som
trated in Figure 2-48 suggest that rigid plates the transverse trabeculae arc resorbed (SifTe
should be removed shortly after a fraeture has Levy, 1981) (Fig. 2-50). The result is a marke
healed and before the bone has markedly dimin- duction in the amount of cancellous bone a
ished in size. Such a decrea.sc in bone size is usu- thinning of conical bone. The relationship betw
ally accompanied by secondary osteoporosis, which' bone mass, age. and gender is shown in Figure
further weakens the bone (SI'itis et a!., 1980), The decrease ill bone Lissuc and the slight decr
An implant may cause bone hypertrophy at its at- in the size or the bone reduce bone strength
tachment sites. An example of bone hypertrophy stillness.
Stress~strain curves for specimens from
adult tibiae of t\VO widely differing ages te
ro
U
1000
tension are shown in Figure 2~52. The u
o stress was approximately the sarne for the
E
and the old bone. The old bone specimen
'"
w
w
m withstand only half the strain that the youn
:;; 500
ID could, indicating greater brittleness and a re
C
o
tIl
in energy storage capacit},. The reduction
density', strength, and stiffness results in in
bone fragility!. Age~related bone loss depen
20 40 60 BO number of factors, including genclel: age
Age (years) menopause, endocrine abnormality, inactiv
~OWlng
use, and calcium deficiency. Over several d
the skeletal mass ma.y be reduced to 5000 of
trabecular and 25°/(; of cortical mass. In the
the relatIOnship between bone mass,
age, and gender. On the top of the figure, a cross-
decade, women lose approximately 1.5 to 2(1
section of the diaphysis of the femur and the bone while men lose only approximately half th
mass configuration is shown. Reprinted ('lith permission (0.5 to 0.75(-/0) yearly. Regular physical activ
from Kaplan, F.S., rlayes, W.c., Keaveny, T.M., er al exercise (Zetterbarg et aI., 1990), calcium, a
(7994), Form and function of bone. In S.R. Simon (edJ sibly estrogen intake may decrease the rate
Orthopaedic Basic Science (.0, 767). Rosemont, IL:AAOS mineral loss during aging.
Summarv
1i Bone is a complex two-phase composit
rial. One phase is composed of inorganic
salts and the other is an organic matrix of c
and ground substance. The inorganic com
makes bone hard and rigid, whereas the
component gives bone its flexibility and resi
2 tVlicroscopically, the fundamental str
unit of bone is the osteon, or haversian
composed of concentric layers of a mineraliz
trix surrounding a central canal containin
vessels and nellie fibers.
3· rv(acroscopicall.\" the skeleton is comp
cortical and cancellous (trabecular) bone.
bone has high density' while trabecular bon
in density over a wide range.
Strain
Bone is an anisotropic material, exhibi
ferent mechanical properties \vhen loaded in
ent directions. iVlature bone is strongest and
Stress-strain curves for samples of adult young and in compression.
old human tibiae tested in tension, Note that the
bone strength is comparable but that the old bone is S Bone is subjected to complex loading p
more brittle and has lost its ability to deform. during common physiological activities s
Adapted from Burs rein, A.H., Reilly, D. T, & Alartens, M. walking and jogging. Most bone fractures a
(976). Aging of bone tissue' Mechanical properties. duced by a con1bination of several loading m
Bone Joint Surg, 58A, 82.
6 Ivluscle contraction affects stress patt
bone by producing compressive stress that p
or totall).' neutralizcs thc tcnsilc stress acting on the Frankel, VH., &: Burslein. A.H. (1970). Ort/lOpacdic Biol/li.'clul
Philadelphia: Lea 0.: Febigel:
bone. f-Iuddbaoll, A.t.. Rockwell, D.. Kulund, D.N., et a1. (1980). B
Bone is stiffer, sustains higher loads before fail- mass in lifetime tennis athletes, hUlA, N4, 1107.
ing, and stores more energy whcn loaded at higher !nternaLional Societv of Biomechanics (1987). QII{/lIlitics alld l
oj" J1easllfi.'IIiCIIlS· iI/ Bio/lltxhal/ics (unpublished).
physiological strain rates.
Jenkins. D.P.. 0.: Cochran, T.H. (1969). Osteoporosis: The dram
~i Living bone fatigues when the frequcnc y.' of effecl of disuse of an extremity. Clill On/lOp, 64, 128.
loading precludes the remodeling necessary to pre- Jones, H., Priest . ./.. Hayes, \V.. et a1. (1977). f-lu!11l.'ral hYPl.'nr
in response to exercise. J BOlle Joill/ SIiI;!5. 59:\, 204.
vent failure.
Kaplan. ES .. Hayes. We., Kea\'eny. T.iVI., l'l al. (1994). Form
The mechanical behavior of a bone is influ- funcLion of bone. In S.R. SiTllon (Ed.). Orlhopacdic Basic Sc
enced by its geometry (length, cross-sectional area, (pp.I27-184). Rosemont. IL: AAOS.
and distribution of bone tissue around the neutral Kazarian, L.L., & \.lon Gil.'r'ke, I-I.E. (1969) Bone loss as a resu
immobilization and chelation. Preliminary ri:sults in :\1<
lllubtla. Clill Orthop. 65. 67.
Bone remodels in response to the mechanical Ke.weny, T.M .. &: Hayes, \V.e. (1993). Mechanical propertil.'s of
demands placed on it; it is laid down \vhere needed tical and trabecular bone. BOIIC, i, 285-344.
Krolner, B.. 0.: Toft. B. (1983). Vertebral bone loss: An unheeded
and resorbed where not needed. effecL of bedrest. C!ill Sci, 6e+. 537-540.
vVith aging comes a marked reduction in the Kummer, J.K. (1999). Implant Biomatl:.'rials. In: L\1. Sph'ak,
amount of cancellous bone and a decrease in the DiCesare, D.S. Feldman, KJ. Ko\·al. A.S. Rokito. & J.D. Zu
man (Eds.). Or/hop(i('dics:"\ S/Ildy Gllidc (pp. 45-48). New
thickness of cortical bone. These changes diminish \IcGraw-I-lill.
bone strength and stiffness. Lanyon. LE.. &. Bourn. S. (1979). The inlluence or lllechanicd
Lion on the dc\'elopmcrH and remodeling of the tibia: An ex
mental study in sh('ep. .1 BOlle Joinl SI/rg. 6/.4. 263.
REFERENCES Lanyon, L.E., H.unpson. \\I.GJ .. Goodship, A.E., et al. (1975).
deformaLion recorded in vin) from sLrain g'lllgl.'S attached t
Bassett. C.A.L. (1965). Electrical effects in bone. Sci .-\111,2/3. 18.
human tibial shaft. ..lew Onhop Sct/lul, "'6~ 256.
BClIldicld, W.. 0.: Lt, e.H. (1967). AnisoLropy of nonelastic llow in
Nilsson. B.E., & \\btlin, N.E. (1971). Bone density in athletes.
bone. J App{ Physics, 38, 2450.
On/lOp. 77, l79.
Buckwaltcl~ lA.. Glimcher, \U., Coopel: R.R., et al. (1995). Bone bi-
ology. Part I: Stnlcture. blood supply, cells, matrix and mineral-
6zkaya, N., & Nordin, M. (1999). Fllndall/ell/tlls or Biolllcc!ul
EquilibriulII, ,HOlioll. alld Del(lnllatioll (2nd cd.) Ncw
ization. Pan II: Formation, form, remodelling and regubtion of
Springer-Verlag.
cdl funcLion. ((nstructional Course Lectlln:). J BOlle JoiJl! Sllrg.
Rarnballl~ P.c., 0.: ~Johnston. R.S. (1979). Prolonged weighLles
77A, 1256-1289.
and calcium loss in man. Ac!a ASll'ollal/lica, 6, 1113.
Burskin, A.H., Reilly, D.T.. 0.: \bnens, M. (1976). Aging of bone tis-
Siffen, R.S .• & Levy, R.N. (1981). Tnlbccular patterns and the i
sue: :vlechanical properties. J BOllI..' Joilll SI/1~!i. 58:\, 82
nal architecture of bonl.'. ;\fl. Sinai J lIed, 48. 221.
Burstein, A.H., L't al. (1972). Bone strength: The effecl of scre\\"
SltiLis, P., Paa\"{llainell, P., Karaharju, E.. ct al. (1980). Structura
holes. J BOlle Joillt Slil~!i, 54:\, 1143.
biolllechanical changes in bOl~e aher rigid plate fixation. C
n.R. (1978). Anisotropic analysis of strain roselle informa-
SlIIp., 23, 247.
tion from cortical bone. J BiolJlcch, II, 199.
\Vhedon, G.D. (1984') Disuse osteoporosis: Physiological asp
D.R.. 0.: I-!ayes, W.e. (1977). Compact bone fatigue damage:
Cab!" 'fissile lilt, 36, 146-150.
microscopic examination. Clill Of/hop, /27,265.
Wolff, J. (1892). Dlls Gt:set::. der halls!(JrlII(ltiOiI der Kllochcll. B
N.. 0.: Olsson, K.E. (1974). Bone mineral content .md physi-
I-lirschwald.
activity. Acla Orthop Scall(/, 45, 170.
Zetterberg e., Nordin. :\'1., Sko\Ton. M.L.. et al. (1990). SkeleL
G.U., et al. (1979). Bone densitometry using computed to-
feClS of physical activity. Geri-7bpics. /3(4). 17-24.
mography. Part I: Selective determination of trabecular bone
and oLher bone mineral paraml'lers. Normal values in
children and adults. BrJ Radiol, 52, 14.
C
I
VASCULAR FACTO,RS JI
MECHANICAL FACTORS
,ilJ
;j"
w
Protection, suppOrt. kinCffiJtic links
i
~1
Collagen Proteins
Type I )
1 ;,N~~coliag~n'Proteln~;
Growth factor cell
Cry,Olh of
HYDROXYAPATITE '
1 attachment proteins Calcium, Phosphate
PG',
1
1
:
FLOW CHART 2·2 Bone composition. structure, and functions.· (PG's, proteoglycans)
.j ~This flow chart is dl?~igncd for classroom or group discussion. Flow chart is not meant to be exhaustive.
.1
'1
I
fJ, ,,1'.j2ij4if@_~\M¥i"I:IIi:i ;:H%J! dl 'I);; )'MltII: i)() 1tWC' !~
',~.
•~
~
a.
"
>
"a0
0
E £
m "
.."'"
x
.s
0
0
.0
B
cm
V 0
E
'"'m"
E
<;
c
.-
m
V em
'"c0 {;
~
.0 0
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·(11
Blood Flow Gcnedc DIsturbance Tumoral DIsturbance
<.;,\' :..\;.:, \,.::,;:.\- ,~":
"
J .;',: 'i.~,:('erjm"ry
:j ,j
i :\f~pvcloping'
\i ,;,:::';;'Skclc~on
1 J
\:<·",-':::::::Y",
I
j
IJ
"_fC~pr.'l1 head
~ 'Shcucrm3nn;
J"f:,Vcrccbrac'
,::
.Os,conccrosi~~~
of the femoral j:,
condrlos' \0"
, "';; .'
·Cushing
Syndrome
';:1
~,i
:j;
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.'~,
ri PATHOLOGICAL OR FRAGILITY FRACTURE
ij
~
t~: FLOW CHART 2-4 Intrinsic factors associated with bone damage. Clinical examples.*
i~
o
I'" "This flow chart is designed for d<lssroom or group discussion. Flow chart is not meant to be cxhamtivc.
:,i,¥
,:
Biomechanics of
Articular Cartilage
Van C. Mow, Clark T Hung
Introduction
Composition and Structure of Articular Cartilage
Collagen
Proteoglycan
WatE'r
Structural and PhysicallniE'raction Among Cartilage Components
Biomechanical Behavior of Articular Cartilage
Nature of Articular Cartilage Viscoelasticity
Confined Compression Explant Loading Configuration
Biphasic Creep Response of Articular Cartilage in Compression
Biphasic Stress-Relaxation ResponsE' of Articular Cartilage in
Compression
Permeability of Articular Cartilage
Behavior of Articular Cartilage Under Uniaxial Tension
Behavior of Articular Cartilage in Pure Shear
Swelling Behavior of Articular Cartilage
Lubrication of Articular Cartilage
Fluid-Film Lubrication
Boundary Lubrication
Mixed Lubrication
Role of Interstitial Fluid Pressurization in Joint Lubrication
Wear of Articular Cartilage
Hypotheses on Biomechanics of Cartilage Degeneration
Role of Biomechanical Factors
Implications on Chondrocyle Function
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Flow Charts
Introduction Composition and Structure of
Articular Cartilage
Three types of joints exist in the human body: fi-
b'ro~ls, cartilagin,olls. and synovial. Onl.y one of' Chondrocytcs, the sparsely distributed cells in ar
these,;-,ollle syn.ovial. or diarthrodial, jo.int, allows a lllarc~\I:tiL\ge, account for less than 10% of the
large degree of motion. In Y~_L1ng normal joints, the sue's volume (Stoekwell. 1979). Schematically.
,-~llticulalingJ)onecn~ls of diartl~~'odiaIj9_inls,!.re cov- zonal arrangement of chondrocytcs is shown in
}--ered by a-thin (1-6 mill), den~c, tram~JJlcc_nt,~:-,'hile ure 3-1. Despite their sparse distribution, chond
,~~c6nnective-i.i.ssllc called hyaline arliCltlar. cartilage cytcs manufacture, secrete, on!anil',---c, and rnain
iCBox-3:!). Articul'IU~f\rtilage-;"s a highly s-p·ecia·lized tile on!anicco'n;-I;~I~l-~f the~ extracellular ma
. tissue precisely suited for withstanding the highly (ECM) (Fos'lIlg & Hardingham, 1996; ·M~lir, 19
i~adcd joint environment without failure during an The org~nic ma~rix,is compo~~5:L~~[.:~,,(I(:nscp9.J~\
a\lerage individual's lifetime. PhXti.t~~l.Qgically, how- of fin:"-§?·I-(..1¥8~,,,(~'bril~ (n10stly t'ype-Jl~c-olh;~gen.,
ever, ,il is v51~~~I'.lIly an isolated li,ssuc, devQ.id of blood miii6i' amounts .,;1' types V, VI, IX, and XI) that
\;essds, 1).~-mphalic channels, and nelyrol.ogical inncr- enrneshcd..Jn. a cOnCC.tl.traled ~olu.~i().n. of proteo
~alion~'-Flll'lllermoJ'c,its .c~l.llliar density is less than cans (pcs) (l3ate;;'an et aI., I996;Eyre, 1980; M
.·tK"t of any other tissue (Stoek\~c·il. 1979). -~1983)_ 1n nOITn,)1 arLiculaL_cartilage the colla
[n (liartll-i'o(Ti~;fioints, articular cartilage has two cOlllent ranges from 15 to 22% by wet weight
- p-rimar'yfl~nctions': (1) to distl-ibute jo.int loads over the PG con-tent fronl4to 7% bv wet wei(Tht· the
.' :::::> '
,a wiele al-ea, thus decreasing lhe strc:)ses sllst~!.!ned maining 60 to 85 % is walCI: inorganic salts.
by the contacting join.t..~.sl~rraccs (Atcshian ct aI., small amounts of other matrix proteins, glycop
1995; Helminen et aI., 1987) and (2) to allow rel"tive teins. and lipids (Mow & Ratcliffe, 1997). Colla
movementoft!1cu:m,posing joinl surfaces \~:·,i.t"I,l""I~lin flbrils and PGs, each being capablc of form
imal ft:'iction and wear (iVlow & Alcshian, 1997). In structural nctworks of significant strength (Bro
thi's"ch~l'I)iel','wc w'Hi describe how the biomcchani- & Silyn-Roberts, 1990; Kempson et aI., 19
cal pl'openics of articular cartilage, as determined Schmidt el aI., 1990; Zhu et aI., 1991, 1993), arc
by its composition and structure, allow for the opti- structural components supporting the internal
mal performance or these functions. chanical stresses that result rrom loads being
plied to the articular canilage, Moreover, th
structural components, together with water, de
mine the biomcchanical bchavior of this tis
(Ateshian et aI., 1997; Maroudas, 1979; Mow et
1980, 1984; Mow & Aleshian, 1997).
~rticular Cartilage
,
I A notable exception to the definition of hyaline articu-
COLLAGEN
Collagen is the mosl abundant protein in the b
lar G'lrtilage is the temporomandibular joint, a synovial
joint in which fibrocartilage is found covering the bone (Bateman et aI., 1996; Eyre, 1980). In articular ca
ends. Fibrocartilage and a third type of cartilage, elastic lage. collagen has a high level of structural organ
cartilage. are closely related to hyaline cartilage embry- tion that providcs a fibrous ultrastructure (Cl
ologically and histologically but .'lre vastly different in 1985; Clarke, 1971; Mow & Ratcliffe, 1997). The
mechanical and biochemical properties. Fibrocartilage sic biological unit of collagen is tropocollagen
represents a transitional cartilage found at the margins Sln.lcture composed of three procollagen polypep
of some joint cavities, in the joint capsules, and at the chains (alpha chains) coiled into left-handed hel
insertions of ligaments and tendons into bone. (Fig. 3-2;\) thaI are furthcr coiled abollt each o
Fibrocartilage also forms the menisci interposed be- inlO a right-handed triple helix (Fig. 3-28). Th
tween the articular cartilage of some joints and com- rod-like tropocollagen molecules. 1.4 nanOJlle
poses the outer covering of the interverlebral discs. the (nm) in diameter and 300 nm long (Fig. 3-2, C &
anulus fibrosus. Elastic cartilage is found in the external polymerize into larger collagen fibrils (Batem
ear, in the cartilage of the eustachian tube, in the ct al.. 1996; Eyre, 1980), In articular cartilage, th
epiglouis. and in certain pans of the larynx. fibrils have an average' diamcter of 25 to 40
(Fig.3-2E, Box 3-2); howevec this is highly varia
~.~- .,
Articular surface
...... ,,,,'•.,,•.,0' STZ (10.20%)
," '.
,~.-r
•
Scanning electron microscopic studies, for instance, lying bone (Bullough & Jagannath, 1983; Redl
have described fibers with diameters ranging up to aI., 1975). This anisotropic fiber orientation is
200 nm (Clarke, 1971). Covalent cross-links form be- rored by the inhomogeneous zonal variations in
tween these tropocollagen molecules, adding to the collagen content, which is highest at the surface
flbrils high tensile strength (Bateman et aI., 1996). then remains relatively constant throughout
The collagen in articular cartilage is inhomoge- deeper zones (Lipshitz et aI., 1975). This comp
neously distributed, giving the tissue a layered char- tionalla.vering appears to provide an important
acter (Lane & Weiss, 1975; Mow & Ratc1iITc, 1997). mechanical function by' distributing the stress m
Numerous investigations Llsing light. transn1ission uniformly across the loaded regions the join or
electron, and scanning electron microscopy have sue (Selton et aI., 1995).
identifled three separate structural zones. For ex- Cartilage is composed primarily of type II c
ample, Mow et al. (1974) proposed a zonal arrange- gen. [n addition, an array of difFerent coll
ment for the collagen network sho\vn schematically' (t)'Pes V, VI. IX, Xl) can be found in quantitati
in Figure 3-3A. In the superficial tangential zone, minor amounts within articular cartilage. Tvp
which represents 10 to 20()0 of the total thickness, collagen is present primarily in articular cm·ti
are sheets of fine, densely packed fibers randomly the nasal septum, and sternal cartilage, as well
\voven in planes parallel to the articular surface
(Clarke, 1971; Redler & Zimny, 1970; Weiss et aI.,
1968). In the middle zone (40 to 60% of the total
thickness), there are greater distances between the Differences in Coliagen Types
randomly oriented and homogeneousl::.. dispersed
fibers. Below this, in the deep zone (approximatel.v Differences in tropocollagen alpha chains in various
30% of the total thickness), the fibers come together, body tissues give rise to specific molecular species, or
forming larger, radially oriented fiber bundles types of collagen. The collagen type in hyaline cartilage
(Redler et aI., 1975). These bundles then cross the type II collagen, differs from type I collagen found in
tidemark, the interface between articular cartilage bone, ligament, and tendon. Type II collagen forms a
and the calcified cartilage beneath it, to enter the thinner fibril than that of type I, permitting maximum
calcified cartilage, thus forming an interlocking dispersion of collagen throughout the cartilage tissue.
"root" sj'stem anchoring the cartilage to the uncler-
(r chain
A
I Triple helix
1.4 nm
B l
Tropocollagen
molecule
Molecular features of collagen structure from the alpha chain ((I) to the fibril. The flexible
amino acid sequence in the alpha chain (A) allows these chains to wind tightly into a right-
handed triple helix configuration (8), thus forming the tropocollagen molecule (C). This
tight triple helical arrangement of the chains contributes to the high tensile strength of
the collagen fibril. The parallel alignment of the individual tropocollagen molecules, in
which each molecule overlaps the other by about one quarter of its length (0), results in a
repeating banded pattern of the collagen fibril seen by eledron microscopy (x20,OOO) (E).
Reprinted wirh permission from Donohue, It'l1., Buss. D., Oegema. IR., et al. (19831- The effects of
indireCl blunt trauma Oil adult canine arricuhu cartilage. J Bone Joint Surg, GSA. 948.
•
the inner regions of the intervertebral disc and because their large slendcnlcss ratio, the rati
meniscus. For reference, type I is the most abun- length to thickness, makes it easy for them to bu
dant collagen in the human body and can be found under cotl1prcssive loads (Fig. 3-48).
in bone and soft tissues such as intervertebral discs Like bone, articular canilage is anisotropic
(rnainl.y in the annulus fibrosis), skin. meniscus, ten- material properties differ with the direction of l
dons, and ligaments. The most important mechani- ing (Akizuki et aI., 1986; Kempson, 1979; Mow
cal properties of collagen fibers nrc their tensile RalclifTc, 1997; Roth & Mow, 1980; Woo el
stiffness and their strength (Fig. 3-4;\). Although a 1987). Oft is thought that this anisotropy is relate
Single collagen fibril has'-not be~n tested in len;ion. the varying collagen fiber arrangements within
the tensile slI'ength of collagen can be inferred from planes parallel to the articular surface. It is
tests on structures with high collagen contenl. Ten- thought, however, that variations in collagen f
dons, for example, are about 80% collagen (dry cross~link density, as well as variations in colla
weight) and have a tensile stiffness of 10.1 !\'1Pa and PG interactions. also contribute to articular c
a tensile strength of SO MPa (Akizuki et aI., 1986; lage tensile anisotrop~", In tension, this anisotr
Kempson, 1976, 1979; Wooet aI., 1987, 1997).Stec1, is llsually described with respect to the direc
by comparison, has a tensile stillness of approxi- of the articular surface split lines. These split l
mately 220 x 10" MPa. Although strong in tension. arc elongated fissures Jj·roduced by piercing the
collagen fibrils offer little resis(ance lo ~olllpression ticular surface with a small round awl (Fig.
B STL Middle zone Deep zone
A. Schematic representation, (Repriflleej \·virh permission from zone, randomly arrayed fibrils are less densely packed to ac-
Mow v.c. el al. j1974j. Some surface dJc1riJcteristics of arriculaf commodate the high concentration of proteoglycans and wa-
cartilages. A scanning electron microscopy sludy and a theoretical ter, The collagen fibrils of the deep zone form larger radially
mode! for the dynamic interaction of synovial fluid and articular car· oriented fiber bundles that cross the tidemark, enter the calci·
tilage. J Bionll?{hanics, 7, 449), B. Photomicrographs (x3000; fied zone, and anchor the tissue to the underlying bone. Note
provided through the courtesy of Dr. T. Takei, Nagano. Japan) the correspondence between this collagen fiber architecture
of the ultrastructural arrangement of the collagen network and the spatial arrangement of the chondrocytes shown in
throughout the depth of articular cartilage. In the superficial Figure 3-1. In the above photomicrographs (B), the STZ is
tangential zone (STZ), collagen fibrils are tightly woven into shown under compressive loading while the middle and deep
sheets arranged parallel to the articular surface. In the middle zones are unloaded.
Collagen Fibril
B
Uttle resistance to compression
Human femoral condyles
C-terminal
globular
domain (G 3)
1200 nm
Hyaluronan (HA)
1DI1I'----
A. Schematic depiction of aggrecan, which is compose
keratan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate chains bound c
lently to a protein core molecule. The proteoglycan pr
core has three globular regions as well as keratan sulfa
rich and chondroitin sulfate-rich regions. B. Schematic
resentation of a proteoglycan macromolecule. In the m
trix, aggrecan non covalently binds to HA to form a
macromolecule with a molecular weight of approxima
200:<. 106. Link protein stabilizes this interaction betw
the binding region of the aggrecan and the HA core m
cule. C. Dark field electron micrograph of a proteoglyc
aggregate from bovine humeral articular cartilage
(>:120,000). Horizontal fine at lower right represents O
Reprinted with permission from Rosenberg, C, Hellmann, W
Klein5chmidr. AX (975). Electron microscopic studies 0; p
gfycan aggregates (rom bovine articular cartifage. J Bioi Che
250. 1877.
If
II!!!.."."" ~", ~ ", ~""~"::-'~~·,.cT·","'! '.," '.,=-, ~ ----:'....,....-----~.
,IIIIIIIIII!!I,II,'IIIIlIl!!.,!,!!!,,.p. •. "!!"!'!. •••• .. "'-.
CS/KS ratio, which is approximately 10: 1 at birth, is proximately 70(;r; of the water may be moved, T
only approxirnatel:v 2: I in adult cartilage (Roughlcy interstitial fluid movement is important in cont
& "Vhile, 1980: Sweet et al" 1979; Thonar et al" ling cartilage mechanical behavior and joint lu
1986). Furthermore, sulfation of the CS molecules, cation (Ateshian et aI., 1997, 1998; Hlavacek, 1
\vhich can occlir at either the 6 or the 4 position, Hou et aI., 1992; Mow et aI., 1980; Mow & Atesh
also undergoes age-related changes. In utero, chon- 1997).
droitin-6-sulfate and chondroitin-4-sulfate are pres-
ent in equal molar amounts; however, by maturity,
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSICAL INTERACTION
the chondroitin-6-sulfate:chonclroitin-4-sulfatc ra-
AMONG CARTILAGE COMPONENTS
tio has increaseel to approximately 25: I (Roughley
et a1., 1981). Other studies have also documented an The chemical structure and physical interacti
age-related decrease in the hydrodynamic size of of the PG aggregates influence the properties of
tf~e aggrecan. Many' of these early changes seen in ECM (Ratcliffe & Mow, 1996). The closely spa
articular cartilage may reflect cartilage maturation, (5-15 angstroms) sulfate and carboxyl cha
possibly as a result of increased functional demand groups on the CS and KS chains dissociate in s
\vith increased \vcight-bcaring. Ho\vever, the func- tion at physiological pH (Fig. 3-7), leaving a h
tional significance of these changes, as well as those concentration of fixed negative charges that cre
occurring later in life, is as .\'ct undetermined. strong intramolecular and intermolecular cha
charge repulsive forces; the colligative sum
these forces (when the tissue is immerscd i
WATER
physiological saline solution) is equivalent to
\Valel~ the most abundant component of articular Donnan osmotic pressure (Buschmann & Grod
cartilage, is n10st concentrated ncar the anicular sky, 1995; Donnan, 1924; Gu et aI., 1998; Lai et
surface (_80°;(j) and decreases in a near-linear fash- 1991). Structurally, these charge-charge repul
ion with increasing depth to a concentration of ap- forces tend to extend and stiffen the PG ma
proximately 65% in the deep zone (Lipshitz et al., molecules into the interfibrillar space formed
1976: Maroudas, 1979). This Iluid contains many the surrounding collagen network, To apprcc
free mobile cations (e.g., Nu', K', and Cal.) that the magnitude of this force, according to Step
greatly! influence the mechanical and physicochem- Hawkings (1988), this electrical repulsion is
ical behaviors of cartilage (Gu et aI., 1998; Lai et aI., million, million, million, million, million, mill
1991; Linn & Sokoloff, 1965; Maroudas, 1979). The million times (42 zeros) greater than gravitatio
fluid component of articular cartilage is also essen- forces.
tial to the health of this avascular tissue because it In nature, a charged body cannot persist l
permits gas, nutrient, and waste product movement without discharging or attracting counter-ion
back and forth between chondrocytes and the sur- maintain electroneutrality, Thus, the charged sul
rounding nutrient-rich synovial fluid (Bollet & and carboxyl groups flxed along the PGs in artic
Nance, 1965; Linn & Sokoloff, 1965; Mankin & cartilage must attract various counter-ions and
Thrashel; 1975; Maroudas, 1975, 1979). ions (mainly Na', Cal., and C I") into the tissu
A small percentage of the \vater in cartilage re- maintain electroneutrality. The total concentra
sides intracellularl y', and approximately 30% is of these counter-ions and co-ions is given by
strongly associated with the collagen fibrils well-known Donnan equilibrium ion distribu
(Maroudas et aI., 1991; Torzilli et aI., 1982). The in- law (Donnan, 1924). Inside the tissue, the mo
teraction between collagen, PG, and water, via Don- counter-ions and co-ions form a cloud surround
nan osmotic pressure, is believcd to have an im- the fixed sulfate and carboxyl charges, thus shield
portant function in regulating the structural these charges from each othet: This charge shield
organization of the ECM and its s\velling properties acts to diminish the very large electrical repul
(Donnan, 1924; Maroudas, 1968, 1975). Most of the forces that otherwisc would exist. The net result
\vater thus occupies the interfIbrillar space of the swelling pressure given by the Donnan osmotic p
ECM and is free to move whcn a load or pressure sure law (Buschmann & Grodzinsky, 1995; Don
gradient or other electrochemical motive forces are 1924; Gu et aI., 1998; Lai et aI., 1991; Schuber
applied to the tissue (Gu et aI., 1998; Maroudas, Hamerman, 1968). The. Donnan osmotic pres
1979). When loaded by a compressive force, ap- theory' has been extensivel:v used to calculate
Aggregate Domain nificant rnagnitudL: c\'en in the absclH.':c or cx
loads (Sellon cl aI., 1995, 1998).
Canilage PGs arc inhomogeneollsl.\' dislri
th,'oughoul the malrix, with their concenlralion
erally being highest in the middle zone and low
the superficial and deep zOlles (Lipshitz Cl aI.,
,'Jlaroudas, 1968, 1979; Vcnn, 1978). Thc biome
ical consequence or this inhomogeneous swelli
havior of cartilage (caused b.v the varying PG co
throughout the depth of the tissue) has recently
quantitalively assessed (Sellon el al., 1998), Al
Repulsive forces due 10 fixed sults from n:cent finite clement calculations
charge density distribution on models incorporating an inhomogeneous P
A lribution show lhat it has a proround effect o
interstitial counler-ion dislribulion throughou
depth of the lissuc (Sun et aI., 1998).
\·Vhen a compressive stress is applied lo th
lilage surface. there is an inSlantaneous defo
lion caused primal"i)~' by a change in the PG
ecular domain, Figure 3-7 B. This cxtc.'rnal
causes the inlernal prcsstll"e in the matrix
ceed the swelling pressure and thus liquid w
gin to flow out of" tht: tissue. As the fluid r!()\V
the PG concentration increases, which in tu
Smaller domain Increased charge density creases the Donnan osmotic swelling pressu
Increased charge-charge repulsive forces
the charge-charge repulsive force and bulk
B
pressive stress unlil they are in equilibrium
the external stress. In this manner, the phy
chcmical properties of the PC gcl lrapped w
A, Schematic representation of a proteoglycan aggregate the collagen network enable il to resisl com
solution domain (left) and the repelling forces associated sion. This mechanism complements the
with the fixed negative charge groups on the GAGs of ag- pla~:ed by collagen that, as previollsly desc
grecan (right). These repulsive forces cause the aggregate is strong in lC'nsion but wcnk in compre
to assume a stiHly extended conformation, occupying a The abilit.'· of PCs to resist compression
large solution domain, B. Applied compressive stress de- arises fl'om two sources: (I) the Donnan os
creases the aggregate solution domain (left), which in turn
swelling pressure associated with the t
increases the charge density and thus the intermolecular
packed fixed anionic groups on the GAGS
charge repulsive forces (right).
(2) the bulk eomprcssivc stillness of the coll
PG solid matrix, Experimentally, the Donna
motic pressure ranges from 0.05 to 0.35
(Maroudas, 1979), while the elastic modulus
collagen-PG solid matrix ranges from 0.5
MPa (Armstrong & Mow. 1982; Alhanasiou
swelling pressures of anicular cartilage and the 1991; Mow & Ratcliffe, 1997).
intervertebral disc (Maroudas, 1979; Urban & Il is now apparenl that collagen and PG
McMullin, 1985), By Starling's law, this swclling interact and thal these interactions m'e of
pressure is, in llll'n. resisted and balanced by tension functional imponance. A small portion or th
developed in the collagen network, confining the have been shown to be closely associated wit
PCs to only 20% of their fTee Solulion domain lagen and may serve as a bonding agent be
(Maroudas, 1976; Mow & Ratcliffe. 1997; Sellow lhe collagen fibrils. spanning distnnccs thL
eL aI., 1995). Consequently. this swelling pressure too great for collagen cJ."oss·links to develop (Ba
subjects the collagen network to a "pre-stress" of sig· ~t al.. 1996; Mow & Ratcliffe, 1997; Muir,
PGs arc also thought to play an important role in
Hyalur n
maintaining the ordered structure and mechani-
cal properties of the collagen fibrils (Muir, 1983;
Scott & Orford, 1981). Recent investigations show -'I,-\-----Interstltlal flU
that in concentrated solutions, PGs interact with
each other to form networks of significant Collagen fi
strength (Mow et aI., 1989b; Zhu et aI., 1991,
.i 996)..Morcover, the density and strength of the
interaction sites forming the network \vere shown
to depend on the presence of LP between aggre~
cans and aggregates, as well as collagen. Evidence
sl.w:gests that there are fewer aggregates, and
m(;~e biglycans and decorins than aggrecans, in
the superficial zone of articular cartilage. Thus,
there mllst be a difference in the interaction be-
l\VCCn these PGs and the collagen fibrils from the
superficial zone than from those of the deeper
zones (Poole et aI., 1986). Indeed, the inle"action
bet\veen PG and collagen not only' plays a direct Schematic representation of the molecular organizatio
cartilage, The structural components of cartilage, colla
role in the organization of the ECr.,ll but also con-
and proteoglycans, interact to form a porous composit
tributes directly' to the mechanical properties of
fiber-reinforced organic solid matrix that is swollen wit
the tissue (Kempson el aI., 1976; Schmidt el aL. water. Aggrecans bind covalently to HA to form large
1990; Zhu el aI., 1993). teoglycan macromolecules.
The specific characteristics of the physical.
chemical. and mechanical interactions between
coHagen and PG have not yet been fully' deter·
mi.ned. Nevertheless, as discussed above, we know
that these structural macromolecules interact to
form a porous·permeable, fiber-reinforced com-
posite matrix possessing all the essential mechani- ties of cartilage. In the following section, the
cal characteristics of a solid that is swollen with havior of articular cartilage under loading and
\vat.er and ions and that is able to resist the high mechanisms of cartilage fluid flow will be discus
stresses and strains of joint articulation (Andriacchi in detail.
etal .. 1997; I-lodge el aI., 1986; Mow & Ateshian,
1997; Paul, 1976). It has been demonstraled lhat
these collagen-PG interactions involve an aggre- Biol71echanical Behavior o{
call, an I-IA filan1ent, type II collagen, other minor
collagen types, an unknown bonding agent, and
Articular Cartilage
possibly smaller cartilage components such as col-
lagen type IX, recently identified glycoproteins, The biomechanical behavior of articular carti
and/or polymeric HA (Poole ct aI., 1986). A can best be understood when the tissue is viewe
schematic diagram depicting the structural a multiphasic medium. In the present context, a
arrangement \vithin a small volume of articular ular cartilage will be treated as biphasic mate
cartilage is shown in Figure 3-8. consisting of two intrinsically incompressible,
\Vhen articular cartilage is subjected to external miscible, and distinct phases (Bachrach et aI., 1
loads, the collagen-PG solid matrix and interstitial Mow et aI., 1980): an inlerstitial fluid phase an
lIuid function together in a unique way to protect porous-permeable solid phase (i.e., the ECM).
against high levels of stress and strain develop- explicit analysis 01' the contribution 01' the
ing in the ECM. Furthermore, changes to the bio- charges and ions, one would have to consider t
chemical composition and structur,,;l organization distinct phases: a fluid phase, an ion phase, an
of lhc ECM, such as during osteoarthritis (OA), are charged solid phase (Gu el al .. 1998; Lai et aI., 19
paralleled b:y changes to t';e biomechanical proper- For understanding how the water contributes t
mechanical propcnies, in the prc.:SCnl context. arti<,:. Creep and strc~s rL,lnxalion phenomcna ll1a~' be
lIlar cartilage may be considered as a Ouid-filled caused b~' differenl Illcchani:sms, For single-phase
porous-permeable (uncharged) biphasic medium, solid pol~'lTh:ric materials, these phenomena are the
with each constituent playing a role in the functional result of iJHcrnal friction caused b.\' the mOl ion or the
behavior of cartilage. long polymL'ric chains sliding over ('ach olher \\'ithin
During joint arlicuhllion, forces at the joint sur- the stressed lll~lIcrial (Fling, 1981), The viscocl"stic
face may vary" from alnl0S1 zero to more than ten bdmvior of tendons and ligamt::IHs is primarily
times body weight (Alldriacchi et ai., 1997; Paul, eauscd bv this mechanism (Woo et aI., 1987, 1997).
1976). The contact arcas also vary in a cOll1plcx For bone, the long-term viscoelastic lK'hador is
manner and typically they arc only or the order of thought to ilL' caused h.\' a rdati\'c slip uf lamellae
several square centimeters (Ahmed & Burke. 1983; within the osteons along with the Ilow of the inlL'rsti
Ateshian et al .. 1994). It is estimated that the peak tial Iluid (Lakcs & Saha, 1979). For articul,,,' carti-
contact stress may reach 20 MPa in the hip while hlgC. the compressive \'iscoelastic bdHl\'ior is prilllar~
rising from a chair and to IVIPa during stair climb- i1~' caused h~' the Jlo\\' of tilL' interstitial lillie! and lhe
ing (Hodge et aI., 1986; Newberrv et aI., 1997). Thus, frictional drag associated with this lIow (Ateshian cl
articular cartilage, under physiologicallonding con- aI., 1997; Mow (,t aI., 1980, 1984). In shear, as in
ditions, is a highly stressed malcrial. To understand single-phase viscoelastic pol.vmers. it is primarily
how this tissue responds LInder these high physio- c<.lusL·d b~' tilt:' motion of 10l1g pol~!J1lL'r chains such as
logical loading conditions. its intl"insic mechanical collagen and PGs (Zhu d aI., 1993, 1996). Thc com-
properties in compression, tension, and shear must ponent or anicu[;.\r cartilage dscoclasticit~,caused by
be determined. From these properties, one can un· interstitial lluid !low is known as the hi phasic vis-
dcrstand the load-can~ying mechanisms within the cot.,lastic behavior (i'VlO\\' et a!., 1980), ~lI1d the COI11-
ECM. Accordingly, the following subsections \\"ill ponent of dscoebslicil~' caused b~' macromolecular
characterize tht: tisslIC' behavior under these loading motion is known as til(' l1ow-indepl'ndelll (Ha,\'cs '*
Il'lOclalities. Bc)dinc, 1(78) or the intrinsic visc()elastic behavior or
Ihe collagen-PG solid matrix.
Although the deformational bdwyior has been
described in terms of n lillem' elastic solid (Hirsch,
NATURE OF ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
1944) or viscoclastic solid (I-laves & Mockros, 1971),
VISCOELASTICITY
lhes~ modcls fail to recognii'.e the role or water in
If a material is subjected to the action of a constant the \'iscoelastic behavior or and thc significant con-
(time-independent) load or a constant deforrnation tribution lilal lIuid pressurizalion pla.vs in joint load
and its response varies with time, then the mechan- support and canilage lubrication (Ateshian L't aI.,
ical behavior of the material is said to be viscoelas- 1998; Elmol'c et aI., 1963, Mow & Ratcliffe, 1997;
tic. (n general, the response of slich a material can SokolofL 1963). Recentlv, experimental measure-
be theoretically modeled as a cornbination of the re- ments ha\'c deh:nnined that interstitial fluid pres-
sponse of a viscolls Ouid (dashpot) and an elastic surization supports mort' than YOOk of the applied
solid (spring), hence viscoelastic. load to the canilage surface (Solt/. & Ateshian.
The two fundamental responses of a viscoelaslic 1998) immediately following loading. This ('lfcC
material arc creep and stress relaxation, Creep oc- can persist for more than 1,000 scconds and thus
curs when a viscoelastic solid is subjected to the ac- shields til(.' EC1VI and chondroc.\'tcs from the crllsh-
tion of a constant load, Typically. a viscoelastic solid ing defonnations or the high stresses (20 MPa) re-
responds with a rapid initial deforrnation followed sulting frollljoilll loading.
by a slow (time-dependent), progressivel)' increas-
ing deformation known as creep until an equilib-
rium state is reached. Stress relaxation occurs when
CONFINED COMPRESSION EXPLANT
a viscoelastic solid is subjected to the action of a
LOADING CONFIGURATION
constant deformation, l~ypically. a dscoelastic solid
responds with a rapid, high initial stress followed by The loading of cartilage in vivo is cxtr('mel~" com-
a slow (time~dependent). progressively decreasing plex. To achic\'C' a better understanding of the de-
stress required to maintain the deformation; this formational behavior or the tissue under load, an
phenomenon is known as stress relaxation. explant loading conliguration known as confined
compression (lvlow et aL, 1980) has been adopted by rapid initially', as evidenced by the early rapid r
researchers. In this configuration, a cylindrical car- of increased deformation, and it diminishes gra
tilage specimen is fitted snugly il1to a cylindrical, ually until flow cessation occurs. During cre
srnZoth-walled (ideally frictionless) confining ring the load applied at the surface is balanced by
that prohibits motion and fluid loss in the radial di- compressive stress developed within the collag
rection. Under an axial loading condition via a rigid PG solid matrix and the frictional drag genera
p~rol1s-permeable loading platen (Fig. 3-9;1), fluid by the flow of the interstitial fluid during exu
will flo\v from the tissue into the porous-permeable tion. Creep ceases when the compressive str
platen, and, as this occurs, ~he cartilage samp~e will developed within the solid matrix is sufficient
compress in creep_ At any tIme the amount 01 com- balance the applied stress alone; at this point
pression equals the volume of nuid loss because fluid flows and the equilibrium strain EX
both the watcr and theECM arc each intrinsicall:v reached.
incompressible (Bachrach et aI., 1998). The advan- Typically, for relatively thick human and bov
tage of the confined compression tcst is that it cre- articular cartilages, 2 to 4 mm, it takes 4 to
ates a uniaxial, one-dimensional flow and def()rma~ hours to reach creep equilibrium. For rabbit c
tional J1eld within the tissue, which does not depend tilage, which is generally less than 1.0 111m thi
on tissue anisotropy.' or properties in the radial diN it takes approximately' I hour to reach creep eq
recLion. This greatly simplir-Ies the mathematics librium. Theoretically, it can be shown that
needed to solve the problem. time it takes to reach creep equilibrium var
It should be emphasized that the stress-strain, inversely with the square or the thickness of
pressure, fluid, and ion flow fields generated within tissue (Mow et aI., 1980). Under relatively h
the tissue during loading can only be calculated; loading conditions, > 1.0 J\ilPa, 50 0/() of the to
ho\VevcI~ these calculations are of idealized models fluid content may be squeezed From the tiss
and testing conditions. There are man:\' confound- (Echvards, 1967). Furthermore, in vitro stud
ing factors, such as the time~dependent nature and demonstrate that if the tissue is immersed
magnitude of loading and alterations in the natural physiological saline, this exuded fluid is fully
state of prc~strcss (acting \vithin the tissue), that coverable when the load is removed (Elmore
arise from disruption of the collagen network dur~ aI., 1963; Sokoloff, 1963).
ing specimen harvesting. Despite limitations in de~ Because the rate of creep is governed b.y the r
terrnining the natural physiological states of stress of fluid exudation, it can be used to determine
and strain within the tissue in vivo, a number of re N
permeability coefficient of the tissue (Mow et
searchers have made gains to\\'ard an understand~ 1980, 1989a). This is known as the indirect m
ing of potential mechanosignal transduction I11ech~ surement for tissue permeability (k). Average val
anisms in cartilage through the use of explant of normal hun1an, bovine, and canine pate
loading studies (Bachrach et aI., 1995; Buschmann groove articular cartilage permeability k obtained
et aI., 1992; Kim et aI., 1994; Valhmu et aI., 1998) this manner arc 2.17 X 10. 15 M·'/N·s, 1.42 x 10'" M'/N
based on the biphasic constitutive law For soft hy'- and 0.9342 x 10. 15 M4/N·s, respectively (Athanas
drated tissues (Mow et aI., 1980). et aI., 1991). At equilibrium, no fluid flow occ
and thus the equilibrium deformation can be u
to measure the intrinsic compressive modulus (H
01' the collagen-PG solid matrix (Armstrong & M
BlPHAS1C CREEP RESPONSE OF ARTICULAR
1982; Mow et aI., 1980). Average values of norm
CARTILAGE IN COMPRESSION
human, bovine, and canine patellar groove articu
The biphasic creep response of articular cartilage cartilage compressive modulus H,.\ are 0.53, 0.
in a oneNdimensional confined compression ex- and 0.55 megapascal (MPa; note 1.0 MPa =
periment is depicted in Figure 3-9. In this case, a Ib/in 2 ), respectively. Because these coefficients ar
constant compressive stress (To) is applied to the measure of the intrinsic material properties of
tissue at tinlC to (point A in Fig. 3-98) and the tis~ solid matrix, it is therefore meaningful to determ
Slie is allo\ved to creep to its final equilibrium ho\v they vary \vith matrix composition. It was
strain (EX). For articular cartilage, as illustrated termined that k varies directly, while He' varies
in the top diagrams, creep is caused by the exuN versely with water content and varies directly w
dation of the interstitial fluid. Exudation is most PG content (Mow & Ratcliffe, 1997),
Confining ring
Impermeable platen
A
~
oJ
"0
w 1 o
a
.~ E-'
No exudation C
- - =-.........._----...-
>
.~ c E
a i
r
0;
o 6
B Equilibrium
0-
w Copious deformation
U_A_·___•__• • •__• :e> fluid
Time
o exudation
Time
1
B
A. A schematic of the confined compression loading configu- drawings of a block of tissue above the curves illustra
ration. A cylindrical tissue specimen is positioned tightly into creep is accompanied by copious exudation of fluid fr
an impermeable confining ring that does not permit defor- sample and that the rate of exudation decreases over
mation (or fluid flow) in the radial direction. Under loading, from points A to B to C. At equilibrium (EO'-'), fluid flow
fluid exudation occurs through the porous platen in the ver- and the load is borne entirely by the solid matrix (poi
tical direction. B. A constant stress (T" applied to a sample of Adapted from MOH~ VC, Kuei, S,C, Lai, Wl'vl., f:.'( af. (1980
articular cartilage (bottom left) and creep response of the Biphasic creep and stress relaxation of articular cartilage in
sample under the constant applied stress (bottom right). The pression: Theory and experiments. J Siomech Eng, 102, 73
STRESS-RELAXATION RESPONSE 1984). During the compression phase, the str
CARTILAGE IN COMPRESSION rises continuously until (To is reached, CO
sponding to lI o, while during the stress-relaxat
viscoelustic stress-relaxation response phase, the stress continuously decays along the cu
F,,,,,.t,r,"a, cartilage in a I D compression experi- B-C-D-E until the equilibrium stress (U X ) is reach
depi,ek'ci in Figure 3-10. In this case, a con- The mechanisms responsible for the stress
,·,,,,,,rtression rate (line t,,-A-B or lower left fig- and stress relaxation are depicted in the lower p
to the tissue until lin is reached; tion of Figure 3-10. As illustrated in the top d
b¢ypncl point B, the deformation Uo is maintained. grams, the stress rise in the compression phase is
cartilage, the t.ypical stress response sociated with fluid exudation, while stress relaxat
this imposed deformation is sho\\'11 in the is associated with fluid redistribution within
flgurc (Holmes et aI., t 985; Mow ct aL, porous solid matrix. During the compressive pha
Copious
fluid exudation
Fluid redistribution
(no exudation)
t 1I t I I
A B
III c D
I---"'L-o-a-d-in-g---ll jf------"S-tr-e-ss-'e-Ia-x-a-'i-o-n------
E
Equilibrium
deformation
cw B
E
w
~
a. B C D E
6 uo- - - - - - - ;-~----....- ...- - -
I
Controlled ramp displacement curve imposed on a cartilage and then decreases during the relaxation phase (points B
specimen commencing at to (bottom left) and the stress- D) until an equilibrium is reached (point E). Above these
response curve of the cartilage in this uniaxial confined- curves, schematics illustrate interstitial fluid flow (repre-
compression experiment (bottom right). The sample is com- sented by arrows) and solid matrix deformation during th
pressed to point B and maintained over time (points B to E). compressive process. Fluid e~udation gives rise to the pea
The history of the stress and response shows a characteristic stress (point B), and fluid redistribution gives rise to the
stress that rises during the compressive phase (points to to B) stress-relaxation phenomena.
the hi!:!h stress is generated bv forced exudation of by the relationship k ~ W/K (Lai & Mo\\', 1980), A
the in~crstilial fluid and the c~mpaclion of the solid {j'cular cartilage has a \'(.'1:-' low !kTlllcabilily a
matrix 11('<\1- the surface. Stress relaxation is in turn thus hi~h frictional l"I.... sistin= I"oret's arc g('n~rat
causcd bv the relicf 0" rebound of the high COIll- when n~,id is caused tn flo\\" through the poro
paction r~gi(}n ncar the surface or the solid matrix. solid matrix.
This stress-relaxation process will cease when the In the previous sections on c;:\rtilage \·iscoclast
compressive stress developed within the solid ll1alrix ity \\·e discw;st.'d the process of lluid !low throu
reaches the stress generated by the intrinsic COIll- articular cartihH.!e induced bv solid matrix compre
pressive modulus of the solid matrix corresponding sion and how ll~is process i;lfluences lI1L' viscoda
to U o (Holmcs ct 'II., 1985; Mow ct aL, 1980, 1984), tic behavior or the tissuC'. This process ;:l1so provid
Analysis of this stress-relaxation process leads to lhe an indirect method to dctcrmine the permeability
conc"!usion that under physiological loading cOl1cli- the tissuc. In this section, we discuss the cxpc
lions. excessive stress levels arc difficult (() maintain mCJ1t~11 method uscd to direct I.\' measure the perm
because stress relaxation will rapidly a(lenuat~ the ability codTicknt. Such an L'xperim(:nt is depict
stress developed within the tissue; this must ncces~ in Fi~urL' 3-1 I.·\. Here, a specimen or the tissue
sarily lead to the rapid spreading of the contact area held fixed in ~\ chamber subjected to the action o
in tht:: joint during articulation (Atcshian el aI., 1995, pressure gradicl1l: tilL' imposed upstrt.'al11 pl\:ssu
1998; tvlow & Atcshian, 1997), PI is greater than the dOwJ1slrt.:;:\Il1 pressure P2' T
Rcccntlv, much focus has been on the inholllo- thick~css 01" tlte specimen is denoted by han
gencitv o(I-IA with carLilagc depth (Schinagl ct aI., the cross-sectional an..-a 01" pt.'nneatiol1 is ddin
1996, '1997), Bascd on thi~ data, from an analysis b\· A. Darcy's law, L1sed to determine the perme~\b
of the stress-relaxation experiment it was round it'\" k fron~ this simple t.'xpcrimental St.'ltlp, ~·id
that an inhornogencous tissue would relax at a k' = Qh/A(Pi-P2). where Q is the \'olumelric d
faster rate than would the unirorlll tissue (\Vang & chargL' per unit time through the specimen who
1\110\V, 1998). iVloreovcr, the stress, strain, pressure, area 01" permcm ion is A ([\llo\\' & R;:ltcl irr(" 1997). U
and Ouid flow fields within the tissue were signif- ing low pressures, approxiJ11atel~' 0_1 ivlPa. t
icanllv altered as well. Thus it seems thal the vari- mClhod was f1rslused to determine the permeabil
ation~' in biochemical and structural composition of articular cartilage (Edwards, 1967; lVlnroud
in the layel"s of cartilage pl"ovide anothet- challenge 1975). The value ~I" k obtained in this mann
to understanding the environn1ent of chondro- ram!ccl from 1.1 x 10. 1 < m·l/N·s 10 7.6 ;:.< 10. 1 ' m·:/N
c.vtes in situ. In ~~ddition, using a uniform straight tube mod
the ;:\\IL'rage "pore diameter" has been estimatt.:d a
11111 (Maroudas. 1979), Thus. the "pores" within
PERMEABILITY OF ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
tinllar cartilage are of mokcular size.:',
Fluid-filled porous materials ma~' or may not be per- The pL'nnt.'abilit~'or Hnicular cartibgc under co
mcablc, Thc ratio of nuid volumc (VI) to thc total pressive strain and at high physiological pressu
volume (\IT) of the porous material is known as the (3 MPa) was first obtained b~' j\Aansour and lV'1
porosity (f3 :; ;: ViI VT); thus, porosity is a geOJ1lclric (1976) and later analvzed by Lai and ,Vlo\\' (198
concept. Articular cartilage is therefore a material The high pressure and compressh"e strain conditio
of high porosity (approximately 80%), If the pores examined in these studies more c1osd~' resem
are int~rconnected, th.; porous material is perme- those conditions found in dianhrodial joint loadin
able. PermeabilHv is a measure of the ease with In these l.'xperimcnts, k was measured as a functi
which fluid can f1(~W through a porous material. and or two variables: the pressure gradient across
it is inversely proportional to the frictional drag ex~ specimen and the axial compressive strain applied
ened by the fluid flowing through thc porous, the sample. Tht.· results from these experiments
permeable material. Thus, permeability is a physi- shown in Figure 3-11 B. Permeabilit~· decreased exp
cal concept; il is a meaSure of the resistive force that nentially ~lS a function of both increasing compr
is required to cause the fluid to Ilow at a given speed sive slr~lin and increasing applied Iluid pressure,
through lhe porous-permeable material. Thb fric~ was hlter shown, however, that. the dependence o
tional resistive force is ~enerated bv rhe inleraction Ion the applied fluid pressurt.: derives from co
of the intcrstitial fluid-and the p;'rc walls of the paction of the solid matdx that. in lurn, results fr
porous-permeable material. The permeability coeffi- the frictional drag ("used by rhe permeating nu
cient k is related to the frictional drng coefficient K (Lai & MO\\', 1980), From the point of view of p
Applied
pressure difference
Fluid
,- , , , "~
"e
16
r
(P,-P,)
pressure
P ,
'-
I i
Fluid flow
I ~
14
12
.0.069 MPa
.0.172 MPa
I
... 0.342 MPa
Rigid ~
.. ,;.;.;+:.:.:. :.:.:-: .;.:.:.... -'-- 0
r
porous { C><I;:, h
x
10 00.689 MPa
~ 1.034 MPa
blocks '-
J , L ~ ~
:c
8
01.723 MPa
- I, 1Fluid1flow
Fluid Articular 6
pressure - cartilage '" 4
P2 §'"
• • ! !
I I a.'" 2 r
o[
-UIlIU
..I B
0 8 16 24 32
Applied Compressive Slrain {%}
40
A. Experimental configuration used in measuring the perme· parhologic caail,1ge (Juring function. I. The formulation. J Bio-
ability of articular cartilage, involving the application of a meeh. 9(8), 5:11-552, a, Experimental curves for articular car-
pressure gradient {P,-Pl)/h across a sample of the tissue (h =:: tilage permeability show its strong dependence on compres-
tissue thickness). Became the fluid pressure (PI) above the sive strain and applied pressure. Measurements were taken
sample is greater than that beneath it (PJ, fluid will flow at applied pressure differential (p\-p)) and applied strains.
through the tissue. The permeability coefficient k in this ex- The permeability decreased in an exponential manner as a
periment is given by the expression Qh/A(PI-P/), where Q is function of both increasing applied compressive strain and
the volumetric discharge per unit time and A is the area of increasing applied pressure. Adapted from L,1i, 1,1I/,'\11.. & MoV'-/,
permeation. Adapted from Torzilli. PA, & MoJ.v, VC (976). On II C. (/980). Drag-induced compre5sion of ,1rtiwlar (,milage dur-
rhe fundamental fluid cranspon mechafllsms rhrough normaJ and ing a pe-rmeaiion experimenr. J Btorheology, 17. J 11 .
. ,1
•. ~---------------------------------
';S,n~IC[lIre, compaction or the solid matdx decreases specimens h"rvested in the direction parallel to the
9j~ porosity' and hence the average "pore diameter" split line pattern than those harvested perpendicu-
" \\Iithin the solid matrix; lhus, solid matrix compac- lar to the split line pattern) and strongly inhomoge-
tion increases fTictional resistance (MOWCl aI., 1984). neous (for mature anirnals. being stiffer and
... >",:1'he nonlinear permeability of articular cartilage stronger fOl' specimens harvested from the superfi-
'X de.monstrated in Figure 3-11 B suggests that the lis- cial regions (han those harvested deeper in the tis-
<~/!7:9~ has a mechanical feedback sYSlem that may sue) (Kempson. 1979: Roth & Mow, 1980), Intercst-
.J;s,e~'ve important purposes under physiological con- ingly, articular cartilage rrom immature bovine knee
:'o'ditions. When subjecled 10 high lo"els through the joints does not exhibit these layered inhomoge-
\mechanism of incrcnsed frictional drag against in- neous variations; however, the superficial zones o
:)~rslitial l1uiel 110w. the tissue will "ppear sLirfer "nel both ITlature and immature bovine cartilage appear
:';L'h will be more difficult to cause fluid exudation. Re· to h"ve the ,,,me tcnsile stiffness (ROLh & Mow
(cent analyses of articular cartilage compressive 1980). These anisotropic and inhomogeneous char-
/,',/ ':,s,trcss-relaxation behavior have validated this con- acteristics in mature joints arc believed to be caused
;C:"'c'ept and its importance in the capacity of the inter- by the vaI)'ing collagen and PG stnlctural organiza-
g, stili,,1 Ouid La support load (Ateshian eL al.. 1998: tion of the joinl surface and the layering structural
;'::;',":,~oltz & Ateshian, 1998). Moreover, this mechanism arrangements found within the tissue_ Thus, the col-
;< /al~o is important in joint lubrication, lagerH'ich superficial zone appears to provide the
joint cartilage with a tough wear-resistant protective
skin (Sellon et "I.. 1993) (Fig. 3-3;\),
/9BEHAVIOR OF ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
§;&,UNDER UNIAXIAL TENSION
Articular cartilage also exhibits viscoelastic behav-
ior in tension (\-Voo ct "I.. 1987). This viscoelastic be-
~~?''.::~:;rhe mechanical behavior of articular canilage in havior is allributable to both the internal friction as-
3~~;'{enSion is highly complex. In tension, the liss~le is sociated with polymeric motion and the flow of the
,:~.~; strongly anisotropic (being stiffer and stronger for interstitial fluid. To examine the intrinsic mechanica
A ;'::;;--"
'i";
'.C:; ".'.,
-i· response of the collagen-PC solid matrix in tension,
it is necessary to negate the biphasic fluid now ef-
+i TenSIle modulus. E Ci!t
-
I
fects. To do this, one mllst perform slow, low strain-
rate experiments (/\kizuki et aI., 1986; Roth & Mow, ~~~
1980; Woo et aI., 1987) or perform an incremental
strain experiment in which stress relaxation is al-
lowed to progress IowaI'd equilibration at each incre-
~
'=-
c
I Failure
2 .!---- ~~~
~--\
------------
delermined from tilL' ~cnnnil1g dcctron microg
single Young's modulus. Rather, a tangent modulus,
defined by the tangent to the stress-strain CUI'\'C. pkltln..: s (h.'h). Ch.'arl.\· it can he seen lhal ll1l.'
must be used to descl'ibe the tensile stiffness of the gcn lletwork within c~lrlil~\gL.' l"L'sponds to le
tissue_ This fundamental result has given rise to the sll\.. s~ and strain (\Vada 1..'\:. Akizuki, 19~7l.
wide range of Young's modulus. 3 to 100 ,\lIPa, re- If the mok'ctll~lr st!1H.:(urc or L'(Jllag('~Il, Ilk' orga
poned for anicular cartilage in tension (Akizuki et lion of thL' collagen fibers within the collagclloll
aI., 1986; Kempson, 1979; Roth & Mow, 1980; Woo \\"01''', or tilL' collngl'1l IiIK'!' lToss-lillking is al
et aI., 1987). At physiological strain levels, however, (such ~lS tin\! OcclIlTing in mild fibrillation or OA
;.: less than 15% (Armslrong et aI., 1979) of the linear tensile prolKTlies of the I1L'I\\'ork \\'ill ch~lIlge. Sch
Young's modulus of anicular cartilage ranges be- l't al. (1990) ha\'c shown a definitive' t\:.-btionsh
tween 5 and 10 MPa (Akiwki et aI., 1986). 1\\"C'I.'11 collag.. . n hydroxypyridinillm cn)ss-linkin
Morphologically, the cause for the shape of the lensik' stilflk.'SS ~II)(I stn.. ,lgtll of nOI'mal h(wirH.~
tensile stress-strain curve for large strains is de- hlg(·. Aki/.uki et al. (1086) showcd lhat pr()grc
picted in the diagrams on the right or Figure 3-12. dcgr~\dnlion or lUI man kllL"C joint cartilag:(.', from
The initial toe region is caused by collagen fiber librillation 10Of\. ~'iclds n progn..:'ssin· (k'kriorati
pull-out and realignn'lCnt during the initial pan ion Ilk' illl rinsic Icnsik' propl".'1'liL'S IJI" Ihe collagcn-PG
of the tensile experimel1l, and the final linear region matrix. Similar rl.'sults 11<.1\'(' bccll obsen'\..-d n.. .c\..'
is caused by the stretching of the straightcned- 'lI1ill1"lll1odcls of O!\ (Guil", l't ,Ii.. 1004; SCt!(Hl
aligned collagen fibers. Failure occurs when all the It)t).t). l()g\..,tllcr, lhese obSCI·V~llioJls sllpporl tll'..'
collagen fibers contained within the specimen are that disruptioll of tilL' colbgcn IlL'lwork is ~\ kL'~'
ruptured. Figure 3- I 3/\ depicts an ullslretched artic- ill thL' initial CH'IHS iL'adillg 10 11K' dC\'L'lopmcllt o
ular cartilage specimen, while Figure 3-138 depicts Also. loosening of til\.' collagen network is gCI1\..'ral
a stretched specimen. Figure 3-14, A & B shows' licved to h(' responsible for tlte incrcased swc
scanning eleclron micrographs or carlilage blocks hCllci..' W~Il\..T COI1H.'nl. or ostL'oartlll'ilic car
;;.
under 0 and 30% sU'elch (right) and the COlTe- (Mankin &: Thrasher, 1973: iVlaroudas. 1979). \,Vc
sponding histograms of collagen fiber orientation ;:d]"L'ad~' discussed htl\\" iJ1cl"L'asl'd walcr cOlllClll
Unloaded
..AIf--+ Collagen
+--f-water
Proleoglycan
i '
E.R., Lal: V:l.M.• & Mow V.C (1984). A continuum rheory and a
experiment for the ion-induced swelling behaviorcartirage. J Bio
mech Eng, 106(2), 15/-158
to decreased corripresstve stiffness and increased per- subjected to uniaxial tension or compression. T
rneability of arti~ular cartilage. volumetric change causes interstitia) nuid now a
induces biphasic viscoelastic effects within the
sue. H, however, articular cartilage is tested in pu
BEHAVIOR OF ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
shear under infinitesinlal strain conditions.
IN PURE SHEAR
pressure gradients or volumetric changes will
In tension and cOIllpression. only the equilibrium 'produced within the material; hence, no interstit
intrinsic properties of the collagen-PG solid malri~ fluid flow will occur (Hayes & Bodine, 1978; Z
can be determined. This is because a volumetric et aJ. 1993) (Fig. 3-15). Thus, a stead v dynam
change always occurs within a material when it is pure shear expct'iment C£ln be used [0 assess
Tension 0%
•
501 n=203
40 1 x = 52.0' " 23.0'
C ;
~ 30 1
£ 20-i
1 ~ lmmJlLill.IILillilllllLffi,.
o 45 90
Degrees
A
Tension 30%
50 i
• n = 145
J:::~! '8.9~
'km= :: 17.6':>
intrinsic viscoelastic propcrLics or the collagen-PG viscoelastic propcnies arc equival~nl1y defined
solid matrix. the elastic storage modulus G'; the viscous
In a steady dynamic shear experiment. the vis- modulus G" of the collagen-PG solid matrix ma
coelastic properties of the collagcn-PG solid matrix determined as a runction of frequency (Fling, 1
are detenl1ined by subjecting a thin circular wafer Zhu et aI., 1993).
of tissue to a steady sinusoidal torsional shear, Sometimes it is morc convenient to determ
shown in Figure 3-16. 1n an experiment of this type, the magnitude of the dynamic shear modulus
the tissue specimen is held by a precise amount of given by:
compression between two rough porous platens.
IG*I' = (G')' + (G")'
The lower platen is attached to a sensitive torque
transducer and the upper platen is attached to a and the phase shifl angle given by:
precision mechanical spectrometer with a senro-
l) = tan' (G"/G')
controlled de mot01: A sinusoidal excitation signal
may be provided by the motor in a frequency of ex- The magnitude or lh~ d~'namic shear modul
citation range of 0.01 to 20 hertz (Hz). For shear a measure of the tala I resistance offered bv the
strain magnitudes ranging from 0.2 to 2.0°10, the coelastic material. The value of 0, lhe angl~ betw
[
I Collagen
+----fWater
Proteoglycan
Schematic depiction of unloaded cartilage (A), and cartilage subjected to pure shear (8). When cartilage is tested in pure shear
under infinitesimal strain conditions. no volumetric changes or pressure gradients are produced; hence, no interstitial fluid flow
occurs. This figure also demonstrates the functional rote of collagen fibrils in resisting shear deformation.
','the steady applied sinusoidal strain and the steady modulus 10 bc of thc order of 10 Pa and phase shifl
~ipusoidallorqllcresponse, is a measure of the total angle ranging up to 70" (Mow et aI... 1989b; Zhu ct
':";Edctional energy dissipation within the ll1aterial. aI., 1991, 1996), Therefore, it appcars that the mag-
EoI' a pure elastic material with no internal fric- nitude of the shear modulus of concentrated PG so-
-.0,"
20' (Hayes & Bodine, 1978; Zhu Cl aL. 1993), Thc in-
irinsk transient shear stress-relaxation behavior of
I
::':tI1t~ collaucn-PG solid matrix along with the steadv 'd
'\Iynamic . . .s hear properties also ha; been llleasUl'e~1
;',:. (Zhu el aI., 1986), Wilh bOlh lhc sleady dynamic and
'::'thc. transient results, the laller investi'gators showed I
. ~at the quasilinear viscoelasticity th~ory proposed
I
'?;:'.py Fung (198l) for biological materials provides an
I
<"accurale dcscription of the flow-independent vis-
i; coelaSlic behavior of lhe colla!!cn-PG solid malrix, .. 111 ~I
'.:':/,}<'jgure 3-17 depicts a comparis--on of the theoretical
'prediction of the transient stress-relaxation phe- Time
;[lomenon in shear with the results from Fung's t 981
'quasilinear viscoelasticity theory.
/:.. From lhese shear sluciies. it is possible to obrain
SOme insight as to how the collagen-PG soHd matrix Steady sinusoidal torsional shear imposed on a specimen in
functions. First, we note that measurements of PG pure shear. The fluctuating strain in the form of a sine
>:. SOlutions at concentrations similar to those found in wave with a strain amplitude filand frequency f.
':>a. nicular cartila(Tceo in Silu .'vidd a ma~miLudc of shear
0:;"
ill Iht: ullla~I..·1l 111..'1\\1 Irk. 1')I,.·rJllib till..' PC ~I.
1.0 cc.,II"I~l:1I Ill't\\"ork to rl..':--.i:--t c{JlI1l)rl..·.... ~ion (
11 '= 0.. 0004 192-l: Marolld.. I:--'. 1~79: ,'vl0\\·I..\: Rall.:lilll', 1997
i5' 12"" 36.2 cOlllll for :--.tH.'h Fix('d Char~l..· DI..'I1:--.ily (FeD, 1
C 0.8 c = 0.13 cartila1!l'. a lriplla~i(.· Ilk,dlancl-l..·kdnl\,:llelTlica
·uc0 1..·!L·I...·ln,I.\·k· Ihcor,\' \\":I~ d ...·\·t.. !opl..·d [kit rJl(ldd~
~
U.
c
"l~ a mi'\tlIrl...· (lrIhn..·\,· misdhk' pklsl..·s: a cklr~l
.Q pkhl..· rl..'j)rL·SI..·llIill~ IhL' \.:(jIl"I~I..·n.PC IlL'I\Uli
1ii
x
~
phasL' rl..'l.,rL·~I..'llling th\,o inll..'rstiti .. d \\·<llI..'r, <lll
a; ! j ! j ! ! ph"lse cOlllpri~illg tlk' llltlnO\·i.lk'llt L'alillil ' a -
c: 0.'
'0
~ ion CI a~ \\"1..,11 as Dllk'l' 1l111llh·.. dl..·1l1 Slk'l..:iL's
U
~ C"I' (ClI L'I <II., llJlJ:{: l.'li 1..'1 al..llJ01 ). I Il I hi~ I h
.,
'0
IOlal slrl..·s~ i:- ~in'll h.\· IIIL' slim or
1\\'0 1I..'rllls
a: 0.2
CT,,,h.1 .~. Ulh"'i. \\"hel·I..' (T,,·"·I .llId (T,:',,·I "Irl' Ihl' ~
Articular cartilage
~ Load
Articular cartilage
• p
+f-o
•
A, In hydrodynamic lubrication, viscous fluid is dragged pacity depends on the size of the surfaces. velocity of a
into a convergent channel. causing a pressure field to be proach, and fluid viscosity. C. The direction of fluid flow
generated in the lubricant. Fluid viscosity. gap geometry, under squeeze-film lubrication in the boosted mode for
and relative sliding speed determine the load-bearing ca- joint lubrication. D. Depicts the Weeping lubrication hy-
pacity. B. As the bearing surfaces are squeezed together, pothesis for the uniform exudation of interstitial fluid f
the viscous fluid is forced from the gap into the transverse the cartilage. The driving mechanism is a self-pressuriza
direction. This squeeze action generates a hydrodynamic of the interstitial fluid when the tissue is compressed.
pressure in the fluid for load support. The load-bearing (a-
The other is fluid-film lubrication, in which a thin 0.02 (Dowson. 196611967; Linn. 1968; McCutch
fluid-filn1 provides greater sllrrace-to~sllrracesepara- 1962; Mow & Atcshian. 1997). Boundary-lubrica
tion (Bowden & Tabor; 1967). Both lubrication types sllIfaces typically have a coefficient of friction one
appear to occur in articular canilage under vaJying two orders of magnitude. higher Lhan surfaces lu
circulllstances. Intact synovial joints have an ex- cated by a fluid-111m, suggesting LhaL synovial joi
tremely low cocrf!cicnl or friclion, approximately are lubricated. al Icast in part. by the fluid-f
?,\/,.. :.': :t'ni~~Aanism. It is quite possible that synovial joints stead determined by the lubricant's properties, such
;;{',.~. ::.'\i~.{tihe:;mechanism that will most effectively provide as its rheological properties, viscosity and elasticity
;ft\:. fU$rica~ion at a given loading condition. Unresolved, the film geometry, the shape of the gap between th
.;~:;' ~23:Jnc}Y:fllFjS the manner by which synovial joints gcn- two bearing surfaces, and the speed of the relativ
';%.;0;;:~~;>tethe fluid lubricant film. surFace motion.
;/:; Cartilage is unlike any man-made material with
;:';..c;.
;,~Z
""''',.'.
~~r ' respect to its near Frictionless properties. Classica
}-iN,., Fti.JIP-fILM LUBRICATION theories developed to explain lubrication of rigid
;;;.;;iir$Jdi~i!ri]m lubrication utilizes a thin film of lubl'i- and impermeable bearings (e.g., steel) cannot fully
"H:~'~'.> c~nt that causes a bearing surface separation. The explain Ihe mechanisms responsible for lubrica
'6.·Jld.~a on the bearing is then supported by the pres- tion of the natural diarthrodial joint. A variation
";j~\.tt·~that is developed in this fluid-film. The nuid- of the hydrodynamic and squeeze-film modes o
.'";:' ,..~';dihn';thickness associated with engineering bearings fluid-film lubrication. for example, occurs \vhen
C/. 'isitsually less than 20 f.l.m. Fluid-film lubrication re- the bearing material is not rigid but instead rela
' ... q"jres a minimum nuid-fllm thickness (as predicted tively soft, slich as with the articular cartilage cov
,i':i>Y/a"speciflc lubrication theOIy) to exceed three ering the joint surface. This type of lubrication
~f~;tioles' the combined statistical surface roughness of termed elastohydrodynarnic, operates when th
cahUage (e.g., 4 to 25 f.l.m; Clarke, 1971; Walker et relatively soft bearing surfaccs undergo either
,al:;)970). If fluid-film lubrication is unachievable sliding (hydrodynamic) or squceze-film action and
, ',;':,b~C~lllse of heavy.. and prolonged loading, incongru- the pressure generated in the fluid-film substan
'e'nL'gap geomclI)', slow reciprocating-grinding 1110- tiallv deforms the surfaces (Fig. 3-19, A & B)
tion, or low synovial fluid viscosity, boundary lubri- These deformations tcnd to increase the surfac
cation must exiSl (Mo\\' & Ateshian, 1997). area and congnlcl1cy. thus beneficially alterin
The two classical modes of fluid-film lub"ication film geomCli)'. By increasing the bearing contac
" defined in engineering are hydrodynamic and area, the lubricant is less able to escape from be
squeeze-film lubrication (Fig. 3-19, A & B). These tween the bearing surfaces. [t longer-lasting lubri
modes apply to rigid bearings composed of rela- cant film is generated. and the stress of articula
tively undeFormable material such as stainless steel. tion is lower and 1110re sustainable. Elastohydro
l-lydrodynamic lubrication occurs when nonparallel dynamic lubrication enables bearings to greatl
rigid bearing surfaces lubricated by a nuid-film increase their load-carrying capacity (Dowson
move tangentially with respect to each other (i.e., 196611967,1990).
slide on each other), forming a converging wedge of Note that several studies have shown tha
Ouie!. A lifting pressure is generated in Ihis wedge by hyaluronidase treatment of synovial fluid, which de
the fluid viscosity as the bearing motion drags the creases its viscosity (to that or saline) b~; causing de
fluid into the gap betwcen lhe surfaccs, as shown in polymerization of HA, has lillie effect on lubricatio
Figure 3~ 19A. In contrast, squeezc-f-Ilm lubrication (Linn, 1968; Linn & Radin, 1968). Because nuid-fllm
Occurs when the bearing surfaces 1110\'e perpendicu- lubrication is highly dependent on lubricant viscos
lad.''''- toward each other. A pressure is generated in ity, thcse results strongly suggest that an alternativ
the fluid-film as a result of the viscous resistance of 1110de of lubrication is the primary mechanism re
the fluid that acts to impede its escape from the gap sponsible for the low frictional coefficient of joints.
(Fig. 3-19B). The squeeze-film mechanism is suffJ-
cientto cany high loads for short durations. Even-
BOUNDARY LUBRICATION
tually, however, the fluid-film becomes so thin that
contact between the asperities (peaks) on the two During diarthrodial joint function. relative motio
bearing surfaces occurs. of the articulaling surfaces occurs. In boundary lu
Calculations of the relative thickness of the fluid- brication. lhe surfaces are protected by an ad
film layer and the surface roughness are valuable in sorbed layer of boundary lubricant, which prevent
establishing when hy'drodynarnic lubrication may direct. surface-to-surface contact and eliminate
exist. In hydrodynamic and squeeze-film lubrica- most of the surface wear. Boundarv lubrication i
tion, the thickness and extent of the nuid-fllm, as .' essentially independent of the phy~ical propertie
well as its load-carrying capacity, are characteristics of either the lubricant (e.g .. its viscosit~,) or th
independent of the (rigid) bearing surface material bearing material (c.g., its stiffness). instead de
properties. Thcse lubrication characteristics are in- pending almost entirely on the chemical propertie
of the lubricant (Dowson, 1966/67). In synovial
joints. a specific glycoprotein. "Iubricin," appears to
be the synovial fluid constituent responsible for
boundary lubrication (Swann ct aI., 1979, 1985).
Lubricin (25 X 10·: In\\') is adsorbed as a macro-
molecular monolayer to each articulating surface
(Fig. 3·20). These two layers. ranging in combined
thickness frol11 I La 100 11m, arc able to carry loads
and appear to be effective in reducing friction
(Swann et aI., 1979). More recently, Hills (1989)
suggested that the boundary lubricant found in
synovial fluid was more likely to be a phospholipid
named dipalmiloyl phosphatidylcholine. Allhough
experiments demonstrate that a boundary lubri-
cant can aCCOlint for a reduction of the friction co-
efficient by a factor of tbreefold to sixfold (Swann
et aI., 1985; Williams et aI., 1993), this reduction
is quilc modest corn pared wiLh the much greaLM
cr range (e.g., up to 60 fold) reported earlier
M
.-----------------
Articular surface
~n~1\\l~lf2t±-
shirl or 1111id-film lo bOl1ndar~-" luhrication with l
0\'(.'1' the same loc'-llion (\Valkcr I.'l aI., \070).
The articular cartilagl...' :-;urf<'KL~. like all surface
not pL'rfCCtl.v smooth; as(k'ritics project out from
surface (Clarke, 1971; Gardner oS: McGillivray. 1
Lubricating glycoprotein Articular surface
Rc(IIl..~r& Zimn~', 1970) (Fi~s" 3-3/3 and 3·21). In s
ovialjoints. situations may occur in which lhe ll
film thickness is or the san'll.' order as the 111('..\11
Boundary lubrication of articular cartilage. The load is
ticular surface aspt..'rity nV..tlkcr ('t .. II", 1970), Du
carried by a monolayer of the lubricating glycoprotein such insl . Hlct..'S, b()undar~' lubrication betweell
(lGP). which is adsorbed onto the articular surfaces. The asperities may COllle into pla~·. If this occurs
monolayer effectively serves to reduce friction and helps mixed mode of lubric..ltinn is npcr"lting, with
to prevent cartilaginous wear. Adapred from Armsrrong. joint surface load sustailk'd b~' both the lIuicl-
C G., & Mo'."/, v: C (1980). Friction, rubrication and ~'/ear of pressure in "l1"eas or
nOIlCOlllact .. lIlel b~' the bCH
synovial joints. In: R. Owen, J. Goodfellow, and P Bullough ..Iry lubricant lubricin in the .. m:.'as of i.lspcrit.\' c
(Eds.). Scientific Foundations of Onhopaedks and Traumatol- tact (showll in Figure 3-22)" In this mode of mi
ogy (pp. 223-232). Londofl: Wilfiilm Heinermann.
luhl"icntion. it is probable lit..\( Illost 01" the fric
(which is still extrl...·l11d~-" low) is gellL'ratcd in
•
Adsorbed Pressutized ever, particularly in \'iew of the findings by Li
boundary lIuid (1968), which dcmonstratcd thai purificd I-IA acts
lubricant ~ a poor lubricanl.
-o~m'x;\;~,'~;
To summarize, in any bearing, the effective mo
of lubrication depcnds on thc applicd loads and
the relative velocit~' (speed and direction of motio
Boundary Articular of the bearing surfaces. Adsorption of the synov
lubricated surface fluid glycoprotein, lubricin, to articular surfac
asperity seems to be most important under severe loadi
contact
conditions, that is, contact surfaces with high load
low relative speeds, and long duration. Under the
conditions, as the surfaces arc pressed together, t
Schematic depiction of mixed lubrication operating in ar· boundary lubricant monolayers interact to preve
ticular cartilage. Boundary lubrication occurs when the direct contact between the articular Stll·races. Co
thickness of the fluid~film is on the same order as the versely, Ouid-mm lubrication operates under less
roughness of the bearing surfaces_ Fluid-film lubrication vere conditions. when loads arc low and/or oscill
takes place in areas with more widely separated surfaces. in magnitude and when the conlacting surfaces a
I Adapred from Armstrong, e.G" & Mo~-v. Ve. (1980), Friccion. Iv-
br;(Miofl clod wear of synovial joints. In: R. Owen, 1. GoocH(!lIow,
moving at high relative speeds. In light of the vari
demands on diarthrodial joints during normal fun
ilnd P. Bullot/gll (Eds). Scientific Foundations of Orthopaedics
tion, it is unlikely that only a single mode of lub
(lnd TraumMology (pp_ 223-232), London: William Heinemwnn.
calion exists. As )/ct. it is ,impossible lO slate de
I
:~
HA gel in joint lubrication·' remains unclear, ho\\'- during an extended period of standing follow
i
~'.''.'._--~~"~,-,.,,"'''',!,,,_,_,_----~,.....= ,.,.,,"'"<" "- " ', ,",'!'='-' ' r-'- - - - -~"=,., , ,.7' ' '"' ' ' ,) :~ , "'-
"r
Solute and
small particle Articular Hi ;'cW) :i:r'
flow surface ri,;;Cfor-r!O:C:CL:ic::-',
T-=--
I
-=. ,., - -- -- ' -- --
1-=-- "-
0.02-1 urn ..
I SUrf;:iCC
ilmlEL ""
Ultrafiltration of the synovial fluid into a highly viscous gel. edU"\:, of their' "ile', afe \H1i]bir:, tu C'~(ilP(" TlH.'se Hi, nhH:rc"
As the articular surfaces come together. the small solute mol- rnoluui(,s forrn d ((mu:,n\r,',ted ~;e! ic'"" th"Hl i l,r11 thick ti'
rI ecules escape into the articular cartilage and into the lateral
joint space, leaving the large HA macromolecules that, be-
lubricate's the "nicul.Jr' surfi'l(OS, This hypothc,,,iled IL;bric,:;t
moclc' is lC'ln:(~d "i)()o51cci lubriCdtion "
ing impact, the fluid-film Ina)' be clilninatcd, :\III](lll~~lt i\J:li.,! i:-- p~lrlili(IIl!..:d h,:l\\l'l'll llll' "o
allo\ving sllrface~to-sllrracecontact, The sur- :llH,lllllid pll~l:-'l'" o! ~\ hipll~l"il' Ill~\llTi~d (\10\\ l'l ~
faces, however, will probabl.\' still be pro- jl.lSOJ, .'\ll',,!JI~lll 1]l)l)7) lkri\l'd ~llll'\Pl\'""i(l!l lor t
tected, either b.\' a thin la)'Cl" of ultrafiltratccl l'lkl'li\\: ~or 1\1l'~\"\1I'l'd) l'(ll'llll'il'lll (II' friction th
s.. . ·novial fluid gel (boosted lubrication) or by" \\~l" lkpl'lldl'lll :-.okh OIl lo
thl' proportioll or 1Ill'
the adsorbed lubricin monolayer (boundmy :-'lIpplll'1l'd h\ thl' :--olid In~ltl'i\ (c',~ .. lhl' dilll'I\:IlC
lubrication). hl'I\\l'l'll tOI~tl 1(l~\l1 ;\11(.1 tll;\l "lIpj1ol'll'd h\ h.\dl'o:-:
Ii . . ' j11\',":-;[II\' ill llll' l]lIidl. Till' ilnplil';llion 01 "lIch
l'\j1I'l'",,,i(lll i" lilal Ihl' !I'il'li(l]l;tl !1),Opl'l'til'" (d c\n
ROLE OF INTERSTITIAL FLUID PRESSURIZATION
L\~:'-l' \';1]'\ \\ilh lillll' dlll'ill~: ;\ppli,'d 1(1;ldill~, ~l 1\'l
IN JOINT LUBRICATION
1101l ollhl' IllllT"llli~d l]lIid ;llld \.'(dl;l~:l'll-P(; I1I~l
During joint articulation, loads transmitted across illll'I'~\l'll(lIl" 111;\1 ~i\\' ri"l' to thl' 1]0\\ "lkpl'lldl'111 \
a jointma.\' be supported by the opposing joint sur- <..'(ll,Lt:--lic Pl'(lPlTlil'" 01 111l' li","lIl' lk:-,crilwd \..';\r
faces via solid-to-solid contact, through a fluid- ~\Ild "ll(l\\ll in l:i~',Ul\'" ,;_l) ;llld 3" 1O.
film la,\'er, or b.\' a mixturc of both, Although rIuid- To \'alidall' Ili:-, l1lodl'!. ;\ll':-,lli~\ll dl'\'l'lopl'd ~\ IHl
film lubrication is achievable, its contribution IU;ldill,~ l'\j1o,.'l'illll'lll lkll "lllkTilllpU:-'l'd ~l I'ri....-tl(j
to joint lubrication is transient, a C()J1sequcnce of lorqlll' 10~ld 011;\ ""';ll'til;\~:'-l' l'\pLllli 111H,hT~~oill~:'- l'J'l
the rapid dissipation of the fluid-filrn thickness 1();HJin~, ill ;1 Ulillill,'d l'()lllp)'l'S"ioll l.'ollligl1r~\
by joint loads, Witb tbis caveat, Atesbian (1997), (Fig, .~-~-L\l ("\tl',,hi~lll l'l ;11, ll)l)Sl. \lnrl' Spl'l
adopting the theoretical framc\vork of the biphasic L'all.\, ;1 \.'\lilldril';J1 hip!J;l."il' l·;ll'lil~l!.-',l' plug \\'~l:-' l'O
theory (Mow et aL, 1980), proposed a mathemati- pl'l':-""l'd ill ;\ l'()lJ1illing rillg k,~2.., prohihiling r~ld
cal formulation of a boundary friction model of lllolion ;\lll! nuil! l'\ud~\tion) 1l1ll!lT ~\ l'onstalll a
articular cartilage to describe the underlying plil'd IO;ld ~_',l'lllT~lll'd h\ ~lfl illlPl'ITlll'~\hk' rigid pLl
mechanism behind diarthrodial joint lubrication, llwl \\~l" r()lalill~,:'- ;11 ;\ prl':-:;\.'I'illl'l! ~lll!--,-lllar :-'jk'l'd,
T
in particular, the time-dependcnce of the friction :-'lIrr~\l>l' or thl' plllg oppO:-,itl' till' pl~\ll'll \\~l~ prl's
coefficient for cartilage reported during creep ;lg;\ilbl ;\ li\l'd ri~2.id PO]'OU:-' IIIll'\' \\lllTl'h.\ tIll' int
and stress-relaxation experiments (1\'lalcolm, 1976; di::,-it~\ti(lll or Ihe l';\)'liL\!2.l' \\'lll1 lhl' rOIl!..'.ll :-'lll'!;\i.X
McCutchen, 1962), tll~,' POI'lI\!:-' liltL'!' prl:\'l:l~tcd it I'n)lll n)t:ltill~!:. III l
, w
Confining
chamber - - / - - 7+H---+-- Impermeable
rigid platen
Cartilage --/-----11--
Porous
filter --l---+':~:',,-:~.:.; :::'::l~::..\":.~:~~~.;:
I•
A i ~ Fluid exudaricn
I 0.15
0.13
0.10
~ 0.08
0.05
0.03
manner, a frictional torque was developed in the lis~ which closely match expel"imcntal results, show
Sue. Because the application or a torque load that that during initial loading, when interstitial pres-
yields pure shear, under inflnitc~imal deformations, surization is high, the friction coefficient' can be
induces no volume change in the tissue or associ- very low (Fig. 3-2413). As creep equilibrium is
ated nuid exudation, the load generated by the fric- reached and the load is transferred to the solid ma-
tional torque is independent of the biphasic creep trix, the friction cocrficient becomes high (e.g.
behaviOl" of the tissue. Theoretical predictions, 0.15). The time constant for [his transient response
is in excellent agreement with observed experimen- Iv,:l '1111~h'\"II""lld;k't" \11111;11,:1 ])vl\\l'l'll til",
tal results (Malcolm, 1976; J\l1cCutchcn, 1962), An- til"~ (d I Ill' 1\\1) l'~II'lil;l~l' '111'1;ll'I.." I~ill..·h lll..'l..lll'
other imponant resull or this work is that nuid pres- "j\t,.. \\l·;lr ill dh,,"V ","\pl..·rillh:l1h, 111'\\l'\<.·I". \\
surization can function in joint lubrication without rukd (Jill. Tltl..· lI11tllipk· 11111<,11.·,. . . fli dkt,.·lih· l
concomitant fluid exudation to the lubricating 1Il!ll \\l!llill!~ ill ,,'(I1II..'l·rl ;ll'l' Illl' 1111'I..,ll:llli'JII' t
boundary as is proposed for weeping lubrication iIlIVr!;ll·i:d \'"1.::11' pi :lrlit"IILII' ,::llliLI.!-'-\." IlllJik ... ·k
(McCutchen, 1962) (Fig. 3-190). Equally significant, <.·nl1<.'k- ........... ;ldh<.",j\l· ;lIld :d)r~l..... i\<.· \\l·:lr 111:,\ \:11"1
this lubrication theory is capable of explaining the ill :111 illqxtirl·d Ill" . . k·~! . . ·It",·r:ll<."d '.\llll\i:d jllill\
obscl\'cd decrease of the effective friction coeffi- [)h.' l·;II'liLI.!-'-l· :-'lll'I;ll'l' 'll,t:lill' 11111';I'll'll\.:lllJ':tl
cient with increasing rolling and sliding joint veloc- :llHI'll!" dl'I..Tl·:I'V' ill 111:1". il hl·;,,:Ollh."' :-'Idi
ities and with increasing joint load (Linn, 1968). 111ur<.' rk·nlJl·;lhk· L\ki/ilki 1,:1 :11. !lJSh: :\nn"'l
Recently. the inlcl'Stilial fiuid pressurization \1t,I.I.. 19~~: Sl·tloll 1:1 :d. I(jl..)-ll. Thu,.... lItJid Irc
within cm·tilage during uniaxial creep and stress re- Illhl'il';llll !dlll 'l'p:lr;llil'I~: dll' hl';lrill~~ ,111'I:ll'
laxation experiments was sliccessfully measured Il,__ ;d~ :1\\;1\ I11UI\.' L·:l ... ih IhrClll~1i lil .... i.:anil:lgc '
(Soltz & Aleshian. 1998). As predicted by the bipha- Tlli~ 10:-.... 01 11lhri...:;Llill~ Illiid ll'IHII hd\\l'l'l1 11
sic theOly, they found that interstitial Ouiet pressur- f;li.x, inlTl·;l'\.'" I hI..· prllhahilil\' III dil\·t,.·1 i.-"Clll
ization supported more that 90'/0 of the load for sev- !\\ .... ·I..'ll 11lL' ;1:-'PlTilil" ;llld V\;ll'I'J"h;lk, tIll' ;lh
eral hundred seconds following loading in confined pl"! 't,.·l'~:-'.
compression (Ateshian & Wang. 1995). The close Ll\i~\II..' \\\,';\1" ld hl·;ll·;ll.;! '1lI'Lt<.·l·~ I"l· ... IIII,... Ill
agreement or their measurements with biphasic the- ,"'UI"I~ll"... :-\l'·:-'llrl~iI.,."L" ,.:lllll:tci !lUI Ii-tllli 1111..· ;H,:L"
oretical predictions represents n rnajor advance- ti('ll (d l1'li,Tl""'i..'iJpL,: d;ll)I;I.:,~L· \\ililin tIll: hV;II'il
ment in the understanding of diarthrodial joint lu- kri:d until·' l"l·p,:lili\L· ... (rL· ......... ill~. Bl·;lrill;;: ,
brication and provides compelling evidence for the L.illlrl' ,ll;t-' 11 ... '\.'111· \\illl Illl" rl'pl":t1nl ,lpplil':l
role of interstitial Ollid pressurization as a funda- lli~1i l('~ld ... O\er;l !"c!;tli\l"h :-hl.n lhTi(ld (II' \\t
mental mechanism underlying the load-bearing ca- 1\'PI..'1 j I illil I d' It 1\\ j( );Id ... (1\l'1" ;111 l'\ I \.'lldl"d j1l"l'il
pacity in cartilage. It is emphasized that while the lh(lll~h lilt· 11l~1[.!llillllk· til' thll ... I..' 1(,;((../ ... l1la\ Ik·
collagen-PG matrix is subjected to hydrostatic pres~ 1IJ\\l..'l' 1!J;11l !lJl" lll:lll"l"i;d":-. lilt i1ll;11l" .... 11\·11,;2111. l
sure in the surrounding interstitial Ouid, it does not lii~tll· \\l':11". r...:' .... l!ltill~ il"ll!lll..·\l·lil':llh I"l·Pl';\II.·d
expose the solid matrix (nor encased chondrocytcs) Ill:lli(1I1 nldll· hl':lrill~ 111;1ll'1'i;t! ..... L';ll1 1:1 hi..' pl:tl
to deformation, presumably causing no mechanical ill \\cll·lllbril..":lIl'd lk·;ll'ill~:-'.
damage. III :-\lll,\'j~d jllilH ..... IhL· ..:\I..'lil.·~d \:Iri:llillll i
joinl Ill~ld dlll"ill~" 11111,t l)h\,i(ll()~il·:t1 :ll
...':111.-.1..':- I"l'pl'lili\l' ;lrti ...: ll!:tr \:;:It"lil;l~~l.' ~lr""~~il1~,~
Wear of Articular Cartilage 1ll:1IiullJ. III :u..ldi!ltlll. dUrill~~ rU!:llioll ;tllt.! ,lid
~pl.·\.·ilil..' I"l"giflll 01 IItL· ;ll"ll,,:u!:tr :-'Url~H:l· ·'1111
'Ncar is the unwanted removal of material from :\11ll (llil" 01 Ill\,· !lJ;ld ... ,d l'olll;\i,:I ;\I·l':I. !\'pl"
solid surfaces by mechanical action. There are two ~tl"l·:-...;ill~ 11l;ll aniL'u!:tr 1\'gilliL l,(';ld~ iIIlPl):
components of wear: interfacial wear resulting from :lrliL'uL,lr L"'lrlil~I~I..· a 1'1..' ~11PPIll"!I.."d In' 1111..' l'ullag
Lhe interaction of bearing surfaces and fatigue wear 1ll;lIl"i,\ ~1lh.1 h.\· IIll· rL·",i~I;:1l1(l' gt,.·lllT~llcd 1)
resulLing from bearing deformation under load. Ill()\·l·IIII..'nl t1tl"(Jll~lllllll [Ili..' Ill;ll!"i\. '1'1111" I\·p
lnterfacial wear occurs when bearing surfaces joint Illtl\ ...'IlIL"111 ;IIHI ll';ldill~ \\ill 1..__ ~\Il"'L' 1\'
come into direct conLact with no lubricanL film SI1,,-',,:-.ing til" I hI..' ...;11Ii<l Ill:!l!"i\ :IIH.II'\..'IW:I1l"d ""\lI
(boundary 01' Iluid) separating them. This type or and irllhihilioll (JI 1111..' lis:-'llL'·:-' illl\,"l".... lili;d llllid
wear can Lake place in either of two ways: adhesion l\: ;\tl'shiall, Il)')/l. TIII.., ...;\" P1'l)l'l'~:"l'S ~'.i\'"," Ii...;\,.'
or abrasion. Adhesive wear arises when, as the bear- ptl:-.:-.ihk· 1l11,(!l'llli:--llIs h.\ \dti\:h f:Jli~ll"'· d;:lln:I~
ings come into contact, surface fragments adhere to ,It,.·L·lllllll!:lll' ill ;lrlil..'ld;ll· 1..";ll'lil;l~l·: disnlpliot'!
each other and are torn off from the surface during C(JlI'l~l·II-PG ~(llid 11l:llri\ :lIld PC '\\';\~h Uti!.··
sliding. Abrasive wear, conversely, occurs when a First. !\"Pl'tili\\' l·tdl:t~~l·ll-PC; Illalri\ :-'t
soft material is scraped by a harder one; the harder ",'(luld d I:-ru pi ti'L· \."(JII;I~L·1l Ii IlLT:-.. I hl" PC 1ll:ll
material can be either an opposing bearing or loose l'l'lIk:-.. :11)(1'01' Iltl' illll'd;:Ii..·I..' hl'I\\n"l1 Ii\l·~l' 1\\1
particles bc(ween the bearings. The low rates or in- PUllL·"t",.:\ PU\llt!:ll' Il-,polhl",is i.. . 111.,\ t,.·;lI"ti\;,
terracial wear observed in articular cartilage tested li~lIL' i ..... Ihl' l"L· . ..;ltll ld';l It.'lbiJ...· I':lihll\' PI' I hI.' l·'
in vitro (Lipshitz & Glimcher, 1979) suggest that di- lii~",'l" 111.,:1\\0,"1, (FrL'I..·lll;lll. 1075)" ;\Isu. :IS di:-l
~bove pronounced changes in the articular cani- and Paul (1971) found dramatic articular cartilag
(-~e-':l;G population have been obscn'cd with age damage with repeated impact loads.
:ric\i_lisease (Buckwalter et aI., 1985; iVluil~ 1983; These mechanisms of wear and damage may b
\R<Juahlev et at. 1980; Sweet et aI., 1979). These PG the cause of the commonly obser'ved large range
';. chal~ges "could be considered as part of the aCCUl11l1- structural defects observed in anicular canilag
idrcd,tissue damage. These molcculaJ- stnlclural (BlIliollgh & Goodfellow, 1968; Meachim & Fergi
:-'~ha'nges would result in lower PG-PG irHcraction 1975) (Fig. 3-25, A-C). One such defect is the spli
;~ites and thus lower network strength (Mow et aI., ting of the cartilage surface. Ven ieal sections of ca
1989b; Zhu et aI., 1991, 1996). Second, repetitive tilage e:\hibiting these lesions, known as fibrillatio
:and massive exudation and imbibition of the intcr- show that they eventually cxtend through thc fu
<~iitii:d fluid may cause the degradcd PGs to "wash depth of the articular cartilage. (n other specimcn
, ollt~~;::from the ECM, with a resultant decrease in the cartilage layer appears to be eroded rather tha
stff0e~s; and increase in permeability of the tissue split. This erosion is known as smooth-surfaced d
tha('jp::lurn defeats the stress-shielding mechanism structive thinning.
oUnierstitial fluid-load support and establishes a vi- Considering the variety of defects noted in arti
dous/cycle of cartilage degeneration. ular cartilage, it is unlikely that a single wear mec
A third mechanism of damage and resultant ar- anism is responsible for all of them. At any give
ticular wear is associated with s~'novial joint impact site, the stress histor:v may be such that fatigue
loading-that is, the rapid application of a high [he initiating failure mechanism. At another, the l
l8"ad. \,vith normal physiological loading, articular brication conditions may be so unfavorable that i
cartilage undergoes surface compaction during the terfacial wear dominates the progression of cart
compression with the lubricating fluid being exuded lage failure. As yet. there is little experiment
lhi'ough t.his compacted region, as shown in Figure information on the type of defect produced by an
3..:10::';\5 described above, however, fluid redistl'ibu- given wear mechanism.
tiol}.',\vithin the articular cartilage occurs over time, Once the collagen-PG matrix of cartilage is di
which relieves the stress in this compacted region. rupted, damage resulling froll1 any of the three we
Thi~'process of stress relaxation takes place quickly; mechanisms mentioned becomes possible: (I) fu
the stress may decrease by 630/0 within 2 to 5 sec- ther disruption of the collagen-PG matrix as a resu
onds (Ateshian et aI., 1998; ""lo\\' et aI., 1980). If, of repetitive matrix stressing; (2) an increase
howevel~ loads arc supplied so quickly that there is "washing out" of the PGs as a result of violent nu
insufficient time for internal Iluid redistribution to movement and thus impairment of articular car
reHeve the compacted region, the high stresses pro- lage's interstitial Ollid load SUppOrl capacity; an
dliccd in the collagen-PG matrix may induce dam- (3) gross alteration of the normal load carria
age (Newberry et aI., 1997, Thompson et aI., 1991). mechanism in cartilage, thus increasing friction
This' phenomenon could well explain why Radin shear loading on the articular surface.
I
I
I
Photomicrographs of vertical sections through the surface of of the articular surface that will eventually extend through
articular cartilage showing a normal intact surface (A), an the full depth of the cartilage (C). Phocomicrographs provide
eroded articular surface (8), and a vertical split or fibrillation chrough che courcesy of Dr. S. Akizuki. Nagano. Japan
All these processes will accelerate the rale of in- ~i<: IlK'chanical prop<..Tt~· 01" the tissue. Tht: nH)SI im
terfacial and fatigue wear of the already disrupted ponam I"ailure-inilialillg rac((1l' appears I(J he I
cartilage microstructure. "loost..'ning:" of tile c()lla~cn nctwork tllal al!c,ws a
normal PC c.\pansiclIl and thus tissue :-,weJ[i
(:\ilaroudas, 1976; McDL'vilt &: Muir, 1976). Asso
Hypotheses on the Biomechanics alL'd willl Ihis Chi.U1gc is a dL'Cn:i.ISL' in canibg.1.: stil
of Cartilage Degeneration Ill:SS and an incrl.:ase in canilage pi..'rI1lL'abil
(Allman el aI., 19S-l; Armstrong &. Mow, 198
Guilak L"l aI., 1994. SL"lton el aI., 1994). h,,'h
ROLE OF BIOMECHANICAL FACTORS
which aller canilagL' fUllction ill ~\ diunhrodialjoi
Articular cartilage has only a limited capacity for re- during joilll mOlion, as showll in Figure 3-27 (!vlo
pair and regeneration, and if subjected lO an abnor- '" Atcshian, 1997).
mal range of slress~s can quickly undergo total fail- ThL' magnitude of the stress sustained b,\' lhe a
ure (Fig. 3-26). It has been hypothesized that failure ticular cartilage is dctennined b,\' both the toti.lllo
progression relates to the following: (1) the magni- on the joint and how tlwt kli.\d is distributed ()\
tude of the imposed stresses; (2) the total numbe,· of the i.\1·ticul~ir surface conl~lCt arca (Allmed 6.: Burk
sustained stress peaks; (3) 1I1C changes in the intrin- 19i'3; Annslrong L'I aI., 1979; Paul. 1976). :\n.\·
sic molecular and microscopic structure of the col- h,:nsl..' stress COllcL'nlration in Ilk' l'ont~\Ct i.lrea w
lagen-PG Illalri.'\; and (4) the changes in the intrin- pla,\' i.1 pl·imi.llY roIL, in tissu<..' (k'gL'Ilt.'ration, A lar
Ilumb<..'r or well-knowll condilions GillSi...' L'.\cL'ss
stress conccnlrations in anicular canilage alld
sult in caniJage failure. Most of Illese stress L'once
t
Biochemical Composition
+
Spatial and Temporal
Slress-Slrain, Pressure
E.xi.lmplcs or conditions causing stich joint inco
gruilil.:s include 0:\ subscqllL'fl( to congeniwl a
L"!i.lbular dysplasia, a slipped cnpilal femoral <.:pi
figure illustrating how osteoarthritic changes to the col- F ago in his right knee. Currently, he is sufiering pain as-
sociated with movement, swelling, and lirnilaiions of knee
'aqen·PG network can compromise the ability of articular
ca'til'lOe to maintain interstitial fluid pressurization, which motion (Fig. 3-1-1),
""'~"'''o< the tissue's load-bearing and joint lubrication ca· The history of knee meniscectomy not only implies an
Loss of PG and damage to the collagen fibers result alteration in joint surface congruence but also the elimi·
an increased hydraulic permeability (decreased resis- nation of the load-distribution function of the meniscus.
!'c!"""e to fluid flow) and supra-normal loads and strains on The effect is an abnormal joint. characterized by an in-
solid matrix (and chondrocyte). crease in the stress acting on the joint surface that results
in cartilage failure. Most of these stress concentralions are
pre-stress established by the balance between ten- 'Ii'lL' factors that g()\·1..'1'1l c!londnlC\[<.' f"llIKlion
sion in the collagen flbers and the Donnan osmotic L'arlil<lgL' s[ruclllr...' <lnd l'UI'H,:lioll, ~\IH.l lhc diology
pressure. During joint loading. by vit·tue or the lis- or 0:-\ I..·an hI..' obtain..:d,
,
~.,t,--. ....'.~ ., .. "
REFERENCES
SumrlzalY
!\hllh:d, i\"\1.. (\: Burkt.:, D.L. (1983). In vilro mcnSliremen
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AIRTI'CULARCARTILAGE ,streSses sustlllned by cont::ict joint surfaces
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Biomechanics of
Tendons and
ligaments
Margareta Nordin, Tobias Lorenz, Marco Campello
Introduction
Composition and Structure of Tendons and Ligaments
Collagen
Elastin
Ground Substance
Vascularization
Outer Structure and Insertion Into Bone
•
tutes a large portion of the organic matrix of b
Introduction and ~artilage and has a unique mechanical supp
The three principal structures that c10selv surround, ive function in other connective tissues such
connect and stabilize the joints of the ~keletal svs- blood vessels, heart, ureters, kidneys, skin, and li
t~Il1are tendons, ligaments, and joint capsules. ~\l The great mechanical stability of collagen gives
tIlollgh these structures arc passive (i.e., thev do not
tendons and ligaments their characteristic stren
and flexibility.
acth'ely produce motion as do the l11usck:s), each
Like other connective tissues, tendons and l
pl.iJ's an essential role in joint motion.
The role of the ligaments and joint capsules, ments consist of relatively few cells (fibroblasts)
\vI11c.h connect bone with bone, is to auament the
an abundant extracellular matrix. In general,
I-IICchanical stability of the joints, to gl1i(iL~joint mo- cellular material occupies approximatelv 2000 of
tion, and to prevent excessive motion. Ligaments total tissue volume, while the extraccliular ma
anel joint capsules act as static restraints. Tile func- accounts for the remaining 80°/(;. Approxima
ticm of the tendons is to attach muscle to bone and 70t;0 of the matrix consists of water, and appro
to transmit tensile loads from muscle to bone, mately 30% is solids. These solids are collag
thereby.' producing joint motion, or to maintain the ground substance, and a small amount of c1a;
hpcly posture. The tendons and the muscles form The collagen content is generallv over 75 % and
the muscle-tendon unit, which acts as a dvnamic n> somewhat greater in tendons than in ligame
straint. The tendon also enables the mtls~le bell\' to (Kassel', 1996); in extremitv tendons, the solid m
p¢at an optimal distance from the joint on whi~h it rial may consist almost e~1tirely of collagen (up
acts without requiring an extended length of muscle 99% of the dry weight) (Table 4- I).
between origin and insertion. ~ The structure and chemical composition or l
Tendon and ligament injuries and derangements ments and tendons are identical in humans and
a~'e common. Proper management of these disor-
many animal species such as rats, rabbits, dogs,
(leI'S requires an understanding of the mechanical
monkey's. Hence, extrapolations regarding~ th
properties and function of tendons and ligaments structures in humans can be made from the res
ZtIld their capacity' for selF-repair. This chapter dis- of studies on these animal species.
cusses the following:
COLLAGEN
Composition and structure of tendons and
ligaments The collagen molecule is synthesized hv the fl
Biomechanical properties and behavior of blast \vithin the cell as a la;'ger precurso·r (proco
normal tendon and ligament tissue gen), which is then secreted and cleaved extrace
Biomechanical properties and behavior of in- larl y' to. become collagen (Fitton-Jackson, 19
jured tendon and ligament tissue (Fig. 4-1). Tendons and ligaments, like bone,
composed of the most common collagen molec
Several factors that affect the bioI11echanical
function of tendons and liuaments
co are auin u t <:>
"" co' ')fe'(1-
nancy, mobilization and immobilization, diabetes,
nonsteroidal anti-intlammatory drug (NSAID) use,
and the effects of hemodialvsis. Biomechanical con-
siderations regarding graft~ are also given. Tendon
f:1l1nd!e
ProcoHagen
Collagen
Fibroblasl molecules
- - - - - - - - - - - - - _ . _..._._---- - _ _-
...... ----._.--.~--- ._--._---------
Schematic representation of wllagen fibrils. fibers. and bun- f'xtrac('lIuiar lll<1!rl)( ill cl PiHt111e-! ilflangelll('llt {o form m;·
dles in tendons and collagenous ligaments (not drawn to crofibrils clnd then fibrils, The staggered array of the mole
scale). Collagen molecules. triple helices of coiled polypep- (tIles, in which each overlaps the other, gives .1 banded ap-
tide chains. are synthesized and secreted by the fibroblasts. pcarancE' ,0the Coll<1gen iibri!s under the electron
These molecules (depicted with "heads" and "tails" to repre- llIicro,:>wpe. Tilt:' hb!!l ... <)~J9rcgate further into hbers, ~"... I1l<:h
sent positive and negative polar charges) aggregate in the (omc together into dcn<,cly piicked bundles.
type I collagen. This Il101eculc consists of three lihril k'\'l'l. IL i...; till.' I,.'I'{):-;:,,-!illkl,d dl~II·~h.:[l'I' ur Llll'l'
polypeptide chains (ex chains), each coiled in a left- 1~lgl'll lihrib ikll I~h'l'~ ,"'II'l'll~lh [0 thl' li:--:-il.l('.'" IIl
handed helix wilh approximately 100 amino acids, C( lmpOSl' and <:t1I< I\\':-- I hl.':--l' I b:"Ul'S I( I l"tl1"ll.·1 il III und
which give it a total molecular weight or approxi. 1ll1.'("II<tllic~d :--lrl':":--. \\'illlill 111(' lihril:-., !Ill.' mulecul
mately 340,000 daltons (Rich & Crick, 1961) (Fig. <:tl"t' ;Jppar('Il!I~' tTUss-lillked h.y "hl'<:\(.I·I(l-i~lil" illte
4-2). Two or the peptide chains (called ,,·1 chains) <:ll:tiulb (Fi~_ -l~ I L hUI inlcrlihrilbr IT(I:-..... -linkill~ o
are identical. and one differs slightly (the 0:-2 chain). rnOl"L' complL'\ n~llllr(' <:d~(l rn~l.'" on·lll'.
The three a-chains are c0l11binccl in a right-handed III 111..'\\-1\- fcwlllt:d ,,:(lll~l~l'l1. thl' CI'(l:-.:--·lillk:-- ~\1\':' r
triple helix. which gives the collagen molecule a rod- :lli\"\,.,h- k\\' :lnd ~lrt' rl.~dlll.'ihl\:: 1111.' l.'(llb~l.'l1 b :,>olll
like shape. The length or the molecule is approxi. ill rJt'lIlral sail :"ohlliol"l:' <:!llll ill ~Icid :"(IIUliull:--, a
mately 280 nanOllleters (nIT}), and its diameter is ap- 1Ilt' i.:ro:--~-Ii111..:-; a I"l' hI i rI., t'a~i I.,' dL'Il~llll rt'd hy hl.'at.
proximately 1.5 nm. t.:olla~t'n a~L':-', lilt' 1111<:11 rlullIhtT nl rl'lilldhk' tTOS
Almost two thirds of the collagen molecule con- link:-. dl'LTl'a:-'L':-' lei ~l tllinilllurn ~b ~l 1~lr~l' lllllllhl'r
sists of three amino acids: glycine (33%), proline :--(~lhk', nonrl,dul'ihk· lTCls:"-lird,:,, ~lrl' fOI"t'lll'd. \bIUI
(15%), and hydroxyproline (15°/(;) (Ramachandran, l'<"lI~l~t'n i~ nul sU[lIhk, ill Ilt'lllral :"i.dl ~(lIt1ti(Jll:" 01'
1963). Every third amino acid in each 0: chain is ~ldd solulio1\:", and il :-illlyi\'l'~:\ hi~llL'l' dl'I1;,lllll'~l
glycine, and this repetitive sequence is essential for tl'l1IjWl':lllll'l', (1"-"0[' ~\ I\~\'il'\\' or lTo:"s-link:\1!l' ill ~'()
the proper rormation of the triple helix. The small 12l'll, Sl.'l' Viidik, D~lllil'lsl'll, t~ Chlulld, 10~2,l
size 01' this amino acid allows the tight helical pack· .:\ lihril is !"(Irllll,d h," till' a~~I·q.!.ali(l1l or
Sl'\'t'l
ing of the collagen molecule. C'vlorco\'cr. glycine en- l,'olla~l'1l lllolL'ctlk's ill ;1 qU<lltTn~lIY Slrtlc!url.'. Th
hances the stability of the molecule by forming hy- strllclllrl.', in \\·Ilh.:h t"ach Illnkndt' O\'t'!·bp:-. I
drogen bonds among the three chains of the otht'r, is I\'spollsihk for 1I1l' J'L'lk'alillt! IXIII((:-; o
superhelix. Hydroxyproline and proline form hydro- :':'t'J"Yl,d Oil thl' lihril", lllH..kT till' t,k-l'II'OIl lllilTOS(O
gen bonds, or hydrogen-bonded wal~r bridges. (Fi~, --l-2: ~l'l' :ds(l Fig, "'''''). Till' qll,llt'l'll:II-," Slrll...: lu
within each chain, The intra- and inlcrchain bond- or l.T)lIa~cn rdalt'S 10 till.' or~~1I1i:t<:lli(l1l III l.·ollagl.:
ing. or cross-linking. between specific groups on the lllolt'ClIll's il110 :l :"l~lbk. 10\\' l.'lll'r~i,:lic bi(llo!!ic
chains is essential (0 the stability of the molecule, unit ha:--t'd 011 :J rq:!.ul<:\1· a:':"(ll"ial iOll (~r ~\(,.l.iaCt'lll ';11
Cross-links are also formed between collagen t'''.'lIks' h~ISil' <:llId ~lcidil' :llIlino ~ll·ids. B., :In:ll1gi
molecules and are essential to aggregation at the ~\d.iacl'lll col1at!.I.'l't 1I1pk'l:uks in a qLl~lnl'l'-st~lg1:-~t'r. o
64 om arrangcn)cnt, which cquips the tendons to handl
lhe high unidirectional (uni4lxial) lensile loads t
Fibril
000
which they are subjected during activity (Fig. 4-4A)
, 0
or;: Overlap zone The Iigamenls gencrally sLisrain tensile loads in on
010
r Hole zone predominant direction but may also bear smalle
;:r:I I
Micrafibrils (cnsile loads in other directions; their fibers may no
~~~~=~'~'~'~~~~~~~~~
Packing of
be completely parallel but arc closely interiaccd
'molecules I I
with one another (Fig. 4-48). The specific orienta
..-",/ ................. tion of the fiber bundles varies to some cxten
~~/
/
... among the ligaments and is dcpendcnl on the func
-' ........... tion of the ligament (Arnie! et al .. 1984),
rCollagen r'.'='='=====:2~80~nm~======):J~
i' molecule !... I
........ .J
,
..................
!
The metabolic tUI'nover of collagen may be stud
ied by tritium labeling of h)-!droxyprolinc or glycin
. ,. - "
.......................
.......... i
and by autoradiographic methods, Studics in ani
mals have shown that the half-life of collagen in ma
, lure animals is very long: the same collagen mole
a.2~~~t 1.5 nm
cules may exist throughout the animal's adult lire
however, in young animals and in physically altered
~, 1 (e.g., injured or immobilized) tissue, the turnover i
acceleratcd. Rabbit studies have shown melaboli
activity to be somewhat greater in ligaments than in
tendons, probably because of different stress pat
Schematic drawing of collagen microstructure. The colla- terns (Amie! et al .. 1984).
gen molecule consists of three alpha chains in a triple helix
(bonom). Several collagen molecules are aggregated into
a staggered parallel array. This staggering, which creates ELASTIN
hole zones and overlap zones, causes the cross-striation
The mechanical properties of tendons and liga
(banding pattern) visible in the collagen fibril under the
electron microscope. Adapled from Prockop, 0.1.. & Guzman,
ments are dependent not only on the architectur
;\! A. (1977). Col/agen dise,)ses and the biosynthesis of collagen
and properties of the collagen fibers but also on th
" proportion of elastin that these su'uctures contain
Hasp Pract. Dec. 61-68.
The protein elastin is scarcely present in tendon
and extrcrnily ligaments, but in elastic ligamcnt
such as the Iigamenlum Oavum, the proportion o
positely charged amino acids are aligned. This sta- elastic fibers is substantial. Nachemson and Evan
bl.c structure will require a great amount of energy (1968) found a 2 to I ratio of clastic to collage
,':~ri,d force to separate its molecules, thus contribut- fibers in the ligaments flava. These ligamcnls, which
:.ipg to the strength of the structurc. In this way, or- connect the laminae of adjacent vertebrae, appea
gU)lizcd collagen molecules (five) form units of mi- to have a specialized role, which is to protect th
crofibrils, subfib"ils, and fibrils (Fig. 4·3) (Simon, spinal nerve roots from mechanical impingement
1994). The fibrils aggregate f'urther to form collagen to pre·stress (preload) the motion segment (th
fibers, which are visible under the light microscope. functional unit of the spine), and to provide som
;;./(~hese fibers, which range from I to 20 J.L111 in cliam- intrinsic stability to the spine.
''.;:,'',¢ter, do not branch and l11av be many centimeters
"j<lI1g. They reflect a 64-nm periodicity of the fibrils
.:!: GROUND SUBSTANCE
and have a characteristic undulated form. The fibers
aggregate further into bundles. Fibroblasts are The ground substance in ligaments and tendons con
aligned in rows between these bundles and arc elon- sists of proteoglycans (PGs) (ur> to approximatel
gated along an axis in the direction of ligament or 20% of the solids) along with stnlctlll,JI glycoprotcins
;'i':. ~.enclon function (Fig, 4-4). plasma proteins, and a variety of srnall n1olcculcs
';/: The arrangement of the collagen j-ibers differs The PG units, macromolecules composed of variou
somewhat in the tendons and ligarncnls and is sulfated polysaccharidc chains (glycos<lminoglycans
Suited to the function of each stru~ture. The fibers bonded to a corc protein, -bind to a long hyaluroni
composing the tcndons have an orderl.y, parallel acid (HA) chain La form an cxtremely high molecula
Fibroblasts
Crimp
Fascicular membrane
•
weight PC aggregate like Lhm found in Lhc ground
substance of anicular cartilage (set.:' Fig. 3-6).
The PC aggregates bind most of the extracellular
water of the ligament and tendon. making the ma-
•
Parallel bundles of
collagen fibers
Nearly parallel
bundles of
collagen fibers
trix a highl~' structured gel-like material rather than
an amorphous solution. Furthermore. by acting as a
ccment-likc substance betwcen the coHagen mi-
croflbrils. they ma),' help stabilize the collagenous
skeleton of tendons and ligaments and contribute to
the o\'crall strength of these composite structures.
I~=
Only' a small number of these molecules exist in ten-
dons. however, and their imporlance for its biorne-
~
chanical properties has been questioned,
VASCULARIZATION
Fibroblasts
Tendons and ligaments have a Iimitcd vasculariza-
Tendon ligament
tion. which alTeets dircctl~' their healing process [lnd
A B metabolic activit~;. Tendons receive their blood sup-
ply dircctly from \'cssels in the perim.vsiulll. the
periosteal insertion. and the surrounding tissuc via
Schematic diagram of the structural orientation of the vessels in the para tenon or mesotenon. Tendons sur-
fibers of tendon (A) and ligament (8); insets show longitu- rounded b~) paratenon have been referred to as vas-
dinal sections. In both structures the fibroblasts are elon- cular tendons. and those sllrround~d by a tendon
gated along an axis in the direction of function. Adapted sheath as avascular tendons, In tendons surrounded
from Snell, R.5. (984), Cfinical and F~ln(tional Histology for by' a paratcnon, vessels enter rrom many points on
Medical Stuejents. Boston: Liule. Brown the pcripher.v and anastomose with a longitudinal
svstem or capilbries (Fig, 4-5),
The vascular pattern for tendons surrounded by
tendon sheath is different. Here the meso tenons a
reduced to vincula (Fig. 4-6). This avascuJar regio
led a variety of researchers to propose a dual pat
way for tendon nutrition: a vascular pathway, an
for the avascular regions, a synovial (diffusio
pathway. The concept of diffusional nutrition is
primary clinical significance in that it implies th
tendon healing and repair can occur in the absen
of adhesions (i.e" a blood supply). Conversely, lig
ments in comparison with surrounding tissue a
pear to be hypovascular. However, histological stu
ies reveal that throughollt the ligament substan
there is a uniform multivascularit)', which orig
nates from the insertion sites of the ligament. D
spite the small size and limited blood flow of th
India ink-injected (Spalteholz technique) into the calcaneal
vascular s)'stem, it is of prima(y importance in t
··f tendon of a rabbit, illustrating the vasculature of a
" maintenance of the ligament. Specifically, by pr
paratenon-covered tendon. Vessels enter from many points
on the periphery and anastomose with a longitudinal system
viding nutrition for the cellular population. this va
of capillaries. Reprinted wirh permission from Woo, S.L. Y, An, cular system maintains the continued process
K.N., Amoczky, D.V.M., et at. (1994). And!Om}~ biology. and bio- matrix synthesis and repair. In its absence, damag
mechanics of rhe iendon, ligament, and meniscus. In S.R. Simon fTom normal activities accumulates (fatigue) an
(Ed) Orthopaedic Basic Science (p. 52). Rosemont, Ii: MOS. the ligament is at risk for rupture (Woo et aI., 1994
Ligaments and tendons have been shown in bo
• human and animal studies to have a variety of sp
cialized nervc endings and mcchanorcceptors, Th
play an important role in proprioception and noc
ception, which are directly related to the functio
ality of joints.
4
3
I Elongation (%»)
~1.'· ,--? .
~Peakload store more energy, require marc force to I1.lptu
1 cycle ~
and undergo greater elongation (Kenncd.", Hawki
Willis, & Danylchuk, 1976).
Dw-ing cyclic testing of ligaments and tendo
where loads are applied and released al specific
tenmls, the stress-strain curve is displaced to
riglll along the deformation (strain) axis with ea
loading cycle, revealing the presence of a nonel
tic (plastic) cOlllponcnt; thc amount 01" perm
nent (nonrecoverable) deformation is progressiv
greater with every loading cycle. As cyclic load
progresses, the specimcn also shows an increase
clastic stiffness as a result of plastic dcfonnati
(molecular displacement). IVlicrofailure can oc
within the physiological range if frequcnt loading
imposed on an already damaged struclUrc wh
Elongation
lhe stiffness has decreased.
Two standard tests that reveal the viscoelastic
or ligaments and tendons are the stress-relaxat
test and the creep test (Fig, 4~12). During a stre
Typical loading (top) and unloading curves (bottom) from relaxation test, loading is hailed safely below
tensile testing of knee ligaments. The two nonlinear curves linear region of the stress-strain curve and the str
form a hysteresis loop. The area between the curves, called is kept constant over an extended period. The str
the area of hysteresis, represents the energy losses within decreases rapidly at first and then more sl()\v
the tissue. \Vhen the stress-relaxation test is repeated cy
cally, the decrease in stress gradually becomes l
pronou need.
During a creep lcst,loading is halted saFely bel
'0 ,Few studies or loading of tendons or Ii!!aments in the linear region of the stress-strain curve and
\:ivo have been perrorm~d. Kear and Smith (1975), stress is kept constanl over an extended period. T
using the strain gauge method, measured the rnaxi- strain increases relatively quickly at first and th
nUll strain in the latcral digital extensor tendons of more and more slowl.':. \Vhen this tcst is perform
sheep. The strain reached 2_6t}~ while the shl:cp cyclically. the increase in strain gradually becom
were trolling rapidly and decreased when the trol- less pronounced,
ting speed decreased. This maximal strain occurred The clinical application or a constant low load
for only 0.1 second during each stride. The maximal the soft tissues over a prolonged period, which ta
load imposed on the entire tendon was approxi- advantage of the creep response. is a llseful tre
mately 45 newtons (N). These results suggest that ment for several types of deformities. One exam
during normal activity, a tendon in vivo is subjected is the manipulation of a child's clubfoot by subje
LO less than one fourth of its ultimate stress. ing it to constant loads by means of a plaster ca
Another example is the treatment of idiopathic s
liosis with a brace, whereby constant loads are
VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOR (RATE
plied to the spinal area to elongate the soft tiss
DEPENDENCY) IN TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS
surrounding the abnormally curved spine,
Ligaments and tendons exhibit viscoelastic, or rate- More complex viscoelastic beh41vior is observed
dependent (time-dependent), behavior under load- the entire bone-ligament-bone complex_ Antel
ing; their mechanical propelties change with differ- cnlciate ligaments (ACLs) in knee specimens tak
ent rates of 1041ding. v"hen ligament and tendon from 30 primates were tested in tension to failure
specimens are subjected to increased strain rates a slow and a fast loading rale (Noyes el aI., 1976).
(loading rates), the linear portion of the stress-strain , the slow loading rate (60 seconds), much slower th
curve becomes steeper, indicating greater stiffness that of an injury mechanism in vivo, the bony ins
of the tissue at higher strain rates. v\lith higher tion of the ligament was 'the weakest component
strain rates, ligaments and tendons in isolation the bone-ligament-bone complex.. and a tibial sp
c',,"
bone-ligament-bone complex \vas nearly' the sam
These results suggest that as the loading rate is i
creased, bone shows a greater increase in streng
than does ligament.
Load relaxation
"'"o (length held constant)
--'
Ligal1zel1t Failure and Tendon
Injury Mechanisms
Injury mechanisms arc similar for ligaments an
Time tendons, therefore the following description of lig
A ment injury and failure is gencrall~1 applicable
tendons. \Vhen a ligament in vivo is subjected
loading that exceeds the physiological range. micr
Creep phenomenon failure takes place even before the yield point (P"
(load held constant)
is reached. \"'hen Ph" is exceeded, the ligament b
gins to undergo gross failure and simultaneolls
c
o the joint begins to displace abnormally. This d
.~
tendon is attached and the cross-sectional area of " tive process. This failure in tendon remodeling frequently
the tendon in relation to lhat of its muscle. A tendon ,. occurs before the abrupt ruplure of the tendon. Relative
is subjected to increasing stress as its muscle con- aydscu!arity, inflammatory disease, and other local factors
tracls (see Fig, 6-10), When the Illuscle is maximally also contribute to midsubstance ruptures (Case Study 4·2-1),
contracted, the tensile stress on the tendon reaches
250,00
high levels. This slress can be increased fl.lrlher if OVERUSE ~ RUPTURE
rapid eccentric contraction of the muscle takes Toe Linear yield and
200,00 region region failure region
place; for example, rapid dorsiflexion of the ankle,
which does not allow for reflex relaxation of the gas- ~ 150,00
trocnemius and soleus muscles, increases the ten- u
sion on lhe Achilles tendon, The load imposed on .3 100.00
the tendon under these circumstances may exceed
the yield point. causing Achilles tendon rupture 50,00
(Case Study 4-21-
The strength of a muscle depends on ilS physio-
1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 7,00
logical cross-sectional area. The larger the cross-
Def9rmation (mm)
sectional area of the muscle, the higher the magni;:'
lude of the foree produced by the contraction and Case Study Figure 4·2·1.
muscle with its patellar lendon and the triceps Slifac did nOl differ signillcanLi~1 (Kaspcrczyk et aI., 1991).
muscle with its Achilles tendon. Some small mus- This may be due 10 the fact lhal only lhe ACL was
cles have tendons with large cross-sectional areas; taken from donors in \I,,1hom no vascular or car-
such as the plantaris. which is a liny muscle with a diopulmonary disease and no ostcoanhritis of the
large tendon. knee was found on autopsy.
oF"'-';- ,
significanlly less stitT than the control spcc..:imens ments (Fig. 4-1 SA). Woo et "I. (1987) found that the
(Fig, 4-158), stress-strain characteristics after rcmobilization re-
Amid and coworkers (1982) showed a similar de- turn to normal but that the energy-absorbing capa-
crease in the strength ancl stiffness or lateral collat- bilities or the bone-ligament complex improved but
eral ligaments in rabbits immobilized for 9 weeks. did not return to normal.
As the cross-sectional area of the specimens did 110t
change Significantly, the degeneration of mechani-
DIABETES MELLITUS
cal properties was altributed to changes in the liga-
ment substance itself. The tissue metabolism was The term diabetes rcfcrs to disorders characterized
noted to increase, leading to proportionally more by excessive urine excretion. Diabetes mellitus is a
immature collagen with a decrease in the amount metabolic disorder in which the ability to oxidize
and quality of the cross-links between collagen mol- carbohydrates is more or less completely lost. This
ecules. Newton et al. (1995) reported that the cross- is usually caused by pancreas insufficiency and a
sectional area of ligaments in immobilized n1bbit disturbance of the normal insulin mechanism, rc-
knees waS 740/0 of the control valuc. sulting in hyperglycemia, glycosuria, and polyuria.
In Noves' (I977a) experiment, assessment of the Diabetes mellitus is known to cause musculoskele-
effects of a reconditioning program initiated di- tal disorders. Diabetics compared with nondiabetics
rectly aftcr the 8-\\'cek immobilization pel"iod show higher rates of tendon contracture (29 \IS. 9%),
demonstraLcd that considerable time was needed tenosynovitis (59 vs. 7%), joint stillness (40 vs. 9%),
1'01' the immobilized ligaments to regain their for- and capsulitis (16 \'s. 1%). Diabetes also causes os-
mer strength and stiffncss. After 5 months, the re- teoporosis (Calvallo et aI., 1991; Lancaster et aI.,
conditioned ligaments still showed considerably 1994).
less stiffness and 20% less strength than did liga- Duquette (1996) examined the effects of diabetes
ments from control animals. At 12 months, the re- on the properties of the collateral knee ligament in
conditioned ligaments had strength and stiffness rats. The tissue elastic properties did not differ be-
values comparable to those of control group liga- tween the diabetic and the control group. The vis-
100
60
-"
0,2
~~ 60
l'l E
c ~
"~·x
E A' .------- Immobilized
--~8 weeks)
"'"
Q..E
40
" " I
A, Maximal load to failure and energy stored to failure for program for 12 months. 8. Compared with controls. liga-
primate anterior cruciate ligaments tested in tension to faH- ments immobilized for 8 weeks were significantly less stiff (as
ure. Values are shown as a percentage of control values for indicated by the slope of the curve) and underwent greater
three groups of experimental animals: (1) those immobilized elongation. Adapred from Noyes. FR. 0977(1). Functional proper~
in body casts for 8 weeks; (2) those immobilized for 8 weeks I ties of knee ligaments and alterations induced by immobilization.
and given a reconditioning program for 5 months; and (lin Onhop, 123,2/0-242.
(3) those immobilized for 8 weeks and given a reconditioning
COllS component of the tissue response, however, (1997) reports that physiological levels of estrogen
\vas increased in the hy'perglycemic group. Insulin reduce the collagen production by 40(;1(; and at phar
therapy seems to lessen such alterations. Lancaster, macological levels of estrogen, collagen production
ct al. (1994) examined the changes in the mechani~ is decreased by' more than 50%, Estrogen fluctua
cal properties of the patellar tendon in diabetic dogs. tions may alter ligament metabolism and ma
The results showed the stiffness of the canine patel- change the composition of ligament, rendering i
lar tendon-tibia complex in a phy'sioiogical range of more susceptible to injury.
loading was 13% greater than in the control group.
There was no difference in the strength of the tendon
NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS
between the groups, but the mode of failure was dif~
ferent. In the control group, failure was caused by NSAIDs (which include aspirin, acetaminophen, and
substance and avulsion failure, whereas failure of indomethacin) are frequently used in the treatmen
the tendon in the diabetic group was caused by ten- of various painful conditions of the musculoskeleta
sile fractures of the patella (Lancaster et al" 1994). system. NSAIDs are also widely used in the treat
ment of soft tissue injuries such as inflammatOl)' dis
orders and partial ruptures of tendons and liga
STEROIDS
ments. Vogel (1977) found that treatment wit
Corticosteroids, when applied immediately after in- indomethacin resulted in increased tensile strengt
jury, may' cause significant impairment of the bio~ in rat tail tendons. An increase in the proportion o
mechanical and histological properties in liga~ insoluble collagen and in the total collagen conten
ments. Corticosteroids also are known to inhibit also was observed. Ohkawa (1982) found increase
collagen synthesis in vitro (\'Valsh et aL, 1995). \Vig- tensile strength in the periodontium of rats after in
gins et a!. (1994) described these results in rabbits domethacin treatment. Carlstedt and associate
and implied that an acute injured ligament treated (1986a, 1986b) found that indomethacin treatmen
with corticosteroid injections may not \vithstand increased the tensile strength in developing an
the mechanical loads of an earl)!, vigorous rehabili- healing plantaris longus tendons in the rabbit an
tation. Noyes et a!. (1977b) reported decreased liga- noted that the mechanism for this increase wa
ment stiffness, failure load, and energy absorption probably an increased cross-linkage of collagen mol
in monkey ligaments after injection of long-acting ecules. These animal studies suggest that short~tern
corticosteroids. These findings were tin1e- and administration of NSAlDs would not be deleteriou
dosage-dependent. After application of a dosage for tendon healing but instead \vould increase th
that was approximately 10 times an equivalent hu- rate of biomechanical restoration of the tissue.
man dose. only! minimal changes were found after 6
\veeks, but after IS weeks the maximum failure load
HEMODIALYSIS
(20%), energy absorption prior to failure (11%), and
stiffness (11 %) decreased significantly. After Tendinous failure resulting from chronic renal failur
application of a dosage equivalent to the human does occur, \vith tendon rupture reaching 36% amon
dose, the maximum failure load (9%) and the en- individuals receiving hemodialysis. Hyperlaxity o
absorption (8%) decreased significantly. tendons and ligaments \vas found in 74%, patella
Campbell ct al. (1996), however, showed that a tendon elongation in 49%, and articular hypermobil
single injection of long-acting corticosteroid does ity in 51 % of individuals receiving long-term he
not cause histological differences in rats with acute modialysis (Rillo et a!., 1991). Dialysis-related amy
injured ligaments as compared \vith rats with acute loidosis may cause the deposition of amyloid in th
ligament injury and no injection of corticosteroids. synovium of tendons. The major constituent of th
lv1cchanical testing showed no significant difference amyloid fibrils is the beta 2-microglobulin (Morita e
in ultimate load or ultimate stress in the two a!., 1995; Honda et a!., 1990; Bardin et a!., 1985).
groups. Oxlund et a!. (1980) reports that local injec-
tions of corticosteroids every 3 days for 24 days in-
GRAFTS
crease the tensile strength and maxin1um load stiff~
ness of muscle tendons but decrease the strength of Reconstruction of torn ligaments, especially or th
the bone attachments of ligaments. anterior and posterior cruciate ligament, is now
Laborator).' investigations established the pres- frequent procedure. The need for reconstruction
ence of estrogen receptors in hun1an ACLs. Liu et al. related to age, activity level, and associated injurie
Grafts derived from different individuals of the substantial proportion of elastin. which lends these
same species ar~ called allografts; grafts derived structures their great elasticity.
from the same individual are called aUlograhs. Allo- 2 The arrangement of the collagen fibers is
grafr tissue preservation is done through freezc- nearly parallel in tendons. equipping them to with-
drying and low·dose irrndiation to reduce rales of stand high unidirectional loads_ The less parallel
rejection ancl infection and to limit effects on the arrangement of the collagen fibers in ligaments al~
structural properties. Bone-patellar. tendon-bone, lows these structures to sustain predominant tensile
and Achilles tendon are llsually L1sed as allograft tis- stresses in one direction and smaller stresses in
sue, whereas the central tissue of the patellar ten- other directions.
don is commonly llsed as autograft tisslie.
Shino ct al. (1995) L1sed fresh-frozen allogenic ,;:~~)': At the insertion of ligament and tendon into
Achilles, tibialis anterior or posterior. and peroneus stiffer bone. the gradual change from a morc fibrous
[0 a morc bony rnaterial results in a dccreased stress
longus or brevis tendons for ACL reconstruction in
humans. Specimens were procured during second- concentration effect.
look anhroscop~'. Several years after reconstruction. ~ ~ Tendons and ligaments undergo deformation
the allografts had collagen fibril profiles that did not before failure. ,,""hen the ultimate tensile strength of
resemble normal tendon grafts or normal ACL. these structures is surpassed. complete failure DC·
Strocchi et al. (1992) L1sed patellar tendons that had curs rapidl~!. and their load~bearing ability is sub~
been autograftcd to reconstn1C[ [onl ACLs. Follow-up stantially decreased.
biopsies were performed 6, 12. and 24 months after
5. Studies suggest that during nonllal activity. a
surgel}'. During this time, the aUlOgraft underwent tendon in vivo is subjected [0 less than one fourth of
considerable changes. and after 24 months the auto- its ultimate stress.
graft had the appearance of normal ligament tissue.
Strocchi suggested that the patellar tendon autograft '/'~:(: Injul"\! mechanisms in a tendon are influenced
is a valid functional ACL substitution for patients who by"{he ~lm~unt of force produced by the contraction
desire to perform normal mechanical activity. or the muscle to which the tendon is attached and
Corselli el al. (1996) reports thal replacement tis- the cross-sectional area or the tendon in relation to
sue undergoes extensive biological remodeling and that of ilS muscle.
incorporation. However. even a fully incorporated 7 i The biomechanical behavior of ligaments and
graft will never duplicate the native ACL but works tendons is viscoelastic. or rate·dependent. so thal
instead as a check reign that increases the knee these structures display an increase in strength and
function_ Tohayama et al. (1996) stated that the stiffness with an increased loading rate.
graft elongation at the time of implantation influ-
S An additional effect of rate dependency is the
ences the long-term outcome of ACL rcconstruc·
slow deformation, or creep. that occurs when ten-
tions. at least in the canine model. They compared
dons and ligamcnts are subjected to a constant low
those cases where the graft elongation behavior was
load over an extended period; stress relaxation takes
within the 95% confidence limit of normal ACL
place when these structures sustain a constant elon-
(group 1) with those cases where the graft elonga-
gation over time.
tion behavior was more than lhe 95(1'0 confidence
limit of the normal ACL (group 2). Group 2 had sig- /{gi,::':
,/),,,
Anina
:;;. b
results in a decline in the mechanical
nificantly less inner stiffness of the graft than did properties of tendons and ligaments, th~1t is, their
group 1. Group 2 showed a significantly increased strength, stiffness, and abilily to withsland defor-
anteroposterior laxity. but there was no difference mation.
in ultimate failure load and absorbed energy. 10 Pregnancy, immobilization. diabetes. steroids.
NSAlD Lise, and hemodialysis affect the biomechan-
ical properties of ligaments and tendons.
Summary
11
Allografts and autografts are useful in ligament
f~1-~Tendons and extremity ligaments are composed reconstruction but material propenies do not re-
largely of collagen, whose mechanical stability gives 'turn completel~" to normal levels.
lhese structures their characteristic strength and 12) Ligaments and tendons remodel in response to
flexibility. The ligaments flava of the spine have a the mechanical demands placed on them_
REFERENCES Honda. K.. I-lara. M., Ogura, Y.. Nilll.:i. 1-1 •• i\lirnura, N. (I990
~~t<l-~-microgl()hulin ~llnyloidosis in hemodialysis pa
:\micl. D.. Kuipl'l'. S.D.. \\'all"C('. C.D .. Harwood. E V'lndl'-
t~l·ntS: An autopsy study of intcrH·rtt:hr.t1 disks and POSlC
berg. J.S. (1991). :\gt:.rdall'd properties of llledi.d (;olbt·
nor hg<lOll·lltS . ..\eUl Patlwl lpII . .JO( II). S20-826.
l.:ral Iig~lIncnt and anterior cruciall' ligament: ..\ morpho·
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ot Onhopatdic Slll"~c.:ons.
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of spolHancously dii:lbl'lic do,gs tIIH!l'r 10nll·tC'I"1ll insuli
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Viidik, A. '(1973). Functional propertics or
collagenous tis-
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,,\',
',,'-
Nutrition. mct.'lbolism
CEL(:FIBROBJ-ST't;\, !
.~, ~'\.\, \},o'
Synthesize
Ex(r!:lcclJuI3r Mmix
81
l
-{
"" EXTRACEllltLAR ."
-\ STRONG AND
FlEXIBlES,
The mcc~anjcal response Resistance of
-Collagen type J: suPPOrt tensile loads high tensile
is dependent on the
-Ground $ubsL.,ncc rate at which thl! loads forces with
arc applied limited elongation
Gel.like matcrialfSt.abilizc
collagenous skclC!ton
'El:min
pS;.;~"NEUAAl Nm:ORK'
, :.~\:' ,- M~chjlnoreccp[ors
·Proprioception
·Sensorimotor Mechanism
'- '~\,
',;:'-c:,,;,,'
FLOW CHA~T 4-1 Common structure and mechanical properties of tendons and ligaments. *
*This flow chart is designed for classroom Of group di~cussion. Flow chart is not meant to be exhaustive.
..
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;,
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)l
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J
-Thermal injuries Tendon 'Gun injurie5
'Inherit injuries 'Paratcnonilis ·L1cer3.tions
'Corticosleroids ·Tcndinosis 'Bone fr.lCIUre5
'Endocrinologic and -Tendinitis 'Colli5iol1s
metabolic discases:
diabetes Tendon's Jtuchment
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),I! -Congenital diseases -EnthcsopJtics
'Inf~ctions
\)
i
RUPTURE
, TOlal/PJrti;a1
"1
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,if
"This flow chart is designed fOf cla5sroom Of group discussion. Flow chart is not meant to be exhaustive.
'/01
. .".._. -'--~---'-'-=--
Function
Structure
ViSCOElASTIC.
MECHANICAC
PROPERTY
FLOW CHART 4·4 Ligaments structure and mechanical properties.* (PG, Proteoglycan)
~This flow chart is designed for classroom or group discussion. Flow chart is not meant to be exhaustive.
.:;
*1
),
Dccre.lsc in mechanical t Sinin r.ltC t Amount of load per
properties unit area
~ Microtraumas that
i:
+- Stress -+ Strain exceed the reparative
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t Stress
I
''.t.,."I
RUPTURE
Tot~I/PJrtial
-This flow chart is designed for classroom or group discussion. Flow chart is not meant to be exhaustive.
'1 I
Biomechanics of
Peripheral Nerves and
Spinal Nerve Roots
Bjorn Rydevik, Goran Lundborg, Kje/l O/marker. Robert R Myers
Introduction
Cl-::>"_--.,
C2
C3
C4
Cervical
nerves
Vertebral
B arch Dorsal
Ventral
Thoracic nerves
Lumbar
plexus
Spinal nerve
Cauda
equina
~~ MOlor
~~ _ -->"",,--,-,'00'
I---~'-~-
~
Dorsal root
Sensory
Coccygeal ganglion
rOOI
nerve
A o
A, Schematic drawing of the spinal cord and the spinal is depicted. Adapted from rorrord, GJ & Anllgnostako5. N.fl.
nerves (posterior view). The spinal nerves emerge from the (J 984). Principles oj Anatomy and PhySiology (.1lh ed.J. New York:
spinal canal through the intervertebral foramina. There are 8 Harper & Row. B, Cross-section of the cervi<al spine showing
pairs of cervi<al nerves, 12 pairs of thoracic nerves,S pairs of the spinal cord in the spinal canal and the nerve roots exiting
lumbar nerves, 5 pairs of sacral nerves, and 1 pair of coc- through the intervertebral foramina. C, Cross-section of the
cygeal nerves. Except in the region of the 2nd to the 11 th lumbar spine shOWing the nerve roots of the cauda equina in
thoraci< vertebrae (T2-T11), the nerves form complex net- the spinal canal. 0, Each exiting nerve root complex in the in-
works called plexuses after exiting the intervertebral forClm- tervertebral foramen consists of a motor root, a sensory root,
ina. Only the main branch of each nerve, the ventral ramus, and a dorsal root ganglion.
•
\vinds around it many times, pushing its cytoplasm unmyelinated nerve fibers in a slow, continuous way,
and nucleus to the outside layer. Unmyelinated gaps whereas in the myelinaled nerve fibers the impulses
called nodes of Ranvier lie between the segments of "jump" al a higher speed from one node of Ranvicr
the myelin sheath at approximately I to 2 I11Ill apart. to the next in a process called saltatOl)" conduction.
The myelin sheath increases the speed of the con- The conduction velocity of a myelinated nerve is di-
duction of nerve impulses, and insulates and main- rectly proportional to the diameter of the fiber,
tains the aXOIl. Impulses arc propagated along the which lIsually ranges [Tom 2 La 20 J-l111. MOlar f-ibers
-. f:
innervate skeletal muscle have large diameters, tive tissue la)rers is essential becausc nerve flbcrs
do sensor~y' fibers that relay impulses associated extremely susceptible to stretching and comp
touch, pressure, heat, cold, and kinesthetic sion.
such as skeletal muscle tension and joint po- The outcnTlOst layer, the epineurium, is loc
Sensory fibers that conduct impulses for dull, between the fascicles and superficially in the ne
diffuse pain (as opposed to sharp, immediate pain) This rather loose connective tissue layer serves
the smallest diameters. Nerve fibers are packed cushion during movements of the nel\'e, protec
closely in fascicles, \vhieh are further arranged into the fascicles from external trauma and maintain
bUIl1(II·es that make lip the nen'c itself. The fascicles the oxygen supply sy'stem via the epineural bl
arc the functional subunits of the nCI-ve. vessels. The amount of epineural connective ti
varies among nerves and at different levels wi
the same nerve. \!Vhere the nerves lie close to b
INTRANEURAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE OF
or pass joints, the epineurium is often more ab
PERIPHERAL NERVES
c1ant than e1scwhere, as the need for protection
Successive layers of connective tissue surround the be greater in these locations. The spinal nerve r
nerve fibers-called the endoneurium, perineuriUl11, are devoid of both epineuriurn and perincuri
,'mel epineurium-and protect the fibers' continuity and the ncrvc fibcrs in the nel\'e root may therc
(Fig. SA). The protective function of these connec- bc morc susceptible to trauma (Rydevik et aI., 19
The perineurium is a lamellar sheath that
compasses each fascicle. This sheath has great
Sensory nerve root chanical strength as well as a specific biochem
Sensory cell Motor cell body barrier. Its strength is demonstrated by the fact
body in dorsal in anterior horn the fascicles can be inflated by fluid to a pressur
rool ganglion of spinal cord
approximately! 1000 mm of mercury (I-Ig) beFore
! Dorsal perineuI'ium ruptuI·es.
Spinal nerve \
\ \
The barrier function or the perineurium che
Dorsal ./ cally isolates the l1el\'e fibers From their surrou
ramus / ings, thus preserving an ionic environment of th
Ventral terior of the fascicles, a special milieu interieur.
Peripheral nerve ... '- endoneurium, the connective tissuc inside the f
Motor nerve rool
cles, is composed principally of fibroblasts and
lagen.
I nerve The interstitial tissue pressure in the fasci
1 fiber the endoneurial fluid pressure, is normally slig
~'-----------
elevated (+ 1.5 ± 0.7 mm Hg [Myers & Pow
1981]) comparecl \\'ith the pressure in surround
tissues sLIch as subcutaneous tissue (-4.7 ± 0.8
Hg) and muscle tissue (~2 ± 2 mm Hg). The elev
endoneurial fluid pressure is illustrated by the
Schematic representation of the arrangement of a typical nomenon whereby' incision of the perineurium
spinal nerve as it emerges from its dorsal and ventral nerve sults in herniation of nerve fibers. The endoneu
roots. The peripheral nerve begins after the dorsal ramus fluid pressure may increase further as a resu
branches off. (For the sake of simplicity, the nerve is not
trauma to the nerve, with subsequent edema. S
shown entering a plexus.) Spinal nerves and most periph-
a pressure increase ma.y affect the microcircula
eral nerves are mixed nerves: they contain both sensory
and the function of the nerve.
(afferent) and motor (efferent) nerve fibers. The cell body
and its nerve fibers make up the neuron. The cell bodies of
the motor neurons are located in the anterior horn of the
THE MICROVASCULAR SYSTEM OF
spinal cord, and those of the sensory neurons are found in
PERIPHERAL NERVES
the dorsal root ganglia. Here, a motor nerve fiber is shown
innervating muscle and a sensory nerve fiber is depicted The peripheral nerve is a well-vascularized struc
innervating skin. Adapted from Rydevik, B., Brown, MD., & containing vascular networks in the epineurium
Lundborg, G. (/98·4). Pathoanatomy and pathophysiology of perineurium, and the endoneurium. Because
nerve root compression. Spine, 9, 7.
inlpulse propagation and axonal transport dep
? .... ,':;.- ..
Node of Ranvier
Schwann cell
Myelin
sheath
\
\
Axon
Node of Ranvier
Schematic drawings of the structural features of a myelinated nerve fiber. Ad(1fJted from
Sunderland 5. 0978j. Nerves and Nerve Injuries (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livings/one.
tures and the region"11 nutrient vessels arc ClIt. there brospinal fluid and the meninges. Instead. they are
is no detectable reduction in the intrafascicular enclosed by both a multilayc:rcd connective tissue
blood flow as studied by intravital microscopic tcch· sheath, similar lo the perineurium of the peripheral
Y"iGucs. Even if such a mobilized nerve is ellt distally
or proximall~'. the intraneural longiwdinal vascular
systems cnn maintain the microcirculation at least 7
l~ 8 ern rTom the clil end. If a non mobilized nerve is
0"'.,'" cut, there is still perfect microcirculation even at the
vcr")' tip of the nerve; this phenomenon demon-
strates the sufficiency of the intraneural vascular
collalcrals. Howevcr~ othcr sllldies in rats indicate 4
.that stripping the epineural circulation rronl nerve
bundles causes demyelination of subpel'ineural
nerve fibers.
2 2
Anatomy and Physiology of
Spinal Nerve Roots
3
.. 3
~
the spinal cord has the same length as the spinal
column. However, in the full~: grown individual, the
t spinal cord ends as the COIlUS mcdullaris, approxi- 5
8
I
mately at the level of the fit'st lumbar vertebra. A
nerve root that leaves the spinal canal through an
intervertebral foramen in lhe lumbar or sacral spine
I
therefore has to pass from the point where it leaves
the spinal corel. which is in the lower thoracic spine.
lO the point of exit li'om the spine (Fig. 5-5). Be-
6
cause the spinal cord is not present be.low the first
lumbar vertebra, dte nervous content of the spinal
canal is only comprised of the lumbosacral nerve
f roots. This "bundle" of nerve roots within the IUI11-
! bar and sacral pan of the spinal canal has been sug-
gested to resemble the tail of a horse and is therefore
often called the cauda equina, that is, lail of horse. The intraspinal nervous structures as seen from behind.
The vertebral arches are removed by cutting the pedicles
Two different lypes of nerve roots are ("ound
(1). A ventral (2) and a dorsal (3) nerve root leave the
within the lumbosacral spine, ventral/motor roots
spinal cord as small rootlets (4). Before leaving the spinal
and dorsal/sensory roots. The cell bodies of (he mo- canal, the dorsal root forms a swelling called the dorsal
tor axons are located in the anterior horns of the root ganglion (5), which contains the sensory cell bodies.
gray malleI' in the spinal cord, and because these before forming the spinal nerve (6) together with the
nerve roots leave the spinal cord from the ventral as- ventral nerve root. The nerve roots are covered by a cen·
pect, they are also called ventral roots. The other tral dural sac (7) or with extensions of this sac called
type of nelVC root is the SenSOl)', or dorsal root: As nerve root sleeves (B). ReprodtlCec/ with permission ;,om
the name suggests, these nerve roots mainly COll1 w O/marker. K. (J 99/ J. Spinal nerve rOOI compression. ACt/Ie
prise sensory (Le., afferent) axons and reach lhe compression of the cauda equina sludied in pigs. Acta Orthop
spinal cord at the dorsal region of the spinal cord. Scand. 62. Suppf 242.
The cell bodies of the sensory axons are located in a
•
nerve, and a loose connective tissue layer called outer layers of the root sheath arc similar to the pia
epineurium. cells of the spinal cord, and the cells in the distal
""Vhen the ncnlC root approaches the interverte- part are more similar to the arachnoid cells of the
bral foramen. the root sleeve gradually encloses the spinal dura. The inner layers of the rOOl sheath are
nerve tissue more lighLly. The subarachnoid space comprised of cells that show similarities to the cells
and the amount of cerebrospinal fluid surrounding of the perineurium of peripheral nerves. An in-
each nen'c root pair will thus become gradually re- lerrupted basement membrane encloses these
duced in the caudal direction. Compression injury cells separately. The inner layers of the root sheath
of a nerve root may induce an increase in the per- constitute a diffusion barrier bet\veen the cl1do~
meability of the endoneurial capillaries. resulting in neurium of the nerve roots and the cerebrospinal
edema formation (Olmarker et aI., 1989b; Rydevik & fluid, This barrier is considered to be relatively
Lundborg, 1977), This can lead to an increase of the weak and may only prevent the passage or macro-
imraneural fluid and subsequent impairment of the molecules.
nutritional transport to the nerve (Myers & Powell. The spinal dura encloses the nerve roots and the
1981; Myers, 1998), Such a mechanism might be cerebrospinal fluid, When the two layers of the cra-
particularly important at locations where the nerve nial dura enter the spinal canal. the outcr layer
roots are tightly enclosed by connective tissue. Thus blends with the periosteum of the pan of the lami-
there is a more pronounced risk for an "entrapment nae of the cervical vertebrae facing the spinal canal.
syndrornc" within the nerve roots at the intcrvene- The inner layers join the arachnoid and become the
bral foramen than more central in the cauda equina spinal dura. [n contrast to the rooL sheath, the
(Rydevik et aI., 1984), The dorsal root ganglion, with spinal dura is an effective difTusion barrier: The bar-
its content of sensory nCt've cell bodies, tighlly en- rier properties are located in a connective tissue
closed by meninges, might be panicularly suscepti- sheath between the dura and the arachnoid called
ble to edema formation. the neurotheliunl. Sirnilar to the inner layer or the
root sheath, this ncurothclium resembles the
perineurium of the pel'iphcral nen'es. It is suggested
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SPINAL NERVE
thal these t\VO layers in facl form the perincuriulll
ROOTS
when the nerve rooL is transformed to a peripheral
There are two microscopically different rc.:::gions of nerve upon leaving the spinal.
the ncnlC roots. Closest to the spinal cord is a cen-
tral glial segment comprised of glial cells and there-
THE MICROVASCULAR SYSTEM OF SPINAL
fore resembles the microscopic organization of cen-
NERVE ROOTS
tral nervous structures at the spinal cord or the
brain. This glial segment is transferred to a nonglial Information about the vascular anatomy of the
segment in a "dome-shaped" junction a few mil- nerve roots has mainly been derived from studies
limeters from the spinal cord. This nonglial segment on the vascularization of the spinal corel. Therefore.
is organized in the same manner as the en- the nomenclature of the various vessels has been
doneurium of the peripheral nerves, that is, with somewhat confusing. A SLlllllTIat·y of the existing
Schwann cells instead of glia cells. However, some knowledge on nerve root vasculature will be pre-
small islets of glia cells also are found in this other- senteel below,
wise "peripherally" organized endoncurium. The segnlental arteries generally divide into three
branches when approaching the intervertebral fora-
men: (1) an anterior branch that supplies the poste-
MEMBRANOUS COVERINGS OF SPINAL NERVE
rior abdominal wall and lumbar plexus. (2) a poste-
ROOTS
rior branch that supplies the paraspinal muscles
The axons in the endoneurium are separated from and facet joints, and (3) an intermediate branch that
the cerebrospinal fluid by a thin layer of connective supplies the contents of the spinal canal. A branch
tissue called the root sheath, This root sheath is the of the intermediate branch joins the nCI"ve root at
structural analogue to the pia mater that covers the the level of the dorsal root ganglion, There are usu-
spinal cord. There are usually 2 to 5 cellular layers ally three branches from this vessel: one La the ven-
in the root sheath, but as many as 12 layers have tcal root, one to the dorsal root, and one to the vasa
been identified, The cells of the proximal part of the corona of the spinal corel.
The branches to the vasa corona of lhe spinal
corel, called medullal)' arteries, arc inconsistcnt.
7 to 8 remain or the 128 from the cmbryologi-
period of life, and each supplies more than one
segment or the spinal core!. The main medullary
in the thoracic region of the spine was dis-
covered by Adamkiewicz in 1881 and still bears his
name. The medullary arteries run parallel to the
~~-nt:rve roots (Fig. 5-6). In humans, there are no con-
:7:. nections between these vessels and the vascular net M
12
11
10
9
8
In-situ strain: 11.0 :!:. 1.5%
"
(L
~
~
6
7 In-situ stress: 0.05 :c: 0.3 MPa
~ 5
iii 4
3
2 Ultimate stress: 11.7 :.:: 7 MPa
1 Ultimate strain: 38.5 :::: 2.0'%
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Strain ('%)
The stress-strain behavior of a rabbit tibial nerve. The nerve K\·van, M.K., Myers, R.R., et al. (1990). An in. vitro mechanical an
exhibits a low stiffness toe region of approximately 15 % histological study of acute stretching on rabbit tibial nerve. J Or-
and begins to retain significant tension as the strain increases thop Res, 8, 694-707.
beyond 20%. Reproduced with permission from Rydevik. 8.L.,
,-""
"--
. B~ichial Plexus Palsy
"ri.~.i-ipg
----0
.-0'.>
.1' ;:\)'AHE.rb's palsy is diagnosed. The sudden elongation COMPRESSION INJURIES OF PERIPHERAL
J7;r~uHer~~d during the traction can lead to structural dam- NERVES
~;.~ge an9 reduction in the transverse fascicular cross-sec-
{ftio.f1~(area, producing impairment of the intraneural It hns long been known that compression of a ner
:~",,:vascu.lar flow and impulse transmission. can induce symploms stich as numbness, pain, a
.1,: ~.
1', ·.In less severe cases, functional restoration may occur muscle weakness. Thc biological basis for the fun
t.- within·weeks or months. In more severe cases, healing may tional changes has been investigatcd eXlensiv
"i·i:~~X~k(place during the first 2 to 3 years, but if the structural (Rvdevik & Lundborg, 1977; Rydevik et aL, 1981),
:~r~erveJnjury is severe, considerable long-term functional these investigations (Fig. 5-9), even mild compre
:s<'disability can result, If structural derangement of the nerve sion was observed lo induce structural and fun
:i·::i.trunk has taken place, nerve grafting may be required. lion'll changes, and the significance of mechanic
):i:' , "
.:.-- ~I
y factor at both high and low pressures, but ischemia
i pl[t~·s a dominant role in longer-dunHion compres-
sion. This phenomcnon is illustraled b\' the fact that
,
direct ncr'vc compression at 30 111111 Fig for ) to 4
,'.' . .-:
I
--I------1I-- X
hours produces reversible changes, whereas pro·
longed compression a(}()\'c this time period at this
, -,'
.... Pressure
I pressure level ma~' cause irreversible damage [0 the
nCI"e (Lundborg CI aI., 1982; Rydevik el aI., 1981),
";.:,, ..
", ,-",
"/':
dislribution ..--, ---c___
• I' :' " '; ,';""
'/,:,". :," '.: 'f;-i::;: Corn pression at 400 I11Ill Hg causes a much more se-
A vere nervc injur~1 arter 2 hours than after 15 min-
, . ules. Such information indicalcs that Cn:n hiuh
pressure has to "acl" for a certain period of lime for
-
---- injur.v to occur. These data also give some informa-
..."
" ' .. " :',:' lion about the viscoelastic (time-dependent) proper-
ties of" peripheral nCI"\'t: tissue. Sufficient time OJ! f!51
B' elapse for permanent deformation to develop.
C'
E E'
F F'
G G'
i,' . . '",.,. x
Biol17echal1ical Behavior (Jf
Spinal Nerve Roots
I ,, The nerve roots in the thee;:d sac lack epinei"fl-tl:lw
and perin~uril1m, but under tensile loading they ex-
B hibit both elasticity and tensile strength. The ulti-
l11,tle load rnr ventral spinal nelye roots from the
thecal sac is belween 2 and 22 ! , and 1'01' dorsal
"iG, 5-11 nerve roots from the thecal sac the load is between
5 and 33 N. The length of the nerve roots I'rorn the
A, Theoretical displacement field under lateral compres-
spinal corel to the foramina \'aries From appro:d-
sion as a result of uniform clamping pressure. B, The origi,
I11ntely 60 mm at the L I level to approxilmllely 170
nal and deformed cross-sections are shown for maximum
elongation in the x direction of 10. 30, and 50%. The vec-
mm at the S I level. The mechanical propertics of
tors shown from A to fJ:, B to a', and so forth, indicate the
human spinal nerve roots arc c1ifferelll for an~1 given
paths followed by the particular points A, B, and so forth nerve roOl at its location in the cenlral spinal canal
during the deformation. ancl in the lateral intel'vertebral foramina. The ulti-
nwtc load for the inrr4lthecal portion of human SI
I • nel'VC rOOIS at the S I level is appro:"\imatcl~; 13 N,
and thal 1'01' the roraminal portion is approximately
73 N. For human nCI'vc roots at the L5 level. the cor-
that this kind or
deformation can trigger r-iring of
responding values arc 16 Nand 71 N, respectively
nerves, resulting in a sensation or pain when the
(Fig. 5-12). Thus, the "allles ror ultimate load are
ne"'e Gbers are laterallv compressed. The details or
approxil11«lel~" five times higher ror the foraminal
such deformation of nerves and their functional con-
segment of the spinal ner'vc roots than for the in-
sequences have not been studied extensively and re-
trathecal pan ion of the same nClVC roots under ten-
quire further research for their elucidation.
sile loading. However, the cross-sectional area of the
nerve root in the intervertebral fOI'(llllcn is sie:nifi-
Duration of Pressure Versus Pressure Level
cantlv . -
larger than that of the same nerve root in lhe
thecal sac; thus, the ultimate tensile stress was more
Knowledge is limited regarding the relalive impor- comparable for the two locations. The ultimate
tance o[ pressure and time, rcspectively, in the pro-
duction of nerve compression lesions. Mechanical -
strain LInder tensile loading is 13 La 19% for the
human ne,Ye root at the L5-S I level (Fig. 5-13),
faclors seenl to be rehllively more imporlant al The nerve roots in the spine arc nol static slruc-
higher than at lo\ver pressures. Time is a significant lures: they 1110\'C relati\'e to the surrounding tissues
Ultimate load: Human sinal nerve roots roots normally' adhere lo the surrounding tiss
above and below the intervertebral disc they
n:rsc, compression may give rise to intraneural
sion, Spencer and associates (1984) measured
contact force between a simulated disc herniat
u and a dclcwmed nerve 1'001 in cadavers. Taking
'" S
2 area of contact into aeCOUlll, they assumed a con
rn'" pressure of approximately 400 mm Hg. \<\'ith
§ duced disc height. the contact force and pressure
5
tween the experimental disc herniation and
nerve root was reduced, They suggested that th
findings may explain in pan why sciatic pain is
o'--_-'-_-';:-=----'-'-_-'-_-';-;:"'-_-'-_..J lieved after chcmol1ucleolysis, and as disc degene
Sl LS tion progresses over time and the disc height ther
N"4 N~4 decreases,
[n central spinal stenosis, the mechanics or ne
root compression arc completely diFferent. Un
these conditions, the pressure is applied circum
Diagram illustrating values for ultimate load obtained for
cntially around the nerve roots in the cauda cqu
human spinal nerve roots under tensile loading. INR, in-
at a slow, gradual rate, These different deformat
trathecal nerve roots; FNR, foraminal nerve root. Note the
marked difference in ultimate load for the intrathecal and
factors, together with the fact that the nerve ro
the foraminal portions of the nerve roots. Error bars indi- centrally within the cauda equina differ comple
cate standard deviation. Reproduced with permission from from the nerve roots located more laterally, clos
Weinstein, IN., Latviotte, R.. Rydevik, B., er al. (1989), Nerve. In the discs, ma.y explain some of the dillcrcnt syrm
J, \IV, Frymoyer & S.L. Gordon (Eds.). NevI Perspectives on Low toms found in spinal stenosis and disc herniatio
Back Pain (Chapter 4, pp. 35-130). Park Ridge. IL: MOS. {Based
on a workshop arranged by the National Institutes of Hea/rh
(NIH) in Airlie, Virginia, USA, May 1988.} Ultimate strain: Human spinal nerve roots
_ 1S
with every spinal motion. To allow for such motion l
c
the nerve roots in the intervertebral foramina, for .~
pressure for the arterioles was !"ound to be slightly ence co differences in effects between rapid and slow onsec
>-------
_ . . . .'--->-->---
mechanism from cerebrospinal fluid diffusion ONSET RATE OF COMPRESSION
could be expeclr:d at the low pressure levels. On the
COil Lntl)·, to 111m Hg compression was sufficient to One faclor that has not been fully recognized
induce a 20 to 300/0 reduction of the transport or compr-ession trauma of nerve tissue is the onset r
mClhyl·glucosc to the nerve r001S, as compared of the compression. The onset rate, that is. the ti
with the control. from start to full compression. may vnry clinica
\·Ve know 1"1'0111 experimental studies on peri ph- rrom fractions of seconds in lraUI11atic condition
end nen!cs that compression Illay also induce an months or years in association with degenerat
increase in the vascular permeability, leading to an processes. Even in the clinically' rapid-onset ra
intraneural edema formation. Such edema may' in- there ma:v be a wide variation or onset rales. \V
crease the cndoncuriul Fluid pressure, which in the presented model. it was possible to vary the
turn may impair the endoneurial capillary blood set time of the applied compression, Two onset ra
flow and jeopardize the nutrition of the ner'vc have been investigated, Either the pressure is p
rOOls. Because the edema Llsually persists for some sent and compression is started by flipping
lime after the rClllo\'al of a compressive agenl. switch of the compressed-air system used to inl
edema may negativel~r affect the nerve root for n the balloon or the compression pressure leve
longer period than the compression itself. The slowl~1 increased during 20 seconds. The first on
presence of intraneural edema is also related to the rate was measured at 0.05 to 0.1 seconds. thus p
subsequent formation of intraneural fibrosis and viding a rapid inflation of the balloon and a ra
may therefore contribute to the slow recaVCI)" seen compression onset.
in some patients with nellie compression disor- Such a rapid-onset rate has been found to ind
ders. To assess if' intraneural edema also may form more pronounced effects on eden1a formati
in nerve roots as the result of cornprcssion, the dis- mcth~ll-glucose transport. and impulse propagat
tribution of Evan's blue-labeled albumin in the lhan the slow-onser rale (Olmarker, 199 I). Rega
nerve tissue \vas analyzed after compression at var- ing methyl-glucose transport, the results show t
ious pressures and at various durations (Olmarker the levels within the compression zone arc m
el aI., 1989b). The study showed thal edema was pronounced at the rapid than at the slow onSd r
formed even at low pressure levels. The predomi· at corresponding pressure levels. There was als
nant location was at the edges of the compression striking difference between the two onset ra
zone. when considering the segments ourside the co
The function of the nelYC roots has been studied pression zones. 1n the slow-onset series, the le
by direct electrical stimulation and recordings ei- approached baseline values closer to the compr
ther on the nenie itself or in the corresponding sion zone than in the rapid-onsel series. This m
muscular segments. During a 2- hour compression indicate the presence of a more pronounced ed
period, a critical pressure level for inducing a re- zone edema in the rapid-onset sel"ics, with a sub
duction uf MAP-amplitude seems to be located be- quent reduction of the nutritional transport in
tween 50 and 75 111m Hg. Higher pressure levels nerve tissue adjacent to the compression zone.
(100-200 mm Hg) may induce a tOlal conduction For the rapid-onset compression, which is lik
block \vith var.ying degrees of recovery after com- lo be more closely related to spine trauma or d
pression release. To stud)! the effect's of compres- herniation than to spinal stenosis, a pressure of
sion on sensory nerve fibers, electrodes in the mill Hg maintained for only 1 second is surflcien
sacrum were used to record a compound nerve ac- induce a gradual impairment of nc,'ve conduct
tion potential after stimulating the senso(v nerves during the 2 hours studied aftcr the cornpress
in the lail, that is, distal to the compression zone. was ended. Overall, the mechanisms for these p
The resuhs showed thaI the sensory fibers are nounced differences between the different on
slightly more susceptible to compression than are rates arc not clear but may be related to dilTeren
the motor fibers. Also, the nerve roots are more in the displacement rates of the compressed ne
susceptible to compression injury if the blood tissue toward the uncompressed parts, as a resul
pressure is lowered pharmacologically. This fur- the viscoelastic propcnics of the nellie tissue, S
ther indicates the importance of the blood supply phenomena may ICfld nOl only ro structural dam
to maintain the functional properties of the nerve to the nerve fibers but also to stn.lcturfll change
roots. the blood vcssels with subsequcnt edema formati
The gradual formation or intraneural edema may segment itself is ullcomprcssed. Regarding n
also be closely" related to observations of a graduall.\' conduction, the effects were much enhanced i
increasing dilTcrcncc in nerve conduction impair- distance between the compression balloons wa
ment between the two onset rates (Olmar-ker et al.. creased frorn one \'cn~bral segment La two v
1989b). bral segments (Olmarker & Rydevik. 1992). Thi
dicates that the functional impairment may
directl:v related to the distance between the
MULTIPLE LEVELS OF SPINAL NERVE ROOT
compression sites.
COMPRESSION
!'atients with double or multiple levcls of spinal
CHRONIC NERVE ROOT COMPRESSION IN
stenosis seem to have morc pronounced symptoms
EXPERIMENTAL MODELS
than do patients with stenosis only at one level. The
presented model was modified to address this inter- Th~ discLlssion of compression-induced effect
esting clinical question. Using two balloons at two nerve roots has deall primarily wiLh acute c
adjacent disc levels. which resulted in a 10-mm un- pression, that is, compression that lasts for s
compressed nerve segment bctwcen the balloons, hours and with no survival of [he animal. To be
induced a much more pronounced impairment of mimic various clinical situations, compres
nerve impulse conduction than previollsl~' had been must be applied over longer periods of time. T
round at corresponding pressure levels (Olmarker & arc probably man." changes in the nerve Li
Rydevik. 1992). For instancc. a pressurc of 10 mm such as adaptation ofaxons and vasculature,
I-1g in two balloons induced a 60% reduction of will occur in patients but cannot be studied in
nerve impulse amplitude during 2 hours of COIll- perimental models using only I to 6 hours of c
pression, whereas 50 111m I-Ig in one balloon showed pression, Another important factor in this con
no reduction. is the onset rale that was discllssed previousl)
The mechanism ror the diFrerence between single clinical syndromes with nerve root compress
and double compression may not simply be based lhe onset time may in many cases be quite s
on the fact thal the nerve impulses have lo pass For instance, a gradual remodeling of the v
more than one compression zone at double-level brae to induce a spinal stenosis probably lead
.' . compression. There may also be a mechanism an onset lime of many years. Jt will of cours
based on the local vascular anatomy of the nerve dirficult to mimic such a situation in an exp
roots. Unlike for peripheral nerves, there are no re· mental modcl. It will also be impossible to
gional nutritive arteries from the surrounding control over the pressure acting on the nerve r
structures to the intraneural vascular system in in chronic models because or the remodeling
spinal nerve roots. Compression at two levels might adaptation or the nerve tissue to the applied p
therefore induce a nutritionally impaired region be- sure. However, knowledge of the exact pressur
twcen the two compression sites. In this way. the probably of less importance in chronic tha
:.~: segment nffected by the compression would be acute compression situations. Instead, chr
"', widened from one b,~lIoon diarneter (10 mm) to two models should induce a conLrolled compres
balloon diameters including the inLCrjacent nerve with a slow onset time that is easily reproduc
segment (30 mm). This hypothesis was partly con- Such models may be well suited for studies
firmed in an experiment on continuous analyses of pathophysiological events as well as inlcrven
the total blood flow in the ul1compresscd nerve scg· b~' surgery or drugs. Some attempts have b
ment located bet ween two compression balloons made to induce such compression.
(Takahashi et al.. 1993). The results showed that a Dclamarlcr and collaborators (1990) present
64% reduction of total blood now in the uncoll1- model on dog cauda equina in which they appli
pressed segment was induced when both balloons constricting plastic band. The band was tighte
were inflated to 10 mm Hg. At a pressure close to nrollnd the thecal sac to induce a 25, 50, or 750/
the systemic blood pressure lhere was complete is- duction of the cross-sectional area. The band
chemia in the nerve segment. Thus, experimental left in place for various limes. Analyses were
evidence shows that the blood supply to the nerve ~forl1led and showed both stnlctural.and functi
segment located between two compression sites in changes that were proportional to the degree of
••1.
nerve roots is severely impaired although this Tlel'VC striction.
Experimental study to analyze the effects on nerve conduc· from Cornefjord, 1''11., 5ato, K., O/marker, K., et 011. (1997),
tion velocity of nucleus pulposus (1), the combination of morJe! for chronic nerve root compression studies. Present
nucleus pulposus and compression (2), and compression of a porcine mode! (or controlled slow-onset compression
only (3). The nucleus pulposus and the constrictor were ap- analyses of anatomic aspects, compression onser rate, and
plied to the first sacral nerve root in pigs. The contralateral phologic and neurophysiologic effects. Spine, 22. 946-957
nerve root served as a control. Reproduced with permission
To induce a s!c)\ver onset and more controlled in the nen'(' root and the dorsal root ganglio
compression, Cornefjord and collaborators (1997) lowing such compression also has been fo
used a constrictor to compress the nerve roots in Substance P is a neurotransmitter that is re
the pig (Fig. 5-15). The constrictor was initially! in- to pain transmission. The study may thus pr
tended for inducing vascular occlusion in experi- experimental evidence that compression of
mental ischemic conditions in dogs. The constric- roots produces pain.
tor consists of an outer metal' shell that on the The constrictor model has also been use
inside is covered with a material called amaroid stud.\' blood flow changes in the nerve root v
that expands when in contact with fluids. Because lature. It could then be observed that the b
of the metal shell, the amaroid expands inwards Flow is not reduced just outside the compre
with a maximum expansion after 2 weeks, result- zone but significantly reduced in parts o
ing in compression of a nerve root placed in the nerve roots located inside the constrictor. In
central opening of the constrictor. Compression of context, note that in case of disc herniation
the first sacral nerve root in the pig resulted in a nerve root may become sensitized by substa
significant reduction of nerve conduction velocity from the disc tissue (nucleus pulposus) so
and axonal injuries using a constrictor with a de- mechanical root deformation can induce
fined original diameter. An increase in substance P nounced sciatic pain.
Myc:rs. R.R .. ~Itlrabmi, H., .& "(}WI:I!. H.C. (1986), Red
uel"\'l' hlood flow in l.'delllatous nCllropathics-A bi
chanica I lIle(,:h.lOism . .11;LTol'tlscu!al' Ues. 32. 145-151
',:",f;1>Thc peripheral nerves arc composed of nerve Myi.'rs, R.R" 8.: Powell, H.e. (1981). Endoncuri,d fluid
}t;,,:rs, layers or connective tissue, and blood vessels. sure in peripheral neuropathies. In A.R. Hargens
Ti..; SIIC flilid PreSSl/re tlml C01lllJOsithm (p. 193). Balti
;~{2 The nCIYC f'ibers arc extremely susceptible 10
Willi.II11S &. Wilkins.
ruuma but because they arc surrounded by slicces- Olillarkl"', K., Rydc\·ik. B., &: Holm. S. (1989a). Edema r(
sive layers of connective tissue (the epineuriulll and lion in spin£llnl'l'\'l' roots induced by experimelltal. g
1?~rinc·urillm)J they arc 111cchanically protected. compression, An experirnenud Sllld~' on lhe: pig c
equina with special reference 10 dilTerences in effec
;:.'$§';}Strctching induces changes in intraneural 1\\,(.'(.'11 rapid .. Iud slow onset of compression. Spiw:, I..J
bl~~d noll' m~d nerve Iiber S[;'llctllre before the Olmarkcr. K., Rydc\'ik. B.. Holm. S .. 1..'1 ill. (l9&9b). EffcC
trunk ruptures. CXpl'l'illlental graded compression on blood flow in s
nl,.·l'vc roms. r\ vilal microscopic study 011 Ihe po
Comrression of a nerve can cause ItlJury to caudn equinll. J Orthop Res, 7,8Ii.
nerve fibers and blood vessels in the nerve, Olmarkcl'. K. {1991l. Spinal nerve rOOl compression.
'mail,lv at the edges of the compressed nerve seg- compression of dle cauda equina studied in pigs . .. IeU
V>:ment. but also by ischemic mechanisms. f/mp Scallll, 62. Suppl 2·n.
Ollllarker. K. 6.: Rydc\·ik. B. (1992). Single: \'('rstls doubk·
5- Pressure level, duration of compression. and COllllll·l,.·ssion. '\n experimental slud.... un till..' porcine c
mode of preSSllre application arc signillcant vari- l'qUill,1 with 'lll.t1ySl'S of nen·c impulse condu<:lion pr
ables in the development of nen'c injury, lies. Cfill On/lOp. 279, 3539.
j"."'j Olmarker. K. & Hasuc, :\1. (1995). Classificalion and p
6.. Spinal nerve roots arc anatomically different physiology of spinal pain syndromes. III J.1'$. \\\:inSl
from peripheral nerves and therefore react differ- B. Rydl'\'ik (Eds.), Essc/llial... or Ihe Spillt'. RJ\'l'n
ently to mechanical defonnalion, !\l,.·w York. NY.
R~·(!l'\'ik. B.L., Kw~n, \I.K., ;-"'Iyel's, R.R .. l'l al. (1990).
T: Spinal nerve roots arc morc susceptible than vitro mechanical and histological study of <ll..:lHe stret
peripheral ncrves to mechanical dcformation, on r;,hbit tibial nerve . .I Onhop Ucs. B, 694-701.
mainly because of the lack of protective connective Ryd(·\·ik. B. & Lundborg. G. (1977). Pl:rIllt.'ahilily of
ncur:ll micl'U\'l'ssels :lnd perineurium following :
tissue layers in nerve roots. gradl,.·d cxpl'l'illlenlal ncrn: cOlllprcs~ion. SC(/Iu} J Na:>
COI1Slr Sl/".~. II. 179.
REFERENCES Rydc\'ik, B., Lundborg. G., &. Bagge, U. (1981). Eff(,.,
gra<k·d compr('ssion nn inlr,1I1cural blood flow. An in
CorndjonJ. lVi., Saw. K.. Olmarkcr. K.. ci :d. (1997). A nHldcl
sllld.... 011 rabbil tihi.tl ner\'e. J flawl Sure;. 6. 3.
ror chronic n('IT":" roOI compression studies. PrCSi..'IlI~llion
Ryd":"\'ik, B.. Bro\\'ll, :\I.D .. &: Lundborg, G. (1
of a porcine model for contrnllt·d slow-onset comprl'ssion
P<llhoanatolll~' and pathoph ....siolog.\· of nel'\'e root
\\"ith an.tlyscs of anatomic ::lSPCCIS. comprl,.·ssion onSel
pression. Sp;Ilt.'. 9. 7.
r~lle, and morphologic and neurophysiologic crfeels.
Ryd(.·\'ik. B.L.. Kw<tn, M.K .. Myers R.R., et :11. (1990).
SpilIC, 22. 946-957,
vitro mechanical :\n(\ histological study of ,H:llle strel
[hillin. L.B .. Ry(kvik, B.. &: Lundborg. G. (1986). Thc p.IIIHI'
on r .. hbil tibi:ll nen·l'. J Orrhop U,·.... 8. 694.
physiology of nelTe eHtrapmellis and nervi..' cOlllpr":"ssion
injuries. In A.R. Hargens (Ed.). E!l;'cIS or .\kclwllic:al
Spencer. D.L.. ~'lillcr. J.I\., .& BCriolini. J.E. (198·.J). Th
fects of intervertebral disc space narrO\\"ing nil the co
Stress 011 Tisslle Viability. New York: Springer-Verlag.
force bl·twcen the Ill'rn' rOOt and a simlll:llcd disc p
Delamartcr, R.B" Bohlman. I-U-I., Dodge, L.D" el a!. (1990).
sion. Spille 9, 422.
Experimental lumbar spinal SlCllosis. Analysis of the cor-
SUl1ckrbnd. S. (1978). Nen'c.>: alld Nave III;tlri(~s (2nd
tic~d evoked potentials, microvasculature and histop<1thCII·
Edinburgh: Churchill Livingslone.
ogy. J BOIlt: JOillf SI/r:.:, 72:\. 110-120.
Takah;lshi, K.. Olm:-.rkc.·r. K., Holm, S .. cl £II. (1993). Do
Lundbor!!, G., &: Rvdcvik, B. (1973), Effecls of strctchin!! Ihe
I('vel cauda ('quina cqmprcssion. An experimenlal
libial ~\cl"\"e of lill,.· rabbic: :\ prdimin.ary slUdy of tilt: i;llra-
wilh conlinuous monitoring of intraneural blood fl
neural cin:ul~lliol1 and Ihe b.uTicr funclion of Ihe per·
Onhop Res, II, 104,
inelll'iul11. J BOllI: JOill1 SlIrg, 558, 390.
TOrlora, GJ., & Anagnoslakos. N.r. (1984). Prillci"l
Lundborg. G. (1975). Structure :\Jld flllll:tioll of the inlra·
AlUlIOI1lY (/ltd Physio}ogl' (41h cd.). N(.·w York: Harper &
ncural micrO\'essl,:ls as related lO Iraum:l. edcma formation
Wall. E.J .. M:ISSic, J.B.. Kwan. M.K .. CI 011. (1992). E
and nerve fUllclion.) !JOIII.' )oim Surg. 57..1. 938.
lllcnta! stretch neurop'lthy. Changcs in nerve condu
Lundborg, G., e{ .11, (1982). Median nel'\'e compression ill the
under tension,) BOllt' .foitlf Stl,.~, N-B. 126,
C,I1'p,ll tunnel: The fUllclion:l1 respons(.· 10 cxpcrillH.'nlally
Weinstein. J.N" L.li\lotll'. R.. Rydcdk, B. el 011., (1989). N
induced controlll·d pressure. .f f-/mu} SlIrg, 7, 152.
In J.W. Frymoyer 8.: S.L. Gordon (Eds.)_ Nell' 1'('I"spccti
Myers, R.R. (1998). :\Iorphology or the peripheral nervous
1.0\1' Back Paill (Chapll'r 4, pp, 3S-130). Park Ridg(
System nnd its relntiollship to neuropathic pain. In T.L
'\AOS. [Based 011 a workshop ,IIT,lngcu by Ihe N:llion
';aksh. C. Lynch III. W.M. Zapol.:-"-1. ~'1azc, J.E Bicbuyck . .&
stiwtes of Health (NIH) in AirJil'_ Virginia, USA. May
L.J. Saidman (Eds."J. Aw:...tht'S;u: Bio}o~ic FouI/datiolls (pp.
483-514). Phil'lCldphia: LippiIKOll·R~I\,l,.'n.
Nerve
structure
.. D
Illness or injury
"This flow (hart is designed for classroom or group discussion. Flow chart is not meant to be exhaustive.
Biomechanics o
Skeletal Muscle
Tobias Lorenz, Marco Campel/o adapred fr
Mark I. Pieman, Lars Peters
Introduction
Composition and Structure of Skeletal Muscle
Structure and Organization of Muscle
Molecular Basis of Muscle Contraction
The MOtor Unit
The Musculotendinous Unit
Mechanics of Muscle Contraction
Summation and Tetanic Contraction
Types of Muscle Contraction
Force Production in Muscle
Length-Tension Relationship
Load-Velocity Relationship
Force·Time ReJ(ltionship
Effect of Skeletal lvIuscie Architecture
Effect of Prestretching
Effect of Temperature
Effect of Fatigue
Muscle Fiber Differentiation
Muscle Injuries
Muscle Remodeling
Effects of Disuse and Immobilization
Effects of Physical Training
Summary
References
Flow Charts
IJ~S'.r'
Introduction ton. The myofibril is made lip of several sarcome
that contain thin (actin), thick (myosin), clas
The muscular sYSlCll1 consists of three III usc Ie.:: l.ypes: (titin), and inelastic (ncbulin) filaments. Actin a
the cardiac muscle, which composes the hc[trt; the myosin are the contractile part of the myofibr
Sl1100th (nonstriated or involuntary) muscle, which
whereas titin and nebulin nrc part of the intramy
lines the hollow internal organs; and the skeletal fibrillar cytoskelcton (Stromer et aI., 1998). T
(striated or voluntary) muscle, which auaches to the myof-ibrils are the basic unit of contraction.
skeleton via the tendons. The focus of this chapter is Each fiber is encompassed b:y a loose connect
the role and function of skeletal muscle. tissue called the endomysium and the fibers arc
Skeletal muscle is the most abundant tissue in ganized into various-sized bundles, or Fascicles (F
the human body, accounting for 40 to 45% of the to- 6·1, A & B), which arc in (urn encased in a den
lal body weighL. The human body has morc than connective tissue sheath known as the perimysiu
430 skeletal !TIuscles, found in pairs on the right and The muscle is composed of several fascicles s
left sides of the body. The most vigorolls movements rounded by a fascia of fibrous connective tis
are produced by fewer than 80 pairs. The muscles called the epimysium.
provide strength and protection to the skeleton by In general, each end of a muscle is attached
distributing loads and absorbing shock; they enable bone by tendons, which have no active contract
Ihe bones to move at the joints and provide the properties. The muscles form the contractile co
maintenance or body posture against force. Such ponent and the tendons the series clastic comp
abilities usuall~' represent the action of muscle nent. The collagen fibers in the perimysium a
groups, not of individurll mllscles. epimysium are continuous with those in the t
The skeletal muscles perform both dynamic and dons: together these fibers act as a stnlctural fr,\I
static work. Dynamic work permits locomotion and work for the attachment of bones and muscle fibe
the positioning of the body segments in space. Sta- The perim)'sium, endomysium, epimysium, and s
tic work maintains body posture or position. In this colemma act as parallel elastic components. T
chapter we describe the composition and structure forces produced by the contracting muscles
of skeletal muscle. the mechanics of muscle con- transmitted to bone through these connective
traction. force production in muscle. Illuscle fiber sucs and tendons (Kassel'. 1996).
differentiation, and muscle remade-ling. Each muscle fiber is composed of a lal'ge nu
ber of delicate strands, thc mvol'ibrils. These
the contractile clements of muscle. Their structu
Composition and Structure and function have been studied cxhausti\'c1y
Iighl and eleclron microscopy, and [heir his
o( Skeletal Muscle chemistr~' and biochclllistry have been explain
elsewhel'c (Alvidson et aI., 1984; Guvton, 198
An understanding of the biorncchanics of Illuscle
Approximately I p.m in c1iamctcl: the myofibrils
function requires knowledge of the gross anatomi-
parallel to each other within the cytoplasm (s
cal structure and function of the musculotendinous
coplasm) of the muscle fiber and extend throug
unit and the basic microscopic structure and chem-
out its length. They vary in number from a few
ical composition of the muscle fiber.
several thousand depending on the diameter of
ll1uscle fibel~ which depcnds in turn on thc type
STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
ll1usclc fiber.
OF MUSClE
The transverse banding pattern in striated m
The slructuralunit of skeletal muscle is thc muscle cles repeats itself along (he length of (he mus
fiber, a long cylindrical cell with many hundreds of fiber. each repeat being known as a sal'comerc (F
nuclei. Muscle fibers range in thickness from ap- 6-IC). These striations are caused by thc individ
proximately 10 to 100 fim and in Icngth from ap- myofibrils, which are aligned continuously throu
proximately 1 to 30 cm. A muscle fiber consists of Ollt the muscle fiber. The sarcomere is the fu
many myofibrils, which are invested by a delicate tional unit of the contractile syslem in muscle. a
plasma membl·ane called the sarcolemma. The sar- the events that take place in one sarcomere arc
colemma is connected via vinculin- and dystrophin- plicated in the others. Various sarcomere build
rich costameres with the sarcon1ctric Z lines, which myofibril, various myof"ibrils build the muscle fi
represent a pan of the cxtramyofibrillar cytoskcle- and various muscle fibers build the muscle.
1
Schematic drawings of the structural organization of mus-
cle. A, A fibrous connective tissue fascia. the epimysium.
surrounds the muscle, which is composed of many bun-
dles. or fascicles. The fascicles are encased in a dense con·
/ Epimysium
nective tissue sheath, the perimysium. B, The fascicles are
composed of muscle fibers, which are long, cylindrical,
multinucleated cells. Between the individual muscle fibers
are capillary blood vessels. Each muscle fiber is sur·
rounded by a loose connective tissue called the endomy-
sium. Just beneath the endomysium lies the sarcolemma.
a thin elastic sheath with infoldings that invaginate the
fiber interior. Each muscle fiber is composed of numerous A
delicate strands-myofibrils, the contractile elements of
muscle. C. Myofibrils consist of smaller filaments that form S',glc [
muscle
a repeating banding pattern along the length of the my- Ilber
(cetl)
ofibril. One unit of this serially repeating pattern is called
a sarcomere. The sarcomere is the functional unit of the
contractile system of muscle. D, The banding pattern of
B
the sarcomere is formed by the organization of thick and
thin filaments, composed of the proteins myosin and
actin, respectively. The actin filaments are attached at one
end but are free along their length to interdigitate with
the myosin filaments. The thick filaments are arranged in
a hexagonal fashion. A cross-section through the area of
overlap shows the thick filaments surrounded by six c Thin
equally spaced thin filaments. E, The lollipop-shaped mol· Cross section a
IllamentlJl level of a band
ecules of each myosin filament are arranged so that the (actin) .,,''''':''
long tails form a sheaf with the heads, or cross-bridges, , .;.... ", , .
ThICK : " ,,':'.' ',:: :.:: :
projecting from it. The cross· bridges point in one direc- filament ' .....
tion along half of the filament and in the other direction o (mYOSin) Sa(comer,:, organilalion
along the other half. Only a portion of one half of a fila-
ment is shown here. The cross-bridges are an essential ele-
ment in the mechanism of muscle contraction, extending
Myosin {
outward to interdigitate with receptor sites on the actin Mamenl
filaments. Each actin filament is a double helix, appearing
as two strands of beads spiraling around each other. Two
additional proteins, tropomyosin and troponin, are associ-
ated with the actin helix and play an important role in \
E
regulating the interdigitation of the actin and myosin fila- Troponin
Each sarcomere is composed of the Following: 3, The elastic filaments composed of the protei
titin (Fig, 6-2)
I, The thin filaments (approximately 5 nm in di-
A, The inelastic filaments composedof the pro-
ameter) composed of the protein actin
teins nebulin and tilin
2, The thick filaments (approximately 15 nm in
diameter) conlposed of the protein myosin Aetin, the chief component or the thin filamen
(Fig, 6-1, D & E) has the shape of a double helix and appears as tw
strands of beads spiraling around t.:ach othcl: Two with a globular "head" projecting from a long sha
additional proteins, troponin and tropomyosin, are or "tail." Several hundred slIch molecules are pack
important constituents of the actin helix because tail to tail in a sheaf with their heads pointed in on
thev appear to regulate the making and breaking of direction along half of the filament and in the opp
cOI~taclS between the actin and myosin filamel1ls site dircction along the other half, leaving a hca
during contraction. Tropomyosin is a long polypep- free region (the H zone) in between. The globul
tide chain that lies in the grooves between the he- heads spiral about the myosin filament in the regio
iices of actin. Troponin is a globular molecule at- where actin and myosin ovcrlap (the A band) and e
laehed at regular intcr'vals to the tropomyosin (Fig. tcnd as cross-bridges to interdigitate with sites o
6-1, D & E). the actin filaments, thus forming the structural an
The thick filaments are located in the central re- I'unctionallink between the two filament types.
gion of the sarcomere, where their ordcrl.y, parallcl The intramyofibrilh.,r cvtoskeleton includes i
arrangemcl1l gives rise to dark bands known as A elastic nebulin filaments, which span from the
bands because they arc strongly anisotropic. Thc line to the actin filaments. Ncbulin might also act
thin filaments arc atlachcd at either end of the sar- a template for the thin filament assembly.
comere to a structurL' known as the Z line, which Titin is I j.1m long. It is the largest polypepti
consists of shon elements that link the thin fila- and spans from the Z line to the IVI line. Titin is a
ments of adjacent sarcomcres. defining the limits clastic filament. The part between the Z linc an
of each sarcomere. The thin filaments cxtcnd From myosin has a string-likL' appearance. Titin has be
the Z line toward the center of the sarcomere, suggested to contdbutc greatly to the passh'c for
where they overlap with the thick fibmcnts. Re- development of muscle during stretch (Fig. 6·2).
cently it was shown thal there is a third set or n1YO- also might act as a template for the thick filame
fibril filaments in the vertebrate striated Illuscles. assembly (Linke et aI., 1998; Squire et al., 199
This connecting filament, named titin, links the Stromer et aI., 1998),
thick Filaments with the Z line (elastic I band re- The I bane! is bisected by the Z lines, which conta
gion of titin) and is part of the thick filaments (A the portion of the thin filaments that does not overl
band region o[ titin). This filament maintains the with the thick filaments and the clastic part of tit in.
central position of the A band throughout contrac- the center of the A ballet. in the gap between the en
tion and relaxation and might act as a template or the thin filaments, is the H zone, a light band co
during myosin ~,sselllbly. taining only thick filaments and that part of tilin th
Myosin, the thicker filament, is composed of indi- is integrated in the thick filaments. A narrow, da
vidual molecules, each of which resembles a lollipop area in the center of the H zone is the M line, 1'1
M-line
A-band
part
01 titin
Extent of one
!!lin molecule
The arrangement of titin molecules within the sarcomere. Adapted from Craig. R.(J994). The
stftJ(ture of the contract filaments. In A.G. Engel & Fraflzini·Armscrong (eds.). !vlyology (2nd ed.•
p. 150). New York: McGr<)w-Hill, Inc.
r ----"'....
Sarcomere
_--~""
_~ } Sarcoplasmic
reticulum
Mitochondrion {
I~M
--- Line
t
z
Line
H
Zone
B
A. Single muscle fiber with three protruding myofibrils. B. Electron photomicrograph of a cross·section of human skeletal m
c1e. The sarcomeres are apparent along the myofibrils. Characteristic regions of the sarcomere ar~ indicated.
Mitochondrion hence of the muscle, results from the relative m
Myo,libril
Sarcolemma ment of the actin and myosin filaments past on
other while each retains its original length.
force of contraction is developed by the m
heads, or cross-bridges, in the region of overla
~
ill
E A
'l
Band
tween actin and myosin (the A band), These c
bridges swivel in an arc around their fixed pos
on the surface of the m,vosin filament, much
the oars of a boat. This movement of the c
bridges in contact with the actin filaments
0
u Band
m duces the sliding of the actin filaments tc)\var
If)
center of the sarcomere, A muscle fiber con
\vhen all sarcomere shorten simultaneously
I
all-or-nothing fashion, which is called a twitch
Band I z· Because a single movement of a cross-bridge
Triad duces only' a small displacement of the actin
! \j ment relative to the myosin filament, each in
Sarcotubule Terminal ual cross-bridge detaches itself from one rec
I cisternae site on the actin filament and reattaches itself
1
mack, D.H, (7979). Histology (8th ed.J. PiJifadefphia: IS, Lippincott made available to the contractile elements
ceases when calcium is removed, The mecha
that regulate the availability of calcium ions
contractile machinery are coupled to electric e
tubule is part or the transverse tubule system, or T occurring in the muscle membrane (sarcolem
system, which are invaginatio!1s of the surface An action potential in the sarcolemma provid
membrane of the fiber. This membrane, the sar- electric signal for the initiation of contractile
colemma, is a plasma membrane that invests every it,v. The mechanism by which the electric signa
striated muscle (Fig. 6-4). gel'S the chemical events of contraction is kno
excitationNcontraction coupling.
Molecular Basis of Muscle \Vhen the motor neuron stimulates the m
at the neuromuscular junction (Fig, 6-5A) an
Contraction propagated action potential depolarizes the
cle cell membrane (sarcolemma), there is a
The most widely..' held theory of muscle contraction \vard spread of the action potential along
is the sliding filament theory, proposed simultane- system. (Details of this process arc given in F
ously by A.F. Huxley and H.E. Huxley in 1964 and 6-5, A-C and in Box 6-1, which summarize
subsequently refined (Huxley, 1974). According to events during the excitation, contraction, an
this theory, active shortening of the sarcomere, and laxation of muscle, Figure 6-5D shows the
Molor
end
plate
(1 )
Synaptic
vesicles
(3)
c o
Schematic representation of the innervation of muscle fibers. area in this section is shown in detail in C. C. Ultrastructu
A, An axon of a motor neuron (originating from the cell body the junction of an axon terminal and the sarcolemma. Th
in the anterior horn of the spinal cord) branches near its end vagination of the sarcolemma forms the synaptic trough
to innervate several skeletal muscle fibers, forming a neuro- which the axon terminal protrudes. The invaginated sar-
muscular junction with each fiber. The region of the muscle colemma has many folds, or subneural clefts, which grea
membrane (sarcolemma) lying directly under the terminal crease its surface area. Acetylcholine is stored in synaptic
branches of the axon has special properties and is known as cles in the axon terminal. Band C. adapted from Brobeck, I
the motor end plate, or motor end plate membrane. The rec- (Ed.) (/979). Best and Taylor's Physiological Basis of Medical Pra
tangular area is shown in detail in B. B, The fine terminal (10(h ed., pp. 59-1/3). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. D. Cros
branches of the nerve (axon terminals), devoid of myelin bridge cycle of muscle contraction.
sheaths, lie in grooves on the sarcolemma. The rectangular
Events During Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation of Muscle Fiber
1. An action potential is initiated and propagated in a mo- 1 1. Actin activates the myosin ATPase found on the myosin
tor axon. cfOss-bridge, enabling ATP to be split (hydrolyzed.) This
2. This action potential causes the release of acetylcholine process releaSES energy used to produce movement 01
irom the axon terminals at the neuromuscular junction. the myosin cross~br;dges:
end plate to sodium and potassium ions. producing an tive sliding of the thick and thin filaments past each
end-plate potential. other.
S. The end-plate potential depolarizes the muscle mem- 13. Fresh AT? binds to the myosin cross-bridge, breaking
brane (sarcolemma), generating a muscle action pOlen- the actin-myosin bond and allowing the cross-bridge to
tiallhat is propagated over the membrane suriaee. dissociate from aGin:
6. Acetylcholine is rapidly destroyed by acetylcholinesterclse
A . rv1 .;-. ATP -) A + tvl . ATP
on the end plate membrclne.
7. The muscle aGion potential depolarize') the transverse 14. The ATPase hydrolyzes the myosin ATP complex to rhe
tubules. M . AlP complex, which represents rhe relaxed state of
8. Depolarization of the transverse tubules leads to the re- the sarcomere:
lease of calcium Ions from the terminal cisternae of the
M' ATP -) Iv1 ' ATP
sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounding the myofibrils.
These ions are released imo the sarcoplasm in the direct 15. Cycles of binding and unbinding of actin with the
vicinitY of the regulatory proteins tropomyosin and tro- myosin cross-bridges at successive sites along the actin
ponin. filament (steps 11, 12, 13, CH'\d 14) continue as long as
9. Calcium ions bind to troponin, allowing movement of ii)e concentration of calcium remains high enough to
the tropomyosin molecule away from the myosin recep- inhibit the action of the troponin-rropomyosin system.
tor sites on the actin filament that it had been blocking 16. Concentration of calcium ions falls as they are pumped
and releasing the inhibition tilat had prevented actin into the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum
from combining with myosin. by an energy-requiring process that splits ATP,
10. Actin (A) combines with myosin ATP (M-ATP). In this 17. Calcium diSSOCIates from troponin. restoring the in-
state, ATP has been hydrolyzed to ADP and phosphate hibitory action of troponin-tropomyosin. The actin fila-
bUt the products are still attached to myosin (receptor ment slides back and rhe muscle lengthens. In the pr~s-,
sites on the myosin cross-bridges bind to receptor sites ence of ATp, actin and myosin remain in tll~ dissociated;
on the actin chain): relaxed stale.
(,l.,!odiiied from Luciano er ,l!. (I 978j, In HUIl1"n FuncliOn <1nd Structure (Fig 5,5D/ New York: ,\,'1cGril~·/·Hi,ll: and
,jdiJpted from (I'dlg. R. 099.:1). Myology (2nd ed.. p. 162) New York: McGra:'1·;·/iIl.)
lural features between actin and the cross-bridges tract independently. \Vhcn stimulated, all mu
of mvosin.) fibers in the mOlor unit respond as one. The fi
of a Illotor unit arc said to show an all-or·none
sponse to stimulation: the),..' contract either m
THE MOTOR UNIT
mally or not at aIL
The functional unit of skeletal 111uscle is the mOlor The number of muscle fibers forming a -m
unit. which includes a single motor neuron and all unit is closely I"elated to the degree of contro
of the muscle rlbers innervated by it. This unit is the quirccl of the muscle, In small muscles thal perf
smallest part of the muscle that can be made to CO!l4 vcr~' fine movements, such as the extraocular I
des, each motor unit may contain less than a dozen
muscle fibers; in large n'lUscies that perform coarse
movements. such as the gastrocnemius, the motor PEC
,OOOOOH
unil may contain 1,000 to 2,000 muscle fibers.
The fibers or each motor unit arc not contiguous
but dispersed throughout the muscle with fibers of SEC
other units. Thus. if a single motor unit is stimu-
latex!. a large ponion or the muscle appears to con· CC
(rae£. If additional motor units of the nerve inner· I
vating the muscle are stimulated, the muscle I
corHracls with greater force. The calling in of adeli·
tional motor units in response to greater stimula-
tion of the motor nClvc is called recruitment.
The musculotendinous unit may be depicted as consisti
THE MUSCULOTENDINOUS UNIT of a contractile component ((C) in parallel with an elas
component (PEQ and in series with another elastic com
The tendons and the connective tissues in and nent {SEQ_ The contractile component is represented b
around the muscle belly are viscoelastic structures the contractile proteins of the myofibril, actin, and myo
that help determine the mechanical characteristics (The myosin cross-bridges may also exhibit some elastic
of whole muscle during contraction and passive ex· The parallel elastic component comprises the connectiv
tension. Hill (1970) showed that the tendons repre- tissue surrounding the muscle fibers (the epimysium, pe
mysium, and endomysium) and the sarcolemma. The se
sent a spring-like elastic component located in se·
elastic component is represented by the tendons. Adap
rics with the contractile component (the contractile
hom Keefe. CA.. Neil, E., & Joels. N (1982). I.;lvsc!e and the
proteins or the m~yofibril, actin, and myosin), while lle!Voll$syslem. In Samson 1/</rI911(5 f.\ppli(~cJ PhySiology (i3th
the epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, and sm'· ed, fJP, 248~259). Oxford: Oxford Unlversiry Press
colcmma represent a second elastic component 10·
cated in parallel with the contractile component
(Fig. 6-6).
When the parallel and series elastic components
stretch during active contraction 01- passive exten- 4. The viscous property of the series and para
sion of a muscle, tension is produced and energy is lel clastic components allows lIk'lll to abso
stored; when they recoil with muscle relaxation, this energy proportional to the rate of force app
energy is released_ The series elastic fibers are more cation and to dissipate energy in a timc~
important in the production of tension than are lhe dependent manner. (For a discussion of vis
parallel elastic fibers (Wilkie, 1956). Several investi- coelasticity, see Chaptcl- 4.)
gators have suggested that the cross-bridges of the
myosin filaments have a spring-like property and Thb viscoLIs property. combined with the ela
also contdbutc to the elastic properties of muscle properties of the musculotendinous unit. is dem
(Hill, 1968). slI-atcd in everyday activities. For example, whe
The distensibility! and elasticity of the clastic com· person altempts to stretch and touch the toes,
ponents arc valuable to the muscle in severnl wavs: stretch is initially elastic. As the stretch is held, h
ever, further elongation or the muscle results fr
I. Thev tend to keep the muscle in readiness for the viscosity of the Illuscle-tendon structure,
contraction and assure that muscle tension is the fingers slo\\'I~' reach closer to the noor.
produced and transillittcd smoothly during
contraction.
2. They assure that the contractile elements re- Mechanics of iVluscle
turn to their original (resting) positions when Contraction
contraction is terminated.
3. They may help prevent the passive over- _Electromyography' provides a mechanism for ev
stretch of the contractile elements when these ating and comparing neural effects on muscle
elements are relaxed, thereby lessening the the contractile activity or the muscle itself in v
danger of Illuscle injUl)'. and in vitro. Much has been learned by using c
tromyography Lo study various aspects or the con- time of the rnuscle so that little or no relax
tractile process, particularly the time relationship can occur before the next contraction is ini
between the onset of electrical activity in the muscle (Fig. 6-8).
and aClltal contraction of the muscle or muscle The considerable gradation of COlllraction e
fiber. The following sections discuss the mechanical ited by wholc muscles is achic\·ed by the differ
response of a muscle to electrical (neural) stimula-
tion and the various ways in which the muscle con-
tracts to move a joint, control its motion, or main-
tain its position.
!I~ ,~
depending largely on the muscle fibcr makeup (de·
scribed below). Some muscle fibers contracl with
a speed of only 10 mscc; others ma~; take 100 Illsec
or longer.
I
An action potential lasts only approximately I to 100 400
0 200 300 500
2 msec. This is n small fraction of the time taken for
the subsequent mechanical response, or twitch, t
S,
..tI.-
5,S3
even in muscles that contract quickly; thus it is pos- Time (msec)
sible for a series of action potentials to be initiated
C
f ' before the first twitch is completed if the activity of
the motor axon is maintained. \'\Then mechanical re-
sponses to successive stimuli arc added to an initial
response, the result is knc)\vn as summation (Fig. Summation of contractions in a muscle held at a cons
6-7). If a second stimulus occurs during the latencyl length. A, An initial stimulus (51) is applied to the mu
period of the first muscle twitch, it produces no ad- and the resulting twitch lasts 150 msec. The second (5
third (5 J ) stimuli are applied to the muscle after 200-m
ditional response and the muscle is said to be com-
intervals when the muscle has relaxed completely, thu
pletely refractory.
summation occurs. 8.5 1 is applied 60 msec after 51, w
The frequency of stimulation is variable and is
the mechanical response from 5.. is beginning to decr
modulated by individual motor units. The greater The resulting peak tension is greater than that of the
the frequency of stimulation of the muscle fibers. gle twitch. C. The interval between 5.. and 5J is furthe
the greater the tension produced in the muscle as duced to 10 msec. The resulting peak tension is even
a whole. However, a maximal frequency will be greater than in S, and the increase in tension produce
reached beyond which the tension of the muscle no smooth curve. The mechanical response evoked by 5J
longer increases. \"'hen this maximallension is sus- pears as a continuation of that evoked .by 51' Adapted
tained as a result or summation, the muscle is said Luciano, 0.5., Vander. AJ.• & Sherman. J.H. (1978). Huma
to contract tetanically. In this case, the rapidity of tion and Structure (pp. J J3-(36). New York: McGraw,Hill.
stimulation olltstrips the contraction~relaxation
3
c
0
'iii 2
c
<l>
>--
<l>
>
'g
0;
a:
0
is ts Is is is is Jumnmrnmmnnrrmnnm
ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (msec)
Generation of muscle tetanus. As the frequency of stimula- becomes maximal and the muscle contracts tetanically,
tion (5) increases (Le., the intervals shorten from 200 to 100 ing sustained peak tension. Adapled from Luciano, OS.
msec), the muscle tension rises as a result of summation. AI, 8 Sherman, IN (978). Human Function and Structure
When the frequency is increased to lOO/second, summation I i 3-136). New York: McGraw-Hi//.
activity' of their motor units, in both stimulation fre- Although no motion is accomplished and n
quency' and the number of units activated. The chanical \vork is performed during an isom
repetitive twitching of all recruited motor units of a contraction, muscle work (physiological wo
muscle in an as:vnchronous manner results in brief performed: energy is expended and is Illostly
summations or more prolonged subtetanic or paled as heat, which is also called the isornetric
tetanic contractions of the muscle as a whole and is production. All dynamic contractions involve
a principal Factor responsible for the smooth move- ma.y be considered an initial static (isometric)
ments produced by the skeletal muscles. as the muscle first develops tension equal to th
it is expected to overcome.
The tension in a muscle varies with the t.y
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
contraction. Isometric contractions pro
During contraction, the force exerted by a contract- greater tension than do conccntric contrac
ing muscle on the bony lever(s) to which it is at- Studies suggest that the tension developed
tached is known as the muscle tension, and the ex- eccentric contractIon may even exceed that
ternal force exerted on the muscle is known as the oped during an isometric contraction. Thes
resistance, or load. As the muscle exerts its force, it ferences arc thought to be due in large part
generates a turning erFect, or moment (torque), on vat'ying amounts of supplemental tension
the involved joint because the line of application of duced in the series clastic component of the
the muscle force usually lies at a distance from the cle and to diFferences in contraction time
center of motion of the joint. The moment is calcu- longer contraction time of the isometric an
lated as the product of the muscle force and the per~ centric contractions allows greater cross~
pendicular distance between its point of application formation by the contractile components, thu
and the center of motion (this distance is known as mitting greater tension to be generated (
the lever arm, or moment arm, of the force), 1987). More time is also available for this te
Muscle contractions and the resulting muscle to be transmitted to the series elastic comp
work can be classified according to the relationship as the muscle-tendon unit is stretched. The l
bet\veen either the muscle tension and the resis- contraction time allo\vs the recruitment of
tance to be overcome or the muscle moment gener- tional nlotor units.
ated and the resistance to be overcome, as shown in Komi (1986) has pointed oul that concentri
Box 6-2 (Krocmcr e! 'II., 1990), metric, and eccentric muscle contractions se
_ Types of Muscle Work and Contraction
Dynamic work: Mechanical work is performed and joint mo- 4. Iseinenial (iso, constant; inertial, resistance) contraction:
tion is produced through the following forms of muscle con- This is a type of dynamic muscle work wherein the resis
traction: tance against which the muscle must contract remains
1. Concentric (con, together; cemrum, center) contrac- constant. If the moment (torque) produced by the musc
tion: When muscles develop sufficient tension to over- is equal to or less than the resistance to be overcome,
come the resistance of the body segment, the mus- the mllscle length remains unchanged and the muscle
cles shorten and cause joint movement. The net contracts isomelfically. If the moment is greater than th
moment generated by the muscle is in the same di· resistance, the muscle shortens (contracts concentrically
rection as the change in joint angle. An example of a and causes acceleration of the body part. Isoinertial con~
concentric contraction is the action of the quadriceps traction occurs, for example, when a constant external
in extending the knee when ascending stairs. load is lifted. At the extremes of motion, the inertia of
2. Eccentric (e.g., out of-, centrum, center) contraction: the load must be overcome; the involved muscles con-
When a muscle cannot develop sufficient tension and tract isometrically and muscle torque is maximal. In the
is overcome by the external load, it progressively midrange of the motion, with the inenia overcome, the
lengthens instead of shortening. The net muscle mo- mU'jcles contract concentrically and the torque is sub-
ment is in the opposite direclion irom the change in maximal.
joint angle. One purpose of eccenlric contraction is to 5. Isotonic (iso, constant; tonic, iorce) contraction: This ter
decelerate the motion oi a joint. For example, when is commonly used to define muscle contraction in which
one descends stairs, the quadriceps works eccentri- the tension is constant throughout a range of joint m()~
cally to decelerate flexion of the knee, thus decelerat- tion. This term does not take into aCCOLlnt the leverage'"
ing the limb. The tension that il applies is less than eilects at the joint. Ho\,vever, because the muscle force
the force of gravity pulling the body downward, but it moment arm changes throughout the range oi joint mo
is sufficient to allow controlled lowering of the body. lion, the muscle tension must also change. Thus, isoton
3. Isokinetic (iso, constant; kinetic, motion) contraction: muscle contraction in the truest sense does not exist in
This is a type of dynamic muscle work in which move- the production of joint motion (Kroll, 1987).
ment of the joint is kept at a constan I velocity. and Static work: No mechanical work is performed and posture
hence rhe velocity of shortening or lengthening of the or joint position is maintained through the following form
muscle is constant. Because velocity is held constant, muscle contraction:
muscle energy cannot be dissipated through accelera- 1. Isometric (iso, constant; metric, length) contra(ti()~,;,. :~~s.
lion of the body part and is entirely converted to a re- c1es are not always directly involved in the prod~qi~~:-Pr.
sisting moment. The muscle force varies with changes joint movements. They may exercise either a rest'ra(ning
in its lever arm throughout the range of joint motion or a holding action, such as that needed t~ ~aint~i~ th
(Hislop & Perrine. 1967). The muscle contracts con- body in an upright position in opposing the force of
centrically and eccentrically with different directions of gravity. In this case the muscle attempts to shorten (i.e.,
joint motion. For example, the i1exor muscles of a the myofibrils shorten and in doing so stretch the series
joint contract concentrically during flexion and eccen- elastic componenr. thereby producing tension), but it
trically during extension, acting as decelerators during does not overcome the load and cause movement; in-
the latter. stead. it produces a moment that supports the load in a
iixed position (e.g., maintains posture) because no ,"
change takes place in the distance between the mlJsc!le
points of attachment.
occur alone in normal human movement. Instead,
one type of contraction or load is preceded by a dif- c
.2 '.0
ferent type. An example is the eccentric loading m I
c I
prior to the concentric contraction that occurs at " I
~,
f-
I
the ankle frolll miclstance to toe-off during gait. "
.~
<i
0.5
I
I
Because muscles normally' shorten or lengthen at 0; I
I
a:
"at)!ing velocities and with valying amoullls of tcnsion, I
I I
perfolll1ance and measurement of isokinetic work re- 1.27 1.65 2.0 2.25
quire the lise of an isokinetic dynamon1ctcl: This device
provides constant velocity of joint motion and maxi- Sarcomere Length (JIm)
mum cxtcIllal resistance throughout the range of 010- 2.25-3.6 I'm c==:jr=z=J~\:~::\g;
::~;::~:::~\ ==i/i==
lion of the involved joint. thereby requiJing maximal
muscle torque. The use of the isokinctic dynamometer
z M A Z
provides a method of selective training and measure- 20-225"m=9! i':::": :::!::~ Ir==
ment, but physiological movement is not simulated.
<1.65"m==j~F=
Force Production in Muscle
Tension·length curve from part of an isolated muscle f
The total force that a muscle can produce is influ-
stimulated at different lengths. The isometric tetanic t
enced by its mechanical properties, which can be sion is dosely related to the number of cross-bridges o
described by examining the length-tension. load- the myosin filament overlapped by the actin filament.
velocity, and force-time relationships of the muscle tension is maximal at the slack length, or resting lengt
and the skeletal muscle architecture. Other princi- the sarcomere (2 p.m), where overlap is greatest, and f
pal factors in force production arc muscle tempera- to zero at the length where overlap no longer occurs
ture, muscle fatigue, and prestrclching. ,....m). The tension also decreases when the sarcomere
length is reduced below the resting length. falling sha
at 1.6S IJ.m and reaching zero at 1.27 IJ.ffi as the exten
LENGTH-TENSION RELATIONSHIP overlap interferes with cross-bridge formation. The str
The force, or tension, that a muscle exerts varies tural relationship of the actin and myosin filaments at
ous stages of sarcomere shortening and lengthening is
with the length at which it is held when stimulated.
portrayed below the curve. A. actin filaments; M. myo
This relationship can be observed in a single fiber filaments; Z, Z lines. Adapted from CriJ....,;ord. CN.C & J~
contracting isometrically and tetanically, as illus- N. T. (1980). The design of muscfes. In R. Owen, J. Goodfelfo
trated by the length-tension curve in Figure 6-9. P. Buffough (Eds.), Scientific Foundations of Orthopaedics an
Maximal tension is produced when the muscle fiber Trmilllalology (pp. 67·-74). London.' William Heinemann;')5
is approximately at its "slack," or resting, length. ,If modified from Gordon, A.M., rluxley, A.F.I., & JlIlian, F.l. (1
the fiber is held at shorter lengths. the tension falls Tile variation in isometric tension with SMcomere length in
off slowly at first and then rapidly. If the fiber is tebr~lre muscle fibers. J Physiol, 184, 170.
L Length
(Crawford & James, 1980). For example, the
strings shorten so much when the knee is
Hexed that the tension they can exert decreases
~------ siderably. Conversely, when the hip is nexed an
The active and passive tension exerted by a whole muscle
knee extended. the Illuscles arc so stretched t
is the magnitude of their passive tension tha
I contracting isometrically and tetanically is plotted against the
muscle's length. The active tension is produced by the con· vents flirt her elongation and causes the knee t
tractile muscle components and the passive tension by the se- if hip flexion is increased.
ries and parallel elastic components, which develop stress
when the muscle is stretched beyond its resting length. The
EFFEa OF PRESTRETCHING
10 15 20
It has been demonstrated in amphibians and in hu- Muscle Length (cm)
mans (Cuillo & Zarins, 1983) that a muscle per- B 100
forms more work when it shortens inlmediatcly af-
ter being stl'etched in the concentrically contracted 80
state than when it shortens from a state of isomet-
ric contraction. This phenomenon is not entirely ac- ~
~ 60
counted for by the elastic energ~' stored in the series o
u.
clastic component during stretching but must also ~
'0 40
be caused by energy stored in the contractile com· ~
"
::;
20
5 10 15 20
Muscle Velocity (cm/s)
•
0F-----------
pon~nl. 'It has been suggested [hat changes in the
trinsic mechanical properties of l11)'oflbrils are
ponant in the stretch-induced enhancement
Time work production (Takarada et aI., 1997),
IBm
i L- _
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Force-time curve for a whole muscle contracting isometri· A rise in muscle temperature causes an incre
cally. The force exerted by the muscle is greater when the
in conduction velocity across the sarcolem
contraction time is longer because time is required for the
tension created by the contractile components to be trans-
(Phillips & PeLrorsky, 1983), increasing the
ferred to the parallel elastic component and then to series quency of stimulntion and hence tbe product
elastic component as the musculotendinous unit is of muscle force. Rising of the muscle temperat
stretched. from 6 La 34 u C results in an almost linear incre
or the tension/stirrness raLio (Callcr et al" 199
A rise in temperature also causes greater enzy-
matic activity of muscle metabolism, thus in-
creasing the efficiency of rnusclc contraction. A
further effect of a rise in temperature is the in-
creased elasticity of the collagen in the series and
parallel elastic components. which enhances the
extensibility of the muscle-tendon unit. This in-
creased prestrclch incrcases the force production Fatigue in a muscle contracting isometrically. Prolong
of the muscle. stimulation occurs at a frequency that outstrips the m
Muscle temperature increases by rneans of two cle's ability to produce suHicient ATP for contraction.
mechanisms: result, tension production declines and eventually ce
Adapted from Luciano. 0.5., Vander. A.i., &- Sherman. J.H
I. Increase in blood now, which occurs when an (1978). Human Function and Structure (pp. 113-136). Ne
athlete "warms up" his or her muscles York: McGraw-Hili.
2. Production of the heal of reaction generated
by metnbolism. by the release of the energy •
of contraction, and by friction as the contrac-
tile components slide over each other
myosin ATPase rapidly breaks down ATP. Th
However, at low tenlperaturc (1 O('C), it has been crease in adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
shown that the maximum shortening velocity and phate (Pi) concentralions resulting from this b
the isometric tension are inhibited significantly. down ultimately leads to increased rale
This is caused by decreased pH (acidosis) in Ihe oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis. A
muscle. The 1'1-1 plays a much less important role at short lapsc. however. lhese metabolic palhway
temperatures close to the physiological level (Pate et gin lO deliver ATP at a high rate. During this
aI., 1995). vaL lhc energy for AT? formation is provided b
atine phosphate, which offers the most rapid m
of forming ATP in the muscle cell.
EFFECT OF FATIGUE
At moderate rates of muscle aClivity, most o
The ability of a muscle to contract and relax is de- required ATP can be formed by the process o
pendent on the availability of adenosine triphos- idalive phosphorylation. During intense exe
phate (ATP) (Box 6-1). If a muscle has an adequate when ATP is being broken down rapidly, the
supply of oxygen and nutrients that can be broken abilitv to replace ATP by oxidalive phosphory
down to provide ATP, it can sustain a series of low- may be limited. primarily by inadequate deliv
frequency twitch responses for a long time. The rre- oxygen to the muscle b.y lhe circulatory system
quency must be low enough to allow the muscle to Even \vhcn oxygen delivery is adequate, th
synthesize AT? at a rate sufficient to keep up with al which oxidative phosphorylation can pro
the rate of ATP breakdown during contraction. If ATP may be insufficient to sustain inlense ex
the fTequency of stimulation increases and outstrips because the enzymatic machinery of this pathwC
the rate of replacement of ATP, the twitch responses relatively slow. Anncrobic glycolysis then beg
soon grow progressively \veaker and eventually fall contribute an increasing portion of the ATP. Th
to zero (Fig. 6-14). This drop in tension following colytic pathway, although it produces much sr
prolonged stimulation is muscle fatigue. If the fre- amounts of ATP h-om the breakdown of glucos
quency is high enough to produce tetanic contrac- erates at a Illuch faster rate. It can also proce
tions, fatigue occurs even sooner. [f a period of rest the absence of oxygen, with the formation of
is allowed before stimulation is continued, the ATP acid as ils end product. Thus, during intense
concenln.l.lion rises and the muscle briefly recovers cise, anaerobic glycolysis becomes an addi
its contractile ability before again undergoing fa- source for rapidly supplying the muscle with A
tigue. The glycolytic pathway has the disadvanta
Three sources supply ATP in muscle: creatine requiring large amounts of glucose for the pr
phosphate, oxidative phosphorylation in Ihe mito- tion of small amounts of" ATP. Thus, even th
chondria. and substrate phosphor:ylation during muscle stores glucose in the form of glycogen,
anaerobic glycolysis. \'Vhen contraction begins, the ing glycogen supplies rnay be depicted quickly
muscle aconty is intense, Finally, myosin ATPase Jvlany methods of classifying muscle fibers
may break down AT? faster than even glycolysis can been devised. As early' as 1678, Lorenzini obse
r~p'lace it, and fatigue occurs rapidly as AT? con- anatomically the gross dilTcrence bel\\,Icen red
centrations drop. white muscle. and in 1873 Ranvier typed muscl
After a period of intense exercise, creatine phos- the basis of speed of contractility and fatigab
phate levels have become low and much of the mus- Although considerable confusion has existed
cle glycogen may have been convened to lactic acid. cCl'ning the method and terminology for classif
For the muscle to be returned to its original state, skeletal muscle, recenl histological and histoch
creatine phosphate must be resynthesized and the cal observations have led to the identificatio
u1vcofLcn stores must be replaced. Because both three distinct typcs or muscle fibers on the bas
pl:oce~ses require energy, the muscle will continue differing contractile and metabolic prope
to consumc oxygen at a rapid rate cven though it (Brandstater & Lambert, 1969; Buchtah! & Soh
has stopped contracting. This sustained high oxy- burch, 1980) (Table 6-1).
!:rell uptake is demonstrated by the fact that a person The fiber t~'pes are distinguished mainly by
~ontinues to breathe heavily and rapidly aher a pe- metabolic pathways by which they can gene
riod of strenuous exercise. AT? and the rate at which its energy is made a
v"hen the energy necessary to return glycogen able to the conrractilc system of the sarcom
and creatine phosphate to their original levels is which determines the speed of contraction.
taken into account, the ef(-icienc~. . with which mus- three fiber types are termed type I, slow-twitch
cle coovens chemical energy to work (movement) is idative (SO) fibers; type lIA, fast-twilCh oxida
usually no more than 20 to 250/0, the majority of the glycolvtic (FOG) fibers; and type liB, fast-twitch
energy being dissipated as heat. Even when Illuscle colytic (FG) fibers.
is operating in its most efficient stnte, a maximum Typc I (SO) fibers are characterized by a low
()f only approxinwtel)! 45{>~ of the energy is used for tivity of my'osin ATPase in the muscle fiber
contraction (Arvidson ct 'II., 1984; Guyton, !986). thcrefore, a relatively slow contraction time.
In growth biomechanics, muscle fatigue is flrst glycolytic (anaerobic) aClivity is low in this
observed by the lack of coorclinalion or movement lype, but a high content of mitochondria produc
and its effect in the increasing of loads in tissue. Re- high potential for oxidative (aerobic) activity. Ty
searchers including Bates et al. (1977) have indi- fibers are difficult to fatigue because the high ra
cated that the skill of the person in performing a blood now to these fibers delivers oxygen and n
given action is affected by fatigue, They studied the ents at a sufficient rate to keep up with the relati
fatigue effect on runners and absented that runners slow rate of ATP breakdown by myosin ATP
decrease their knee extension when fatigue occurs Thus, the fibers are well suited for prolonged,
(Bates et aI., 1977). Parnianpour (1988) studied the intensity work. These fibers are relatively sma
motion coupling of the spine at exhaustive extension diameter and so produce relatively little tens
Oexion. This study showed that when an individual The high myoglobin content of type I fibers give
became fatigued, the coupled motion increased and muscle a red color,
therefore the spinaltorquc increased. The most dele- Type II muscle fibers arc divided into two n
terious component of the ncurornuscular adaptation subgroups, IIA and IlB, on the basis of differing
to the fatiguc state was the reduction in accuracy ceptibility to treatment with different buffers p
control and speed of contraction, \vhich may predis- to incubation (Brooke & Kaiser, 1970). A third
pose an individual to injury if muscle fatigue occurs. group, the typc lIe fibers, are rare, undifferenti
fibers, which are usually seen before the 30th w
of gestalion. This fiber type is infrequent in hu
Muscle Fiber Differentiation. muscle (Banker, 1994). Tvpe IIA and 11 B fibers
characterized by a high activity of myosin ATP
In the preceding section, we described the major which results in relatively fast contraction.
ractors that determine the total tension developed Type lIA (FOG) fibers are considered interm
b.v the whole rnuscle when it COlllracts. Individual ate between type 1 and type lIB because their
muscle fibers also display distinct differences in contt-action time is combined with a modera
their rates of contraction, development of tension. well-developed capacity for both aerobic (ox
and susceptibility to fatigue. tive) and anaerobic (glycolytic) activity. T
Properties of Three Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
TYPE JlA
TYPE 1 Fast-Twitch TYPE JIB
Slow-Twitch Oxidative- Fast-Twitch
Oxidative Glycolytic Glycolytic
(SO) (fOG) (fG)
fiber's also have a well-developed blood supply. tractile and histochemical properties and the
They can maintain their contractile activity for rel- twitch fibers became slow.
<Hively long periods; ho\vevcr, at high rates of ac- The fiber composition of a given muscle
tivity. the high rate of ATP splitting exceeds the ca- pends on the function 01" that muscle. Some m
pacity of both oxidative phosphorylation and cles perform predominantly one form of cont
glycolysis to supply ATP, and these fibers thus tile activity' and arc often composed mostl
eventually fatigue. Because the myoglobin conlCIH one muscle fiber t}'pc. An example is the so
01" this muscle type is high, the muscle is of len cat- muscle in the calf, which prirnarily maint
egorized as red III lIscl e. posture and is composed of a high percentag
T:vpe liB (FG) libers rely primarily on glycolvtic type I fibers. More commonly', however, a mu
(anaerobic) activity for ATP production. Few capil- is reqllir'cd to perform endurance-type act
laries are found in the vicinity of these fibers and be- unde)' some cirClllTlstances and high-inten
cause they contain little myoglobin (hey are ohen strength activity under others. These mus
referred to as white muscle. Although Lype liB fibers generally contain a mixture of the three mu
are able to producc ATP rapidly, they fatigue easily fiber types.
because their high rate of ATP splitting quickly de- (n a typical mixed muscle exerting low tens
pletes the glycogen needed for glycolysis. These some of the small motor units, composed of ty
fibers generally are of large diameter and are thus fibers, contract. As the muscle force increa
able to produce great tension, but only for short pe- more motor units are recruited and their
riods before they fatigue. quency of stimulation increases. As the frequ
It has been well demonstrated that the nerve in- becomes maximal. greater muscle force
nervating the muscle fibcr determines its t.ypc achieved by recruitment of larger motor u
(Burke el aI., 1971); thus, the muscle fibers of each composed of type 11;\ (FOG) fibers ancl eventu
motor unit are of a single type. In humans and other type lIB (FG) fibers. As the peak muscle force
species, electrical stimulation was found to change creases, the larger units are the first to cease
the fiber type (Munsal, McNeal, & Waters, 1976). In tivity (Guyton. 1986; Luciano, Vander. & Sherm
animal studies, transecting the nerves that inner- 1978).
vate slow twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibers and
8
It is generally, but not universally, accepted
then crossing these nen;es was noted to reverse the fiber types are genetically det~rmined (Costi
fiber types. After recovery from the cross-innerva- aI., 1976; Gollnick, 1982). In the average pop
tion, the slow-twitch fibers became fast in their con- tion, approximatel.'Y' 50 to 55% of muscle fi
are type I, approximately 30 to 35 Cj(; are type IrA, physical constraint of the surrounding tissues, t
and approximately' 15 rJr; are t.\'Pe lIB, but these extent and condition of extracellular matrices, a
percentages vary greatly among individuals. the development of repair cells. Muscle injuries a
In elite athletes, the relative percentage of fiber important but the topic is not \vithin the scope
types differs from that in the general population and this chapter. Injuries should be investigated ca
appears to depend on whether the athlete's principal fully if suspicion arises that a patient has mus
activit)' requires a short, explosive, maximal effort damage.
or involves submaximal endurance. Sprinters and
shot putters, for example, have a high percentage of
tvpe II flbers, whereas distance runners and cross- Muscle Remodeling
~ountry skiers have a higher percentage of type I
fibers. Endurance athletes may have as man.v as The remodeling of muscle tissue is similar to that
80% t.ype I fibers, and those engaged in short, ex- other skeletal tissues such as bone, articular car
plosive efforts as few as 30 0/e of these fibers (Saltin lage, and ligaments. Asin these other tissues, mu
et 'II., 1977). cle atrophies in response to disuse and immobili
The genetically determined fiber typing may be tion and hypertrophies when subjected to grea
responsible for the natural selective process by use than usual.
which athletes are drawn to the type of sport for
which they are most suited. Because fiber types are
EFFECTS OF DISUSE AND
determined by the nerve that innervates the muscle
IMMOBILIZATION
fiber, there may be some cortical control of this in-
nervation that influences an athlete to choose the Disuse and immobilization have detrimental effe
sport in which he or she is genetical I)' able to excel. on muscle ftbers. These effects include loss of
durance and strength and muscle atrophies on a m
crostructural and macrostructural level, such as
Muscle Injuries creased numbers and size of fiber. Biochemi
changes occur and affect aerobic and anaerobic
iVluscle injuries comprise contusion, laceration, erg}' production. These effects are dependent
ruptures, ischemia, compartment syndromes, and fiber type and muscle length during immobilizati
denervation. These injuries weaken the muscles and Immobilization in a lengthened position has a l
can cause significant disability'. Blunt trauma can deletet-ious effect (Appell, 1997; Kassel', 1996; Oh
diminish muscle strength, limit joint motion, and fl- et 'II.. 1997; Sandmann, et 'II., 1998).
nally lead to myositis ossiflcans. lVlusclc laceration, Clinical and laboratory studies of human and
surgical incisions, and traumatic lesion to muscle imal muscle tissue suggest that a program of
tissue and denervation weaken the ITmsclcs, some- mediate or early motion may prevent Illuscle at
times significantly. Ruptures in muscles also can phy after injury or surgery. In a study of cn
cause weakness. Like the other injuries, they rnay injuries to rat muscle, the effect of immobilizat
result from direct trauma, but muscle contractions of the crushed limb was compared with that of
against resistance also can lead to tears in muscle mediate motion. The muscle fibers \vere found
tissue. regenerate in a more parallel orientation in the m
Acute muscle ischemia and compartment syn- bilized animal than in the immobilized anim
dromes can cause extensive muscle necrosis. The capillarization occurred more rapidly, and tens
many potential causes of compartment s}'ndrome strength returned more quickly. Similar resu
all result in increased pressure \vithin a confined were found in a later study on the effect of imm
muscle compartment. In this case, failure to relieve bilization on the IT'lOrphology of rat calf musc
the pressure rapidl.y ma}' cause complications that (Kannus et aI., 1998a).
range from weakness and decreased motion to loss It has been found clinically that atrophy of
of an entire limb. quadriceps muscle that develops while the limb
Studies have shown that healthy skeletal muscle immobilized in a rigid plaster cast cannot be
has a substantial capacity to repair itself. This re- v'ersed through the use of isometric exercises.
pair process following a specific injury is inferred rophy may be limited by allowing early mot
by the prior innovation pattern, vascularization, such as that permitted by a partly mobile c
brace. In this case, dynamic exercises can be per- stood (Gollnick, 1982; Guyton, 1986). It ap
formed. that these evcnts arc controlled or modifi
Human muscle biopsy studies have shown that both the intrafusal muscle spindles, located
it is mainly' the type I fibers that atrophy with im- allel with the extrafusal fibers of the muscle
mobilization; their cross-sectional area decreases and the Go!gi tendon organs, located in serie
and their potential for oxidative enzyme activity is
reduced (Kannus et aI., 1998b). Earl)' motion may'
prevent this atrophy. It appears that if the muscle
is placed under tension when the body segment
moves, afferent (sensory) impulses from the intra- Ruptured Left Anterior eruciate Ligam
fusal muscle spindles will increase, leading to in- 25-year-old male, status postsurgical repair of the
creased stimulation of the type I fiber. Although in-
termittent isometric exercise may be sufficient to
A - ruptured left anterior cruciale ligament, had torqu
measurements taken from the involved and uninvolved
maintain the metabolic capacity of the t.vpe II limb 10 weeks after the surgical procedure (Fig. (56-2-1
fibel~ the type I fiber (the postural fiber) requires a and repeated 6 weeks after the training began (Fig. (56
more continuous impulse. Evidence also suggests 2-1 B). An increase of muscle torque is shown in the re-
that electric stimulation may prevent the de- peated isokinetic test. The initial deficit of the involved
crease in type I fiber size and the decline in its oxi- side was approximately 63~o when compared with the
dative enzyme activity caused b:v immobilization uninvolved side. After 6 '.Neeks of trainin~J. the deficit o
(Eriksson et ai., 1981). the involved side compared with tho uninvolved side de
In elite athletes, inactivity following injury, creased to 43%.
surgery, or immobilization rapidly decreases the
size and aerobic capability of muscle fibers, partic- 187,-------------
ularly in the fiber type affected bv the chosen 163
sport. Tn endurance athletes, type I fibers are af- 140
E 116
fected, while in athletes engaged in an explosive <n
c 93
activity such as sprinting, type II fibers are af-
fected.
;:o 47
" 69
/ -----
z 23
o J-~c_-----__:-~:-''''-'----
EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING o 16 32 48 64 80 96 112
Physical training increases the cross-sectional area Knee motion degrees
3 The myofibrils arc composed or thin filaments 12 The energy for muscle contraction and its
of the protein actin and thick filaments of the pro- lease is provided by the hydrolytic splitting of AT
tein myosin, and the intramyofibrillar cytoskeleton Muscle fatigue occurs \\'!hen the ability of the mu
is composed 01" the clastic filaments titin and the in-
cle to synthesize ATP is insufficient to keep
elastic filarnents ncbulin. with the rate of ATP breakdown during contra
tion.
4· According to the sliding filament theOl)" active
shortening of the muscle results from the reiativL' 13 Three main fiber types have been identifie
movement of the actin and myosin filaments past type I, slow-twitch oxidative; type IIA, fast-twit
one anothel: The force of contnlClion is developed oxidative-glycolytic; and type liB. fast-twitch g
by movement of the myosin heads, or cross-bridges, colytic fibers. Most muscles contain a mixture
in contact with the aclin filaments. Troponin and these types.
tropomyosin, two proteins in the actin helix, regu- .,14 Muscle atrophies occur under disuse and i
Iatc the making and breaking of the contacts be- mobilization; muscle trophism can' be restor
tween r-ilamenls. through early and active rcmobilization.
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Kassel', l.R. (1996). Celleral Knowledge. III J.R. Ka5sI..
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Ottoson, D. (1983). I'hysio!o.!,:y of lhi' NO"l'IllIS 8"SI<,1
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The triaxial collpling torque generation of trunk m
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Gordon, A.M., Huxley, A.F.!., &. Julian, FJ. (1966). The varia-
isoinerlial mOH'ltIents on the molor output <lnd mOH
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pallcrns. Spillt.', 13(9).
bratc Illuscle fibers. J Physiol, 18-1, 170.
Guylon, A.C. (1986). Tex/book or ,\ledieal Pltysiolog\' (7th e(l.).
Pate, E., Bhimani, i\l., Fnmks-Skib'l, K., Cook. R. (199
duced ('ffCCI of pH on skinned r~lhbit jlSO:lS musc
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chanics at high temperatures: Implications for f"l
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Hill, A. V. (1970). Firsl (//Ill L{lsi £'\"/1(:ri1l11:11/:; ;11 ,\fl/sell! ,lh'·
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of skdelal Illuscles in sedcntal"}' m;m and enduranc
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n(;rs. :11111 NV ..lead Sd, 301. 3.
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Snndm<tnn, ~I.E .. Shoemanll. J.A .. Thompson. L. V, (1998). T:lbrad~l, Y., (wnll\oto, 1-1., Sugi. 1-1 .. Hir~ln(), Y.. Ishi
Th..:- fib1.'r·typ ...·spccific effcct of inactivity and intcrmillellt (1997). Strctch-ilH.luccd l'nhanCCIllc.'Jll of m':"chanical
wci2ht·henring on the !!aslroc!lcmius of 30'lllollth-old production in long frog single fihers and hUIll<ln mus
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Squire. J.~1. (1997). Architecture and fUllction in thl.: muscl~ Wilkie. D.R. (J956). The mechanical propenies of llluscl
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Strom~r, M.H. (1998). Thc cytoskelelon in skckt;-.l. c:lI'di:1C Wilkie, D.R. (1968) . .\lusc/c. london: Edward Arnold.
:lIId smooth muscl~ (dis. His/o! f/islOpa/llOl, / 3( I). Williams, P. &. Warwick. R. (1980). Gray:.; rlJlll/om." 06tl1
283-291. pp. 506-5(5). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
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~ Intrinsic disorders associated with muscle damage. Clinical examples. *
*This flow chart is designed for classroom or group discussion. Flow chart is not meant to be exhaustive.
Biomechanics
of Joints
Biomechanics
of the Knee
Margareta Nordin, Victor H. Franke
Introduction
Kinematics
Range of Motion
Surface Joint ~J1otion
Tibiofemoral Joint
Patellofemoral Joint
Kinetics
Statics of the Tibiofemoral Joint
Dynamics of the Tibiofemoral Joint
Stability of the Knee JOint
Function of the Patella
Statics and Dynamics of the Patellofemoral Joint
Summary
References
The knce is particularl.. . . \vell suited for dem
Introduction strating biomechanical anal.vscs of joints beca
The knee transmits loads, part III pales in motion, these anal.. .,scs can be simplified in the knee and
aids in conservation of momentum, and provides a yield useful data. Although knee motion occurs
force couple for activities involving the leg. The hu- multancous!y" in three planes, thc motion in
man knee, the largest and perhaps 1110st complex planc is so great that it accounts for nearly all of
joint in the bod)!, is a two-joint structure composed motion. Also, although many muscles prod
'of the tibiofemoral joint and the patellofcmoral forces on the knee, at any particular instant
joint (Fig. 7-1). The knee sustains high forces and muscle group predominates, generating a force
moments and is situated between the body's two great that it accounts for most of the muscle fo
longest lever arms (the femur and the tibia), making acting on the knee. Thus, basic biomedwni
it particularly' susceptible to injury. This d18ptcr uti- analyscs can be limited to motion in one plane
lizes the knee to introduce the basic terms, explain to the force produced by a single muscle group
the methods, and demonstrate the calculations nec- still give an understanding of kncc mc)tion and
essary for analyzing joint motion and the forces and estimation of the magnitude of the principal for
moments acting on a joint. This information is np· and moments on the knee. Advanced bioIllcchan
plied to other joints in subsequcnt chaptcrs. d.\'namic anal,\'ses of thc knee joint that include
Anterior cruclate
ligament
Medial
collateral
Popliteus ligament
tendon
Fibular
collateral Semimembrano
ligament
Biceps
femoris
tendon Superficial
medial collat
ligament (cu
Iliotibial Transverse
band (cut) ligament
Two-joint structure of the knee. A, Lateral view of a knee joint with open growth plates.
B, Anterior view without patella.
soft tissue structures are complex and still under in- Kinematics
vestigation.
Analysis or motion in any joint requires the lise of Kinematics defines thl..' range of motion an
kinematic daw. Kinematics is the branch of mc- scribes the sw-facc motion of a joint in three p
crlanics thal deals with Illotion of a body without frontal (coronal or longitudinal), sagittal, and
reference to force or mass. Anal:vsis of the forces verse (horizonlal) (Fig. 7 2, A & B). Clinical
H
and momenl~ acting on a joint necessitates the surements of joint range 01" motion defin
usc of both kinematic and kinetic data. Kinetics is anatomical position as a zero position for mc
the branch of mechanics that deals with the motion ment. This laxonomy will be uscd for joint m
of a body under the action of given forces and/or throughout this book. Other taxonomies and
moments. ence systems exist (Ant!riacchi et aI., 1979; Gr
Proximal/
dislal
!j"~~;;:~i..k~~~i===::::=Fronlal
~1 plane
•., -Sagittal
I~. ~ plane
o ;,.j
k'. )1
~
Internal/external
Varus!
valgus
A B
A, Frontal (coronal or longitudinal), sagittal. and transverse tion and proximal distal translation, flexion-extension
(horizontal) planes in the human body performed easily for tion, internal-external rotation, varus-valgus rotation.
both the tibiofemoral and the patellofemoral joint. B, Depic- Adapted from Wilson, S.A., Vigorita, V.J., & Scott, W.N
tion and nomenclature of the six degrees of freedom of knee (1994). Anacomy. In N. Scott (Ed.), The Knee (p. 17). Philad
motion: anterior posterior translation, medial/lateral transla- Mosby- Year Book.
.,. . .<:,
";'~'
,
I?:A
Sun tal' 1983; Kroemer ct aL. 1990; bzkaya &
Nordin, 1999), but the anatomical reference system
bv far is the mOSl commonlv lIsed among clinicians.
O'rthe two joints composing the kne'; the tibio-
femoral joint lends itself particularly well to an
analysis of range orjoinl motion. Analysis of surface
joint motion can be performed easily For both the
tibiofemoral and the P<'11cllofcmoral joint. An~' im-
pediment of range of motion or surface joint 'motion
will disturb the normal loading pattern of' a joint
a.nd bear consequences.
-20 !:=------;!':---7::----==---:'::--
100 20 40 60 80 10
RANGE OF MOTION Percentage of Cycle
metr)'. or photographic and video techniques using to 65 years). Adapted {rom MtJ((a}~ M.P., Drought, A.B., Kor}
R. C. (1964j. I/o/alking patterns of norma! men. J Bone Joint Su
skeletal pins,
46A,335,
In the tibiofcmoral jail'll. nlOtion takes place in all
three planes, but the range of motion is greatest by
far in the sagittal plane. Motion in this plane from
full extcnsion to Fulillexion of the knee is from 0' to
approximately 140°. in this joint during walking has been measured
Motion in the transverse plane. intel-nnl and ex- all planes. The range of motion in the sagittal pla
ternal rotation. is inOuenced by the position of the during level walking was measured with an e1ectr
joint in the sagittal plane, With the knee in Full ex- goniometer by Lamoreaux (1971) and MUlTay et
tension. rOHHion is almost completely restl'ictcd b~f (1964). Full or nearly Full extension was noted at t
the interlocking of the femoral and tibial condyles. beginning of the stance phase (0% of cycle) at he
which occurs mainly because the medial femoral strike, and at the end of the stance phase before LO
condyle is longer than the lateral condyle. The range off (around 60% of cycle) (Fig, 7-3), Maximum fle
of rotation increases as the knee is flexed, reaching ion (approximately 60°) was observed during t
a maximum at 90° of nexion; with the knee in this middle of the swing phase (sec Chapter 18, Biom
:- position. external rotation ranges from 0° to ap- chanics of Gait. For more detailed inFormation
proximately 45° and internal rotation ranges from These measurements are velocit.y-c1ependent an
0' to appmximatcly 3D'. Beyond 90' of Ilexion. the must be interpreted with caution.
range of internal and external rotation decreases, ~"lotion in the transverse plane during walking h
primarily because the soft tissues restrict rOlation. been measured by several investigators. Using a ph
Motion in the frontal plane. abduction and ad- lOgraphic technique involving the placement
duction. is similarly aFfected by the amount of joint skeletal pins through the femur and tibia, Leve
flexion, Full extension of the knee precludes almost and associates (1948) Found that total rotation of t
all motion in the frontal plane. Passive abduction tibia with respect to the fernur ranged from appro
and adduction increase with knee Oexion up to 30°. imately 4 to 13' in 12 subjects (mean 8,6'). Great
but each reaches a maximum of only a few degrees. rotation (mean 133') was noted by Kettclkamp an
With the knee flexed beyond 3D'. motion in the coworkers (1970). who used electrogoniollletry o
frontal plane again c1ecre~lses because of the limit- 22 subjects. In both studies, external rotation beg
ing function of the sol't tissues. during knee extension in the stance phase an
The range of tibiofernoral joint motion required reached a peak value at the end of th~ swing pha
For the performance of various physical activities just before heel strike. Internal rotation was note
can be determined from kinematic anal~lsis. MOlion during Ilexion in the swing: phase.
DDIII-~ callsc lhese mcthods ~lre highly technical and com
plex, a simpler method evolved in the nineteen
Range of Tiblofemoral Joint Motion In the ccnL'It'\, Is sLillus~d (Reuleau,\, 1876), This m~,h()
Sagittal Plane During Common Activities called the installt cl.?nter techniqul.', allows surfa
I Range of Motion
from Knee Extension
joinl 1l1Olion lO be analyzed in the sagiual an
froolal planes but not in the transverse plane. T
Activity to Knee Flexion (Degrees)
- - - - - - - - - -0-67"
Walking
------, instant center l~chniqLle pl{)vides a description
the rch'tive uniplanar motion of two adjacent se
""I
occurred as the knee \Vas flexed during the swing genograms of the joint in dilTcrent positions (usual
phase. The total amount of abduction and adduc- 10° apart) throughout the range of motion in o
tion averaged 11°. plane and applying the Rculcaux melhod for locali
Values for the rangc of motion o!" the tibiofemoral the inslanl center 1'01' each intcrv[ll or motion.
joint in the sagittal plane during several comn101l \Vhcn the instant center palhway has been dete
activities arc presented in Table 7-1. l'vlaximal knee mined 1'01' joint motion in one plane, the surfa
flexion occurs during lifting. A range of motion joint mol ion C[ln be described, For each intel'val
I'rol11 full extcnsion to at least II r 01' flcxion ap- motion, the point at which the joint surfaces ma
pears to be required for an individual to carry out contact is located on the roentgenograms lIsed f
the activities of daily living in a normal manner. Any the instant center analysis, and a line is drawn frol
restriction of knee motion can be compensated for
by increased motion in other joints. In studying the
range of libiofcmoral joint motion during various 1Imtl!JIJI--~ -~~-,-~----~
Locating the instant center. A, Two easily identifiable points on the femur are designated
on a roentgenogram of a knee flexed 80°. B. This roentgenogram is compared with a
roentgenogram of the knee flexed 90°, on which the same two points have been indi~
cated. The images of the tibiae are superimposed, and lines are drawn connecting each set
of points. The perpendicular bisectors of these two lines are then drawn. The point at
which these perpendicular bisectors intersect is the instant center of the tibiofemoral joint .
for the motion between 80 and 90° of flexion. Courtesy of Ian Goldie, M.D. Univ~rsity of
Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
natcd on each roentgenogram (Fig. 7.4..4). The
films are then compared in pairs, with the images
of the tibiae supcl-imposed on each othcl:
Roentgenograms with marked differences in tibial
alignrncnt arc not used. Lines are drawn between
the points on thc felllur in the two positions, and
the perpendicular bisectors of these lines arc then
drawn. The point at which these perpendicular bi-
sectors intersect is the instant center or the
tibiofemoral joint for each 10° interval of motion
(Fig. 7-4B). The instant center pathway throughout
the entire range or knee Oexion and extension can
then be ploued. In a normal knee, the instant cen-
ter pathway for the tibiofemoral joint is semicircu-
lar (Fig. 7-5).
After the instant center padnvay has been de-
termined for the tibiofemoral joint. the surface
motion can be described. On each set of superim-
posed roent-gcnograms the point of contact of the
tibiorcmoral joint surfaces (the narrowest point in
the joint space) is determined and a line is drawn
connecting this point with the instanl centet: A
second line drawn at right angles to this line incli- Semicircular instant center pathway for the tibiofemor
cates the direction of displacement of the contact joint in a 19-year-old man with a normal knee.
points. In a normal knee, lhis line is tangential to
the surFace of the tibia for each interval of motion
from full extension to full flexion, demonstrating
that the femur is gliding on the tibial condyles
(Frankel et aI., 1971) (Fig. 7-6). During normal
knee motion in the sagittal plane from full exten- tel' pathway for one subject, a 35-~"ear-old m
sion to full flexion. the instant center pathway with a bucket-handle derangement. is shown
moves posteriody, forcing a combination of Figure 7-7.
rolling and sliding to occur between the articular If the knee is extended and Hexed aboul an
surface (Fig 7-6. A & B). The unique mechanism normal instant center pathway, the libiofem
prevents the femur from rolling off the posterior joint surfaces do not glide tangentially throu
aspect of the tibia plateau as the knee goes into in- out the range of motion but become cither
creased flexion (Draganich et aI., 1987; Fu et aI., tracted or compressed (Fig. 7-8). Such a kne
1994; Kapandji, 1970). The mechanism that pre- annlogous to a door with a bent hinge that
vents this roll-off is the link formed between the longer fits into the door jarnb. If the knee is c
tibial and Femoral attachment sites of the anterior tinually forced to move about a displaced ins
and posterior cruciate ligaments and the osseous center, a gradual adjustment to the situation
geometry of the femoral condyles (Fu el aI., 1994) be reflected either b~: stretching of the ligam
(Fig. 7-6, B-D). and other supporting soft tissues or by the im
Frankel and associates (1971) determined the in- sition of abnormall~' high pressure on the art
stant center pathway and analyzed the surface mo- lar surfaces.
tion of the tibiofemoral joint from 90· of Ilexion to Internal derangements of the libiofcmoralj
Full extension in 25 normal knees; tangential glid- may interfere with the so-called screw-h
ing was noted in all cases. They also determined the mechanism, which is external rotation during
instant center pathway for the tibioFemoral joint in tension of the tibia (Fig. 7-9). The tibiofem
30 knees with internal derangement and found ~ioint is not a simple hinge joint; il has a spiral
that, in all cases, the instant center was displaced helicoid, motion. The spiral motion or the t
from the normal position during some portion of about the femur during flexion and extension
the motion examined. The abnormal instant cen- sults from the anatomical configuration of
medial femoral condyle; in a normal knee, th
condyle is approximately 1.7 ern longer than th
lateral condyle. As the tibia moves on the femu
from the fully flexed to the fully extended pos
tion, it descends and then ascends the curves
the n1edial femoral condyle and simultaneous
rotates externally!. This motion is reversed as th
tibia moves back into the fully flexed positio
This screw-home mechanism (rotation around th
Gliding longitudinal axis of the tibia) provides more st
A 8 bility' to the knee in any position than would
simple hinge configuration of the tibiofemor
joint.
Matsumoto et al. (2000) investigated the ax
of tibia axial rotation and its change with kne
flexion angle in 24 fresh-frozen normal knee ca
daver specimens ranging in age From 22 to 6
years. The magnitude and location of the long
tudinal axis of tibia rotation were measured
15° increments between 0 and 90° of knee fle
ion. The magnitude of tibia rotation was 8° at
c
I
D
1mIlI'------- _
A. In a normal knee, a line drawn from the instant center of
I the tibiofemoral joint to the tibiofemoral contact point
(line A) forms a right angle with a line tangential to the tib-
ial surface (line B). The arrow indicates the direction of dis-
placement of the contact points. Line B is tangential to the
tibial surface, indicating that the femur glides on the tibial
condyles during the measured interval of motion. B. Pure
sliding of the femur on the tibia with knee extension. Note
that the contact point of the tibia does not change as the
femur slides over it. Eventually impingement would occur if
all surface motion was restricted to sliding. Round points
delineate contact points at the femur and triangles delin- Abnormal instant center pathway for a 35-year-old man
eate contact points at the tibia. C. Pure rolling of the femur with a bucket-handle derangement. The instant center
on the tibia with knee flexion. Note that both the tibia and jumps at full extension of the knee. Adapted from Frankel,
the femoral contact points change as the femur rolls on the VH., Burstein, A.H., &- Brooks, D.B. (1971). Biomechanics of in
tibia. Also note that with moderate flexion, the femur will be~ ternal derangement of the knee, Parhomechanics as determin
gin to roll off the tibia if surface motion was restricted to rol- by analysis of the instant centers of motion. J Bone Joint Surg,
ling. D, Actual knee motion including both sliding and rolling. 53A, 945.
of knee flexion. The tibial rotation increased
rapidly as the knee flexion angle increased and
reached a ma:dmunl of 31 0 at 30 0 of knee flexion.
IL then decreased again with additional flexion
~-L'-JI Extension
(Fig 7-10). The location of the longitudinal rota-
tional axis was close to the insenion of the ante-
rior cruciate ligament (ACL) at 0° of flexion. At
continuous flexion up to 60°, the I'otational axis
moved toward the insertion of the posterior cru- \'1
ciale ligament. Belween 60 and 90° of flexion, '.,
the rotational axis moved anteriorly again (Fig ... External
rotalion during
7-11). This study showcd thaI lhc rolational axis extension
remains approximately in the area between the
two cruciate ligaments. Any change of direction
and tension of the cruciate ligaments and sur-
rounding soft tissue may affect the movement Screw·home mechanism of the tibiofemoral joint. D
and the 'location of the longitudinal tibia axis knee extension. the tibia rotates externally. This mo
of rotation and thcrcby affccl joint load distri- reversed as the knee is flexed. A. Oblique view of t
mur and tibia. The shaded area indicates the tibial
bution.
solid line axis for knee flexion and extension, dotte
A clinical tcst. the Helfet test, is often useel to de-
internal and external rotation axis of the tibia duri
termine whether external rotation of the tibio- ion and extension. AcJapred from Helier. A.J. (1974j. A
and mechanics of movement of rite knee Joinr. In A. He
Disorders of the Knee fpp. i -17). Philadelphia.- J B. Lipp
•
femoral joint takes place during knee eXl
thereby indicating whether the screw-home m
nism is illlact. This clinical tcst is performe
the patient sitting with the kn~e and hip flex
ancl the leg hanging free. The medial and
borders of the patella are marked on the ski
tibial tuberosity and the midline of the pate
then designated, and the alignment of the
tuberosity with the patella is checked. In a n
knee Hexed 90°, the tibial tuberosily aligns w
Distraction Compression medial half or the patcll" (Fig. 7-121\). The k
A B then extended fully and the movement of the
tuberosity is obsel\:cd. [n a normal knee. the
tuberosity moves laterally during extensio
Surface motion in two tibiofemoral joints with displaced "Iigns with the latent! h"lf or the patella at
instant centers. In both joints, the arrowed line at right an· tension (Fig. 7-128). RotatOl')' motion in a n
gles to the line between the instant center and the knee may be as great as hair the width
tibiofemoral contact point indicates the direction of dis- patella. In a deranged knee, the tibia may not
placement of the contact points. A. The small arrow indi- externally during extension. Because of the
cates that with further fIeldon. the tibiofemoral joint will surface motion in such a knee, the tibiof
be distracted. B, With increased flexion, this joint will be joint will be abnormally compressed if the k
compressed. forced into extension, and the joint surfaces m
d.amaged.
patellofemoral Joint Tibia Plateau
.............
The surface motion of the patellofcmoral joint in
the frontal plane may also be described by means or
" .. ..
'
ro
·x 20
'r"o
:0
i=
ro 10
-0
>- Kinetics
!
o o 15 30 45 60 75 . 90
Kinetics involves both static and d,vnamic ana
sis of the forces and moments acting on a jo
IL - Knee Flexion Angle
Statics is the stud~/ of the forces and moments a
ing on a body in equilibrium (a body' at rest
jIBm'------- moving at a constant speed). For a bod)' to be
The total tibial axial rotation (y-axis) plotted against the equilibrium. two equilibrium conditions must
magnitude of knee flexion (x-axis) in fresh-frozen speci- met: force (translator:v) equilibrium, in which
mens tested under unloaded axial conditions, The magni- sum of the forces is zero, and moment (rotato
tude of tibial rotation was below 9" at A" of knee flexion. equilibrium, in which the sum of the moment
Maximum rotation (31.]0) was measured between 30 to 45" zero. Dynamics is the study of the moments a
of knee flexion. Reprinted with permission from Matsumoto, forces acting on a body in motion (an accelerat
H., Seedhom, B.B., Suda, Y, et al. (2000), Axis of tibial rotation or decelerating body), In this case, .the forces
and its change vi/ith flexion angle. Clin Orlhop, 371, 778-182.
not add up to zero, and the body displaces and
the moments do not add up to zero and the bo
Knee flexed 90c Knee lully extended
Helfet test. A, In a normal knee flexed 90°, the tibial tuberosity aligns with the medial half
of the patella. B, When the knee is fUlly extended. the tibial tuberosity aligns with the lat·
eral half of the patella .
•
Superior
Lateral M
Lateral Medial
.,~
~ '\
(U
- - - -30'-90"
I
I
Inferior
20' 45' 90'
Superior
---120" ,
Lateral Me
I
Inferior
135'
IiR'm
A B
;0..
A, The position of the patella at different ranges of knee Functional anatomy of the patellofemaral joint. J 80ne Joint
flexion motion. a, Contact areas during different degrees of 58B. 287; and from Helme. H.I (1990). Biomechanics of the
flexion. Beyond 900 of flexion, the patella rotates slightly parellofemoral joint and its clinical relevance. Clin Onhop. 25
outwards. Adapted from GoodfelJo'J'l, I. Hvngerford, D.5., & lin· 73-85,
I
•
del, M (1976), PateJlofemoral joint mechanics and pathology. I.
rotates around an axis perpendicular to the plane In this and subsequent chapters. the discussi
of the fOl'ces producing the moments. Kinetic stalics and dynamics of the joints of the skelela
analysis allows one to determine the magnitude of tem concerns the magnitude of the forces and
the moments and forces on a joint produced by ments acting to move a joint about an axis
body weight, muscle action, soft tissue resistance, maintain its position. It does not lake into acc
and externally applied loads in any situation, ei- Ihe deforming effect of Ihese forces and mom
ther static or dynamic, and to identify those situ- on the joint structures. This effect is indeed pre
ations that produce excessively high moments or but the discussion is not within the s~ope of this
forces.
STATICS OF THE TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT distinct from the rest of the bod.". <'lIlt! a diagram o
this free-bod." in tilt..' stair-climbing situation is
Static analysis may be lIsed to determine the forces drawn (Calculation Bo,,,; 7-1). I":'nlrn all rorces acting
and moments acling on a joint when no motion on thl..: I"rct..··body. the three main coplanal- I"o('(,:(:s an
takes place or at one instant in time during a dy- idenlified a~ the ground rL'action force (equal to
namic activity such n5 walking, running, or lifting body weight I), the tensile force through the patella
an objecl. 1t can be performed for any joint in any tcndon exel"ted h.v llw quadriceps Illust..:ll' , and th\.
position and under any loading configuration. In joint reaction force on the tibial plateau. The ground
such analyses, eHher graphic or mathematical n.:action force (\rV) has a known m<'lgnitude (L'qu;;llto
methods may be lIsed to solve for the unknown body wt..'iglu). S~IlS('. line or <'lpplicalion. and poinl o
forces or moments. application (poii'll or contact between the foot and
A complete static analysis involving all moments the ground). The palellnr tendol1 force (P) has a
and all forces imposed on a joint in three dimensions known SC'IlSL' (awa.'; from the knee joint), lint..' of ap
is complicated. For this reason. a simplified tech- plicaliun (along lhe patellar t('ndon). and point o
nique is oflen lIsed. The technique utilizes a frec- application (point or insertion of thc patellar tendol
body diagrarn and limits the analysis lo one plane, to on till' tibial tulx.·rosit."), but an unknown l1lagni
the three main coplanar forces acting on the frcc- tude. The joint n:action force (J) has a known poilU
body. and ro the main moments ~cting about the of application OJl the slIrl"acL' or the tibia (the COJ1lac
joint under consideration. The minimum magni- point of tilL' joint surfaces betw(.'en the tibial and
tudes of the forces and moments arc obtained. femora! cond,vlc:s, estimated from a roelllgenogram
When the simplified Free-body technique is used or the joint in the pn)!x~r loading configuration), bu
to analyze coplanar forces, one portion of the body an unknown magnitude, sense. and line of applica
is considered as distinct rrom the entire bod.\', and tion. Using \'L'ctors cakuh\lions <:\11('\ triangles law
all forces acting on this free-body arc identified. A the joint rL'action force (.1) and thl' pall.'lIar tendon
diagram is drawn of the free-body in the loading sit- force (P) call be c,dculated (Calcul"tion Bo\ 7-1)
uation (0 be analyzed. The three principal coplanar It call bt..· seen thaI the main musck forct..' has
forces acting on the free-body are identified and llluch gre<.ltL'1' inlhICIll:L' on the magnitude of" th
designaLcd on the free-body diagram. .joint reaction force than dot..·s the -~round !"(.'actio
These forces afC designated as vectors if four force produced b." bod~· \vcight. Note lhat, in this ex
characteristics are kno\vn: magnitude, sense. line of amplc (Calculation Box 7·1), only til(' minimum
application, and point of application. (The tcrm '"di- magnitude of the joint rt..'~lction force has been
rection" includes line of application and sense.) If calculated. If other muscle I"oret-'s arc considered
the points of application for allthrec forces and thc such as tht..' foret..' produced b~' tht..' contraction of th
directions for two forces arc kno\vn, all remaining halllslring Inusc!es in stabilizing the knee, the jClin
characteristics can be obtained for a force equilib- reaction force inCl·cast..·s_
rium situation. \Vhen the free-body is in equilib- Th\.' ne:'.;t Slt.·p in the static analysis is ~\I1;:d."sis o
rium, the three pl-incipal coplanar forces are con- the moments acting around the centcI- of motion 0
current; that is. they intersect at a common point. In the libiofcrnoral joint with the knee in the same po
other words, these forces form a closed system with sition and lht..' loading. configuralion shown in Ca
no resultant (i.e., their vector sum is zero). For this culation Bo:'.; Figure 7·1-1. The 1ll01llL'11I <'lIlal.\·sis i
reason. the line of application for one force can be Llsed to cstimak' the minimulll ll1agnitudL' of th
determined if the lines of application for the other mOIl1L'nt produced through the patellar h:ndon
two forces arc known. Once the lines of application which counterbalances the 1l10ll1Cnt on the lowcr le
for all IIwee forces are known, a triangle of forces produced b.'; the weight or the hod." as the subjec
can be constructed and the magnitudes of all three ascends stairs (Calculation Box 7·2).
forces can be scaled from this triangle.
An example will illustrate the application of the
simplified Ii'ee-body techniquc for coplanar forccs to
the knee, In this case, the technique is lIsed to esti-
mate the minimum magnitude of the joint reaction lin C:lSl', the ground I"l'~ll"lillll rurn' is ;u.::lu;t1ly L'qllallo hod
lhi:,
force acting on the tibiorcmoral joint of the weight- \\"L'idltmintl:- (he \\"..::i!..:hl of till' IO\\"L'r k·t:. BL'l";III:-l' tit...· \widll o
the 'it'Hwr k~ is lllillilT~;ll {1L'SS (hall Olli.' 1:'l1(h or Ihl' bOtl\-), i( CI
bearing leg when the other leg is lifted during stair l.k' di,.. rl·~aranl. ;llld the li~url' for tlll:tl hod\- \\"l'i!.!hl l\\·U bl' tu
climbing. The lower leg is considered as a free-body. lizL'd ill Illl' l·akul:lIion. . .-
~
!, Free-Body Diagram of the Knee Joint
Force P .., The three main coplanar forces acting on the lower leg:
~ ... Force J
I ,..
\.\ ;':"
.< Known: Point of applicalion
Ground reaction iorce (W). patellar tendon force (P), and joint
Known:
Sense
\Q', • ~ \
UnknO'.·',n: Magnitude
Sense
Line of application
reaction force (J) afe designaled on a free-body diagram of th
lower leg while climbing stairs (Calculation Box Fig 7-1·1),
Line of application \\
Point of application .,•..,-..__ ....\
Unknown: Magnitude ". -'. \.
<\.
',-.\ "-
I
'. \
I /\J
:i~
· o:__ ~~
I---==~-r"'iKnown: ~- /'
Magnilude
Force W Sense
Line of application
!Point of application
" "'i
v~
Force P \ ( \ ..... i
.' Force J
.:.~
l~~:\
T ibialemoral
\~ \.
,, '.'.
. contact point
Because the 100\'cr leg is in equilibriulll, the lines of applicatio
for all three forces intersect at one point. Because the linesof
application for [I,.VO forces (Wand P) are known, the line of a
plication for the third force (;) can be determined. The lines o
application for forces Wand P are extended until they jnter~
.\:;....
\\........
'.
,
\
\
sect. The line or application for J Gill then be drawn from its
point of application on the tibial surface through the intersec
tion point (Calculation Box Fig. 7-1-2).
Intersection ~\
pOint~
I -----·-·-~·=::::·:"~~W-1J.-·'""'---~----
I \'.,, Force P
drawn from the head of ve([or W. Then, to close the triangle
'.
'. ,, 3.2W force J is drawn from rhe head of vector W. The point at whic
. ,,
'.
'. forces P and J intersect defines the length of these vectors.
.... \, Now that the length of all three vectors is known, the magni
'. ,
Force J
'. ,
'. ,
4.1W tude of forces P and J can be scaled from force W, which is
'. ,
'. , equal to body weight. It is determining the number of limes
. . .J Force W
the length of force W can be aligned along the' force P and J,
respectively. In this case, force P is 3.2 times body weight, and
{, _ .
force J is 4.1 times body weight.
Free-Body Diagram of the Lower Leg During Stair Climbing
The two main mornents acting around tt1e center of motion
the tibioiemoral JOlfH (solid dOl) are designated on the free
body diagram of the lower leg during stair climbing (Calcul
( tion Box Fig. 7-2-1).
The fleXing moment on the lower leg is the product of t
\\ weIght of the body:- (W, the ground reaction force) and its
\/\
\ fever arm (a), 'Nhich is the perpendicular distance of the for
Force P \ W to the center 0; motion aT the tibiofemoral joint. The co
terbalanCIng extending moment IS the product of the quad
ceps muscle force through the patellar tendon (P) and its le
arm (b), Because tile lo""er leg is in equilibrium. the sum of
these two moments must equal zero (~M = 0).
In this example. the counterclockwise moment is arbitrari
designated as positive (W x a - P ~< b = 0). Values for lever
arms a and b can be measured from anatomical specimens o
on soft tissue imaging or fluoroscopy (Kellis & Baltzopoulos.
1999; Wretenberg et aI., 1996), and the magnitude of W ca
be determined from the body weigt1t of the individual. The
magnitude of P can then bE' found from the moment equilib
:::M = 0
num equation:
p~_.-
W;.: a
b
W>:a=Pxb
!Again the welghl of the lower leg IS disregarded because it is
p =W xa lESS ,han Oile \Cntil of body vveight
b
DYNAMICS OF THE TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT analysis must be taken into account: the acc
tion of the body part under consideration an
Although estimations of the magnitude of the mass moment of inertia of the body part. (The
forces and moments imposed on a joint in static moment of inertia is the unit used to expres
situations are llseful. most of Ollr activities are of a amount of torque needed to accelerate a bod
dynamic nature. Analysis of the forces and mo- depends on the shape of the body.) (For mo
ments acting on a joint during motion requires the depth studies of dynamics, sec Ozkaya & No
use of a different technique for solving dynam,ic 1999.)
problems. The steps for calculating the minimum m
As in static analysis, the main forces considered tudes of the forces acting on a joint at a particu
in dynamic analysis arc those produced by body stant in time during a dynamic aClivity arc as fo
weight, muscles, other soft tissues, and externally
applied loads. Friction forces arc negligible in a nor- I. The anatomical structures arc identified:
mal joint and thus not considered here. In dynamic nitions of structures. anatomical landma
analysis. two factors in addition to those in static point of contact of articular surface. and
4\rl11s involved in the production of forces for Th..: torque is not only a product or the mass
the biol11cchanical analyses. ment of inertia and the angular acceleration o
2. The angular acceleration or the moving body body part but also a product or the main Ill
part is determined. force accelerating the body part and the perpe
3. The mass monlent of inenia of the moving ular distance of the force from the center of m
bod~" part is determined. of the joint (level' arm). Thus.
4. The torque (moment) acting abollt the joint is
T = Fe!
calculated.
5. The magnitude of the main muscle force ac-
where
celerating the body pan is calculated.
6. The magnitude of the joint reaction force at a F is the force expressed in newtons (N)
particular instant in time is calculated by sta- d is the perpendicular distance expressed in m
tic analysis. leI'S (01).
Because T is known and d can be measure
In the first step, the structures of the body in-
the body part from the line of application o
volved in producing forces on the joint are identi-
force to the center of motion of the joint, the e
fied. These are the moving body part and the main
tion can be solved fOl" F. vVhcn F has been c
muscles in that body part that arc involved in the
lated, the remaining problem can be solved l
production of the motion. Great care must be taken
static problem lIsing the simplified free-body
in applying this first step. For example, the lever
nique to determine the l11inirnum magnitude o
arms for all rnajor knee muscles change according
joint reaction force acting on the joint at a ce
to the degree of knee Ilexion and gender (\Vreten-
instant in time.
berg et aI., 1996).
A classic example will illustrate the usc o
In joints of the extremities. acceleration of the
narnic analysis in calculating the joint reaction
body part involves a change in joint angle. To
on the libiofemoral joint at a particular in
determine this angular acceleration of the moving
:f during a dynamic activity (c.g., kicking a foo
body part, the entire movement of the body part
(Frankel & Burstein, 1970). A stroboscopic fi
is recorded photographically. Recording can be
the knee and lower leg was taken, and the an
done with a stroboscopic light and movie camera.
acceleration was found £0 be maximal at the in
with video photogrummetry, with Selspot systems,
the foot struck the ball: the lower leg was almos
with stereophotogrammctry, or with other methods
tical at this instant. From the film. the maxima
(Gardner et aI., 1994; Ramsey & Wretenberg, 1999;
gular acceleration was computed to be 453 !
\Vintel~ 1990). The maximal angular acceleration for
From anthropometric data tables (Drillis e
a particular motion is calculated.
1964), the mass momenl of inertia for the lo\v
Next, the mass moment of inertia for the moving
was determined to be 0.35 Nm sec~. The to
body part is determined. Anthropometric data on
about the tibiofemoral joint was calculated ac
the body parl can be used for this determination.
ing to the equation; torque equals mass mome
As calculating these data is a complicated pro-
inertia times angular acceleration (T = (0),
cedure, tables are commonly used (Drillis et aI.,
1964). 0.35 Nm sec' x 453 rlsec' = 158.5 Nm
The torque about the joint can now be calculated
After the torque had been determined to be
using Newton's second law of motion, which stales
Nm and the perpendicular distance fran) the
that when motion is angulat~ the torque is a product
ject's patellar tendon to the instant center fo
of the mass moment of inenia of the body part and
tibiofemoraljoint had been found to be 0.05 m
the angular acceleration of that part:
muscle force aCling on the joint through the pa
T = Ie< , tendon was calculated using the equation to
where equals force times distance (1' = Fd),
T is the torque expressed in newton meters (Nm) 158.5 Nm = F x 0.05 m
I is the mass Illoment of inertia expressed in 158.5 Nm
newton meters x seconds squared ( m sec~) F .= -=--=--
0.05 m
a is the angular acceleration expressed in radians
per second squared (rlsec'). F = 3170 N
,
'i; :
.. , .'"
Thus, 3,170 N was the maximal force exerted by late s(;Jncc phase just before loe-ofr. This
the quadriceps muscle during the kicking motion. ranged from two to four times body weight. v
Static analysis can now bt: performed to deter- among the subjects tesled, and was <:Issociatcd
mine the minimum magnitude of the joint reaction contraction of the gastrocnemius muscle. In th
force 011 the tibiofcrnoraI joint. The main forces on swing phase, contraction of the hamstring m
this joint arc id':lltificd as the patellar tendon force resulted in a joint reaction force approxim
(P). Ihe gravilaliomtl force of Ihe lower leg en, and equal to bod)' weight. No significant dilTcrcnc
the joint reaction force (J). P and T arc known vec- found between the joint reaction force magn
tors. J has an unknown magnitude. sense, and line for men ancl women when the values were no
of application. The free-body technique for three izcd by dividing them by body weight.
coplanar forces is L1sed to solve for J, which is found Andriacchi & Sirickiand (1985) sludied Ihe n
10 be only slighrly lower Ihan P. moment patterns around the knee joint during
As is evident from the calculations, the two main walking for 29 healthy volunteers (15 women a
factors that influence the magnitude of the forces on men wilh an average age of 39 years). Figure
a joint in d)'namic situations are the acceleration of depicts the flexion-extension, abduction~addu
the body part and its mass moment of inertia. An in- and internal-external moments during the s
crease in angular acceleration of the body part will and swing phase of level walking. The momen
produce a proportional increase in the torque about normalized (0 the individual's body weigh
the joint. Although in the body the mass moment of height and are presented as a percentage. The f
inertia is anatomically set, it can be manipulated ex-
tenl~l)Jy. For example. it is incrc.:ascd whcn a weight
boot is applied (0 the foot during rehabilitative ex- 4
en
ercises of the extensor muscles 01" the knee. Nor- I
./\ ,/\
times greater than it would be without the bool. u.
Dynamic analysis has been L1sed to investigate
the peak magnitudes of the joint reaction forces, .' /-..., l \
muscle forces, and ligament forces on the tibio~
femoral joint during walking. Morrison (1970) cal-
culated the magnitude of the joint reaction force
\/ \! \V,..' ' ' 1\
' ' ., . .,-.
transmiucd through the tibial plateau in male and o1~O:::O-c.._-'-'..J·~---~"'6~O~--'-"'------'~--:1
female subjects during level walking. He simultane~ Percentage of cycle
ously recorded muscle activity elcctromyographi~
- Joint reaclion
cally to determine which muscles produced the
..... Hamslrings
peak magnitudes of this force on the tibial plateau
HS =. Heel strike . - -- Quadriceps le
during various stages of the gait cycle (Fig. 7-15).
TO =.: Toe-ofl -- .. Gastrocnemiu
Just after heel strike, the joint reaction force
ranged from two to three times body weight and
\vas associated with contraction of the Iwmstring
muscles, which have a decelerating and stabilizing Joint reaction forces expressed as body weight trans
effect on the knee. During knee llexion in the begin- through the tibial plateau during walking. one gait
ning of the stance phase. the joint reaction force (12 subjects). The muscle forces producing the peak
waS approximately lWO rimes body weight and was tudes of this force are also designated .. Adapted from
associated with the contraction of the quadriceps Morrison, lB. (1970). The mechanics of the knee joinr in
rion lO normal w<lfking. J Biomech, 3, 51.
muscle, which acts 10 prevent buckling of the knee.
The peak joint reaction force occUlTed during the
•
.. '!'·
extension moments during the stance phnse are ap-
proximately 20 to 30 tilTICS larger than the moment
produced in the frontal (abduction-adduction) and
transverse (intcrnal-extcl-nal) planes.
An increase in knee joint flexion-extension mo- A_ Flexion-Exlension
ment amplitude has been reported at increased Moment Pallerns
(Exlernal)
walking speeds (Andriacchi & Strickland. 1985;
Holden et aL. 1997). An increase in the production It Pattern 1
3.0 I
of adduction knee joint moment during stair climb-
ing compared with level walking was reported b.\' Yu
¥ c
a 2.0 I
>~ 'xID I
et al. (1997). ;!: u:: 1.0
During the gait cycle, the joint reaction force "'
rL 0
shifts from the medial to the lateral tibial plateau. In c I
.s0 a 1.0
the stance phase, when the force I'caches its peak , '00
c
I
2.0 I
value, it is sustained mainly by the medial plateau '"c w'"
ID X
3.0
I
(adduction moment); in the swing phase, when the
i. force is 111inimal. it is sustained primarily by the lat·
'" - Stance --l-Swing--
~
II I \\\ would therefore protect the articulating surfa
l \\
...
III
III
Normal
tIl
I tt tt
...
Menisci removed
while avoiding injury to it.
Vedi et al. (1999) studied menisci movement in
young football players with normal knees w
MRI. The knee flexion movement was scanned fr
full knee extension lo 90° of knee flexion. The im
ing technique allowed for both standing (weig
bearing) and sitting (non-weight-bearing) and w
Stress distribution in a normal knee and in a knee with the performed simultancollsl~t in the sagittal and tra
menisci removed, Removal of the menisci increases the verse plane. Figure 7-18 shows the movements
magnitude of stresses on the cartilage of the tibial plateau the transverse plane of the medial and lateral me
and changes the size and location of the tibiofemoral con· sci expressed in millimeters (mean) from full ext
tact area. With the menisci intact, the contact area encom-
sion to 90° Ocxion of knee joint motion. Movem
passes nearly the entire surface of the tibial plateau. With
was significantly greater in weight-bearing than
the menisci removed, the contact area is limited to the
non-\Veigllt~bearing for both lateral and med
center of the tibial plateau.
menisci. The contributions of the menisci art: lhe
fore not only to protect the articular cartilage a
subchondral bone but also to contribute aClively
knee joint slabilit~:.
magniwde of the stresses on the cartilage and sub-
chondral bone at the ceiller of the tibial pl~llcau but
STABILITY OF THE KNEE JOINT
also diminishes the size and changes the location or
the contact area. Over the long term, th~ high The key to a healthy knee joint is joint slability. T
stresses placed on this smaller contact area may be osseous configuration, the menisci, the ligamen
harmful to the exposed cartilage, which is usually the cnpsulc, and the muscles surrounding the k
soft and fibrillated in that area. The menisci are joint produce joint slability (Fig. 7-1, A & B). If a
9.5 6.3
0
, "-
,
I f
Flexion I 3.3r
3.6 N
\
i
\ \
,, \
,
90
\
-J_- ., .
•
3.9
Post
"-
-L_-
5.6
"- , -4-
3.8
Post
,
-~-
4.0 -- ,/
I
Simplified diagrams showing the mean movements of the with permission (rom Vedl, V. WiJjiams. A., Tennant. S.J.. el aJ.
medial and lateral menisci from full knee extension to 90° (1999). Menisca! movemenr. An In-vivo srudy u~in9 dynamic M
knee flexion during two conditions. A. Erect and weight~ Bone Join! Swg, 818(1), 37-41.
bearing. B. Sitting, relaxed. and bearing no weight. Adapted
.ACL Injury injuries. meniscal injuries. and possible cartilage degenera·
i. A
J;_
30·year-old male suffered an external rotation trauma
in his right knee while downhill skiing. Following the
lion. In this case. the patient firs! completed a course of
conservative treatment with physical therapy. After 6
months. the subjective inS(clbilily was present during SPOrts
~~;,: trauma, he experienced sharp pain, progressive joint effu-
and daily activities such as gail and stair climbing. To com·
,~,iqn,_and subjective instability. ,During careful examination pensate for the ACL deficiency, the patient altered his gait
Ii' ,by a specialist, an anterior positive drawer test was dlag-
patterns, presenting quadriceps avoidance gait to prevent
<";'n,osed, and the Lachman test and pivot shift test were the anterior translation of tl1e tibia when the quadriceps
': found positive. An MRI confirmed the ACL rupture (Case
contracts at the midstance phase of the gait (Andriacchi &
j' Si~dy Fig 7-1-1)
Birac, 1993: Berchuck et aI., 1990).
-,. The rupture of the primary stabilizer of the knee joint (ACl)
The patient went for surgical treatment. The MRI below
leads to a progressive structural alteration of the knee. A pri-
(Case Study Fig. 7-1-2) shows the ACL status after patella
mary objective of the treatment is the prevention of fe-injury of
bone-tendon-bone autograft was performed 10 months
the knee in the hope of preventing additional ligamentous
post-trauma.
of these structures arc malfunctioning or disturbed, approximately 55% of the applied load at full ext
knee joint instability will occur. The ligaments arc sion. The role of the lateral collateral ligament
t.he primm)' stabilizer for anterior ancl posterior creases with joint flexion as the posterior structu
translation, varus and valgus angulation, and inter- become lax. The 1l1edial collateral ligament (supe
nal and external rotation of the knee joint (Case cial portion) is the primary restraint to valgus (
Study 7-1), duction) angulation and resists 500/0 or the exter
F,; et aL (1994) sUlllmarized the functions of the valgus load. The capsule. the anterior and poster
knee ligaments, The ACL is the predolllinant re- cruciatc ligaments, share the remaining valgus lo
straint to anterior tibial displacement. The ligament Internal rotational laxity seen in the 20 to 40° ran
accepts 75% or the anterior force at full extension of knee nexion is restrained bv the medial collate
and an additional 10% (up to 90") of knee nexion, ligament and the ACL Finally, external rotation l
The posterior crudate ligament 1S the primary re- ity seen in the 30 to 40° range of knee flexion is
straint to posterior tibial translation: il slIstains 85 strained by the posterior cruciate ligaJllcnt at 90°
to 100% of the posterior force at both 30 and 90" of knee Ilexion,
knee flexion. The latera) collateral ligament is the In vivo measurement or the normal ACL has b
primary restraint to varus angulation and it resists performed by Beynnon et aL (1992), They place
strain transducer arthroscopic'll)y in the ACL. The tendon and it contributes the least to the leng
results showed that strain in the ACL was related to the quadriceps muscle force lever arm (app
knee Oexion (with the most strain occurring ncar mately 10% of the total length). As the knee i
full extension) and increased with quadriceps con- tended. the patella rises from the intercon
traction. Less strain occurred with co~conlraclions groove, producing significant anterior displace
of both the quadriceps and the hamstring muscle of thc tcndon. Thc length of thc quadriccps
groups and at greater degrees of knee flexion. This lever arm rapidly increases with extension up to
indicates that muscle contraction and co-contraction at which point the patella lengthens lhe lever
contribute to the stabilitv of the knee joint bv in- by approximately 300/0.
crcasing thc stiffncss of the joint. Kwak et al. (2000) With knee extension bc"ond 45°, thc Icngth o
studied in vitro the effect of hamstrings and iliotib- lever arm is diminished slightly. \,Vith this dec
ial band forces on the kinematics of the knee. At var- in its lever arlll, the quadric.:cps muscle force
ious knee Oexion angles, human knee specimens increase for the torquc about the knee to rcrnai
were tested with different muscle-loading patterns. same. In an in vitro study of normal knees. Licb
The quadriceps muscle force was always present, Perry (1968) showcd that thc quadriccps m
and the test was performed with and withollt han)- force required to extend the knee (he last 15
string muscle force and with and without iliotibial creased by approximately 60% (Fig. 7-19).
band force. \AJith loading of simultaneous quach·i. If thc patella is removed from a knec, the I)a
eeps and hamstring muscle force. the tibia trans- tendon lies closer to the center of motion o
latcd posteriorly and rotatcd externally. The effecI tibiofemoral joint (Fig. 7·20). Acting with a sh
""" similar for thc iliotibial band simulated forces lever arm, the quadriceps llluscle must pro
but thc cffcct was smallcr. even more force than is normnlly required for a
Many in vitro studies suggest that the ham- tain torque about the knee to be maintained du
strings are important anterior and rotational stab.i-
lizers of the tibia. In vivo studies have shown that
co-contractions of the quadriceps and hamstring
75
muscles arc highly present in normal knee joints and
dail.'", activities (Baratta et a1., 1988; Solomonow &
D'Ambrosia, 1994). Thc co-contraction mcchanisms
also increase the knee joint stability in vivo (Aagaard
ct al .. 2000; Markholf et al .. 1978; Solomonow &
D'Ambrosia, 1994). Howevel~ the complex mecha-
nism in vivo of muscle activity as a knee stabilizer,
the extent of protection, and the biomechanical
and clinical imparlance needs futther research
(Grabiner & Wcikcl', 1993).
""','
, ,.
~~=====
knee is almost directly above the center of rotatio
------------- "- \\
\
~-
---------
Instant center
of tho patellofemoral joint. As knee Oexion i
creases, the center of gravity shifts further awa
from the center of rotation. thcrcb.y greatly increa
ing the Ilexion moments to be counterbalanced b
the quadriceps musclc force. As the quadricep
Normal muscle force rises. so docs the patellofemoral joi
reaction force (Hungerford & Barry, 1979; Reilly
J\>larlons, 1972).
Knee flexion also influences the patellofemor
joint reaction force by affecting the angle betwee
the patellar tendon force and the quadriceps te
-L=--
don force. The angle of these two force comp
nents becolTlCs more acute with knee flexion, i
creasing the magnitude of the patellofemoral joi
reaction force (Calculation Box 7-3). Reilly an
Martens (1972) dctcrmincd the magnitude of th
After Patellectomy
patellofcmoral joint reaction force during sever
dynarnic activities involving val·ying amounts
knee flexion. During IC\'e1 walking, which requir
Quadriceps muscle lever arm (represented by the broken relatively little knee flexion, the reaction force w
line) in a normal knee and in a knee in which the patella low. The pcak valuc. ill the middle of the stan
has been removed. The lever arm is the perpendicular dis- phasc when flexion was greatest, was one-ha
tance between the force exerted by the quadriceps muscle body weight.
through the patellar tendon and the instant center of the
The joint reaction forcc was much greater durin
tibiofemoral joint for the last two degrees of extension.
activities that require greater flexion. During kn
The patellar tendon lies closer to the instant center in the
knee without a patella. Adapted from Kaufer. H. (1911). Me-
bends to 90'. this force reached 2.5 to 3 times bod
chanical function of the parella. J Bone Join! Surg. 53A. 1551.
wcight with the knee Oexed 90' (Fig. 7-21). Throug
3000
o
,,/
p //
,,'"
P------------/
1000 N J ~ 601.409
J2 '" Q2 .... p2 _~ 2PQ. cos 35~
Tibio femoral flexion 5"
J = )361695
J ~ 601.41
o
1000 N I
!---J--""-'r:
80" I
I
I
I
I
p I
I
I
I
10;0 N ---------j·::-;285_61
J ~ 11652703
I Tibio femoral flexion 90"
J ~ 1285_57
Calculation Box Figure 7·3·1A. Calculation Box Figure 7·3-1B.
-------_._---- --------_..._------_._--- --_._.--- -._------
contact surface area increases in size somew
(Goodfellow et aI., 1976). To some extent, this
'" Extensor Mechanism Injury crease in the contact surface with knee nexion co
pensates for the larger patellofemoral joint react
30-year-old basketball player had a forceful knee flex-
force, 11' a tight iliotibial band is present,
ion while coming down from a jump. A strong eccen-
patcllofemoral joint force may shih laterally, ca
of the quadriceps produced abnormally high
ing abnormal patellar kinen1atics and load-bear
" ,0n",lp loads in the patella, leading to a fracture at the infe-
(Kwak et aI., 2000),
In this case, the patella fracture occurred because
The quadriceps muscle force and the tor
forces of the quadriceps overcame the osseous
around the patellofemoral joint can be extrem
of the patella. The weakest link was the patella.
high under certain circumstances, particula
picture shows a fracture at the patella accompa-
when the knee is flexed-for instance. whe
f)ied by a significant fracture separation that resulted from
basketball plaver suffers a patella fracture a
the quadriceps traction force.
result of indirect forces played by an eccen
Because of the fracture. the extensor mechanism is un-
contraction of the quadriceps (Case Study 7
=;'. able to function and extend the knee. It will directly affect
Another extreme situation was observed durin
the stability of the pate!lofemoral joint and the distribu-
stud~; of the external torque on the knee p
Co;
Summarv
1 The knee is a two-joint structure that is co
posed of the tibiofel11oral joint and the pate
femoral joint.
?:>: In the tibiofemoral joint, surface motion
curs in three planes simultaneously but is grea
out knee bend, the patellofemoral joint reaction by far in the sagillal plane. In the patellofem
force remained higher than the quadriceps Illuscle joint, surface Illotion occurs simultaneously in
force. During stair climbing and descent, at the point planes, the frontal and the ll-ansverse, and is gre
when knee flexion reached a maximum of approxi- in the frontal plane.
mately 600, the peak value equaled 3.3 times body 3 The surface joint motion can be described w
weight. the use of an inslant center technique. vVhen
When the knee is extended, the lower part of the formed on a non11al knee, the technique reveals
patella rests against the femur. As the knee is flexed following: the instant center for sllccessive inter
to 90°, the contact surrace between the patella and of motion of the tibiofcmoral joint in the sagi
femur shifts cranially in vivo and under weight- plane follows a semicircular pathway, and the di
bearing conditions (Komistek et aI., 2000). The tion 01" displacement of the tibiofemoral con
points is tangential to the surface of the tibia, indi w
Dra!!,\nich. L.D .. Andriacchi, T.P.. & Andersson, G.B.J. (19
eating gliding throughollt the range o[ motion. I~nlcraction betwccn intrinsic knec mechanism and
knee extensor mech'lllislll. ) OnhoJ} Res. 5, 539-547.
The scrc\v-homc mechanism of the tibio- Drillis, R., Conlini. R., & Bluestein, \1. (1964). Bod~' segl
femoral joint adds stability to the joint in full exten- par'lmc[(·rs. A stln'ey of 1l1l..'<lStll"elllent tec!miqut.'s.
sion. Additional passive stability' to the knee is given Lil/lbs, 8. 44.
Frankel. V.H. & Burstl'in, A.I-I. (19701. OnJlOptldic Bi
by the ligamentous structure and menisci and the
cfUlllics. Philadelphia: 1.t.'a &- Fcbigcr.
dynamic stability by' the muscles around the knee. Fr'Hlkel, V.H., Burstein, A.H., l\c Brooks, D.B. (1971). Bi
S The tibiofemoral and patellofemoral joints are chanics of internal dl'rangeTw:nt of Lht.' knee. Patho
chanics as dl'tcrmincd b.v an~d~'sis of the instant ccnte
subjected to great forces. Muscle forces have the
motion. J BOlle Joillt SlIrg. 53..\, 945.
greatest influence on the magnitude of the joint rc w
Introduction
Anatomical Considerations
The Acetabulum
The Femoral Head
The Femoral Neck
Kinematics
Range of Motion
, /f
Surface Joint Motion
Kinetics
Statics
Dynamics
Effect of External Support on Hip JOll1l Reaction Force
Summary
References
Ie
~, Introduction
The hip joint is one of the largest and most SLable
joints in the body. In contrast to the knee, the hip
joint has intrinsic stability provided by its relatively
rigid bali-unci-socket configuration. (t also has a
great deal or mobility, which allows normallocomo-
lion in the performance of daily activities. Derange-
ments of the hip Can produce altered stress distri-
butions in the joint cartilage and bone, leading to
degenerative arlhritis. Such damage is further po~
tcntiated by the large forces borne by the joint.
-~
Anatomical Considerations
The hip joint is composed of the head of the femur
and the acetabulum of the pelvis (Fig. 8-1). This ar-
ticulation has a loose joint capsule and is sur-
rounded by large. strong muscles. The construction
of this stable joint allows for the wide range of 1110-
tion required for normal daily activities such as
walking, sitting, and squatting. Such a joint must be
precisely' aligned and controlled,
THE ACETABULUM
The acetabulum is the concave component of the
ball-and-socket configuration of the hip joint. The
acetabular surface is covered with articular carti-
lage that thickens peripherally (Kempson et aI.,
1971) and predominantly laterally (Rushfeld et aI.,
1979). The cavity of the acetabulum faces obliquely
forward, olitwarcL and downward. The osseous ac-
etabululll in the hip is deep and provides substantial
static stability to the hip. A plane through the cir- The hip joint (front view) 1. External iliac artery. 2. Ps
cumference of the acetabulum at its opening would major muscle. 3. Iliacus muscle. 4. Iliac crest. S. Gluteu
intersect with the sagittal plane at an angle of 40~ medius muscle. 6. Gluteus minimus muscle. 7. Greate
opening posteriorly and with the transverse plane at trochanter. 8. Vastus lateralis muscle. 9. Shaft of femu
an angle of 60~ opening laterally. The acetabular 10. Vastus medialis muscle. 11. Profunda femoris vess
12. Adductor longus muscle. 13. Pectineus muscle. 14. M
cavity is deepened by the labrum, a flat rim of fibro~
circumflex femoral vessels. 15. Capsule of the hip join
cartilage, and the transverse acetabular ligament
16. Neck of femur. 17. Zona orbicularis of capsule.
(Fig. 8-2). The labrum contains free nenle endings 18. Head of femur. 19. Acetabular labrum. 20. Rim of
and sensory end organs in its superficial layer, etabulum. Reprinted with permission (rom McMinn, R.H.
which may participate in nociceptive and proprio- Huchings. R.H.R. (988). Color Atlas of Human Anatomy
ceptive mechanisms (Kim & Azuma, 1995). ed., p. 302). Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc.
The unloaded acetabulum has a smaller diameter
than the femoral head (Greenwald & Haynes, 1972)
(Fig. 8-3). The acetabulum deforms about the
femoral head when the hip joint is loaded. It under-
goes elastic deformation to become congruous
with the femoral head, and contact is made abollt
the periphery of the anterior, sllperi()l~ and posterior
arLicular surface of the acetabulum (Konrath et al.. Superior
1998). Load distribution of the acetabulum was
studied in vitro in human specimens (Greenwald &
I-(aynes, 1972; Konrath et 'II., 1998). Joint reaction
forces were simulated to physiological levels. The
loading pattern of the acetabulum is shown in Fig- Anterior
ure 8-3. Removal of the transverse acetabular liga-
ment and labrum sequentially did not affect the
loading pattern of the acetabulum significantly
(Konrath et 'II., 1998).
Intact
THE FEMORAL HEAD
The femoral head is the convex component of the
ball-and-socket configuration of the hip joint and loading pattern of a human acetabulum in vitro with
forms two-thirds of a sphere. The articular carti- tact labrum and transverse acetabular ligament. Note:
lage covering the femoral head is thickest on the pattern was grossly unchanged after removal of the tr
medi,al-central surface and thinnest toward the pe- verse acetabular ligament. or the labrum, or both, and
therefore those patterns are not displayed. Adapled fro
riphery. The variations in the cartilage thickness
Konrath. GA.. Hamel. A.I.. Olson. S.A.. et elf. {l998). The ro
result in a different strength and stiffness in vari-
the acetabular labrum and the trdnSverse clCeiabtJ/dr ligame
ous regions of the femoral head (Kempson et 'II., load transmission of tilt, hlp. J Bone Joint Surg. 80/'.,(12),
.---
I
1781-1788.
----------
RANGE OF MOTION
Hip motion takes place in all three planes: sagittal
The radiograph illustrates a right femoral in-
(flexion-extension), frontal (abduction-adduction),
tertrochanteric unstable fracture with separation of the
and transverse (internal-external rotation) (Fig.
lesser trochanter. The image shovvs osteoporOlie changes
8·7). Motion is greatest in thc sagittal plane, where
characteristic of the aging process. The decrease in the
the range of ncxion is from 0 to approximatcly 140"
bone mass at the femoral neck leads (0 reduced bone
and the range of extcnsion is from 0 to 15~. The
strength and stiffness as a result of diminution in the
range or abduction is fTom 0 to 30", whereas that of
amount of cancellous bone and thinning of conical bone
adduction is somewhat less, from 0 to 25'. External
increases the likelihood of a fracture at the weakest level
rotation ranges from 0 to 9W degrees and internal ro-
During the fall. the magnitude of the compressive
tation from 0 to 70' when the hip joint is flexed. Less
forces at the femoral neck overcame its stiffness and
rotation occurs when the hip joint is extended be-
strength. In addition. the tensile forces produced by pro
cause of the restricting function of the soft tissues.
tective contraction of muscles such as the iliopsoas gen
The range of motion of the hip joint during gail
ated a traction fracture at the lesser trochanter level.
has been measured e1ectrogoniometrically in all
;'
_~o_,
~:,,;:h-
:t: ./
i;:
"
allows a comparison of this motion with that of the the tracking limb; they also showed reduced do
knee and ankle. nexion of the ankle and diminished elevation of
Motion in the frontal plane (abduction-adduc- toe of the forward limb,
tion) and transverse plane (internal-external rota- The range of motion in three planes during c
tion) during gait (Johnslon & Smidt. 1969) is illus- mon daily activities such as tying a shoe, sit
trated in Figure 8-8B. Abduction occurred during down on a chair, rising [Torn it, picking lip an ob
swing phase, reaching its maximum just after toe- from the floor, and climbing stairs \vas measu
olT; at heel strike, the hip joint reversed into addue- electrogoniomctrically in 33 normalmcn by John
tion, which continued until late stance phase. The and Smidt (1970), The mean motion during th
't. hip joint was externally rotated throughout the activities is shown in Table 8-1. Maximal Illatio
swing phase, rotating internally just before heel the sagittal plane (hip flexion) was needed for t
st.-ike, The joint .-emained internally rotated until the shoe and bending down to sqUal to pick lip
late stance phase, when it again rotated externally. object rrom the noor. The greatest motion in
The average ranges of motion recorded for the 33 frontal and transverse planes was recorded du
normal men in this study' \vere 12' for the frontal squatting and during shoe tying with the foot ac
plane and 13' For the transverse plane. the opposite thigh, The values obtained for t
As people age, they use a progressively smaller common activities indicate that hip flexion o
portion of the range of motion of the lower extrem~ G
'T·- .. , '-. ,.
.
--Hip joint
70
----. Knee joint
,-',
,, ,,
I.
Abduction
60~ ........... Ankle joint ,, , 5 ........
50 o i==""1--~
: \
,,• •,
'"
w
~
C>
40~
,,
1
1 \
.
,
(j)
w
w
5 Adduction
w 30~ Q,
..
1
:s c
0
/ I \ w
:s
c
,2 'x 20 , " I' \
c
;;
w
u: "
.
'I , Q
;; Internal
~ 10 ./ \ ~ rotation
C , '" ,
'0
~
0 .••....
......
51:::::=~....1
£Q. 04 --.l
.., /
c 10 ...
..... ...-
5 "'i...---' I
0 External
'.'!l"
c
x
20
30
................
100 60
rotation
100
LU Stance Swing
100 60, 100
Stance phase Swmg phase phase phase
Percentage of Cycle Percentage of Cycle
A B
A. Range of hip joint motion in the sagittal plane for 30 nor- range of motion in the frontal plane (top) and transver
mal men during level walking, one gait cycle. The ranges of plane (bottom) during level walking, one gait cycle. Ad
motion for the knee and ankle joints are shown for compari- from Johnston, Pl. C. S Smiclt, G.L. (J 969). /vleasuremcn[ of h
son. Adapted from ivlurray, ~J1.p. (1967). Gait as a tolal pattern of joinr morion during waf.l-:.ing_ EvaluMion of an electrogoliiom
movement. Am) Phys iVIed, 46, 290. B, A typical pattern for method J Bone Joint Sur~J, 51 A 1083
------------------
Force J
Intersection
point
J'
Force A //
2W/ I
I
I Force J
/
,._wt/
I 2_75 W
,
1
t
Force W
! Calculation Box Figure 8-1-1. Calculation Box Figure 8·'-2.
&--------------------------------------~---------- ------------------------------------ -----
,.- . , -:-.-_ ..
External Forces Acting on the Body in
Equilibrium During a Single-Leg Stance
Calculation Box Figure 8-2-1 shows external fOKes acting on
the body in equilibrium during a single-leg Slance. The ground
reaction force is equal to body weight (W). The gravi!ational
force of the stance leg is equal to one-sixth of body weight;
Calculation Box
the remaining force is equal to five-sixths of body weight. Figure 8-2·1.
The internal forces acting on the hip joint are founel by sepa-
rating the joint into an upper and lower free-body; the Lipper
5/6 W :
free-body is considered first. In this free-body, two moments
b :
are required for stability. Moment equilibrium is attained by -_._"
the prOduction of two equal moments. A moment arising
Calculation Box
from the force of the abductor muscle (A) times abductor Figure 8-2·2.
force lever arm (e) counterbalances the moment arising from
the gravitational force of the superincumbent body (5/6 W)
times gravitational force lever arm (b), which tends to tilt the
pelvis away from the supporting lower extremity. Q, center of
rotation of the hip joint.
A = 2W
Ax =: A ·sin30~
Ax = O.5A ~ W
Ay := A·cos30'"
A y = 0.8 A = 1.7 W
Ay 30"
Calculation Box
Force A is equal to two times body weight and has a direction Figure 8-2-3.
of 30' from the vertical. The magnitudes of its horizontal (A,)
and vertical (A) components are found by vector analysis.
Perpendiculars are drawn from the tail of A to a horizomal
and a vertical line representing A. and A" respectively. A, and
A, can then be scaled off. Allernatively. trigonometry is used
to find the magnitudes of the components. Ax
._--~._._-_._-_ .._--------._-
,
clockwise arc arbilraril~' considered to be positive Fig. 8-2-2). This is particularly important in pros
and lhe counterclockwise moments arc considered thetic replacements of the hip joint (Delp &
be negative. Thus, Maloney. 1993; Free & Dell', 1996; Lim et al .. 1999
(Y.,W x b) - (A x c) = 0 Sutherland et 'II., 1999; Vasavada et 'II., 1994). The
center of motion can be altered by the prosthctic de
YoW x b sign and the lever arm for the abductor muscles can
A= -'----
c be slightly changed by slu-get)! techniqucs. A change
To solve for A it is necessary to find the values of of the center of location of the hip joint can de
and c. The gravitational force lever ann (b) is crease the abduction force by more than 40(1'0 and
roentgenographically. Because the cenler of thereby the generated abduclor moment b~} almos
gravity must lie over the base of sUppOrl, a plumb 50% (Dell' & Maloney, 1993), Figure 8-11 illustrate
line intersecting the heel can be extended upward; a the relationship of this ratio to the joint reaction
line drawn from the center of rota- force. ;\ low ratio (i.e., a small muscle force leve
in the femoral head (Q) to the line represents ann and a large gravitational force lever arm) yield
"""'\IlOe b. The muscle force lever arm (c) is simi- a greater joint reaction force than docs a high ratio
.~.' larl~! found by identifying the glutcus medius mus- A short lever arm of the nbduc(ol- musclc force, a
cle on a roentgenogram (Nemeth & Ohlsen, 1985, in coxa valga (Fig. 8-4), rcsults in a sTllall ratio and
1989) and drawing a perpendicular line from the lInls a sornewhat e1cvated joint reaction force. Mo\'
center of rotation 01" the femoral head to a line ap- ing thc greater lrochanter latcrally during lata! hip
proximating the gluteus mcdius muscle tendon. replacement lowers the joint reaction force. as it in
In this example, a value for A of two times body creases the lever arm ratio by increasing the muscl
weight was derived from thc static free-body diagram force lever arm (Free & Delp, 1996). Inserting a
and confil'med by instll.llnentcd in vivo measure- prosthetic CLIp deeper in the acetabulum reduce
ments (English & Kilvington, 1979; Rydell, 1966). The the gravitational force lever ann, thereby increasing
direction of force A is found from a roentgenogrnrn to the ratio and decreasing the joint rcaction force. I
0
be 30 from the vertical. The hOI'izontal and vcrtical is difficult. howc\'cl: to change the lever an11 ratio in
components of this force are found by vector analysis such a way as to reduce the joint rcaction force sig
(Calculation Box Fig. 8-2-3). The hOl-izonlal compo- nificantly been use the curve formed from plouing
nent (AJ is equal to body" weight; the vertical compo- the ratios becomes asymptotic when the ratio of c to
nent (A y ) is approximately 1.7 times body \veight. b approaches 0.8 (Fig, 8-1 I).
Attention is then directed to the lower free-body
(Calculation Box Fig 8-3-1). The gravitational forces
DYNAMICS
(Wand II. W) are known. The joint reaction force
(force J) has an unknown magnitude and direction The loads on the hip joint during dynamic activi
but originates from the most narrow joint space in ties have been studied by several investigator
the radiograph and musl pass through the esti- (Andriacchi ct aI., 1980; Draganich c{ al.. 1980
mated center of rotation in the femoral head. The English & Kilvington. 1979: Rydell, 1966). Using a
magnitude of force J is determined by finding the force plate system and kinematic data for the nOI"
horizontal and vertical force components and Illal hip, J. P. Paul, 1967. (Forces at the human hip
adding them (Calculation Box Fig. 8-3-2). joint. Unpublished doctoral theses, University o
The value of J is found by vector addition (Calcu- Chicago) examined the joint reaction force on th
lation Box Fig. 8-3~3), and its direction is measured femoral head in normal men and women during
on the parallelogram of forces. The joint reaction gait and correlated the peak magnitudes with spe
force on the femoral head in a single-leg stance with cine muscle activity recorded electromyograph i
the pelvis leveled in the horizontal plane is found to cally. In the men, two peak forces were produced
be approximately 2.7 times body weight, and its di- during the stance phase when the abductor mus
rection is 69· fTom the horizontal (Calculation Box cles contracted to stabilize the pelvis. One peak o
Fig, 8-3-4). approximately four times body weight occurred
A key factor influencing the magnitude of the just nfter heel strike, and a large peak of approxi
joint reaction force on the femoral head is the ratio matel:v seven times body weight was. reached jus
of the abductor muscle rorce lever ann (c) to the before toe-ofr (Fig. 8-12A). During foot flat, th
I gravitational force lever arm (b) (Calculation Box joint reaction force decreased to approximately
I
L
~.
A,~W
A
w w
Calculation Box Calculation Box
Figure 8~3~1. Figure 8-3-2.
Men
7.0
7
6.0
6
:ca>
'la> 'ffi
5
'ffi 5.0 ;;
~ >- 4
>- 1S
"e0 @. 3
~
~ 4.0 ~
~ a 2
0
u.
u.
_
The value of the ratio of the abductor muscle force lever
arm (e) to the gravitational force lever arm (b) is plotted
~~~~~~~F1'"''
field: Charles C. Thomas,
I ----------------
8
Tensor [osciac
S,lrtOri.us _
IIi",,",
Gr,lc,bs
Reclus femoris
Gluteus med,us Abductols
Gluleus minimus
.\dduc!or magous
Adductor IOr1(Jus
.-==:==~AddUCIOIS
Adductor brevis
100 60
Percentage of Cycle
body weight because of the rapid deceleration of c
the bodv's.'
centcr of ~ gravilv.
.'
Durin t>lT the swing~
phase, the joint reaction force was influenced by
contraction of the extcnsor muscles in decelerat-
Hip joint reaction force in units of body weight during
ing the thigh. and the magnitude remained rela-
walking, one gait cycle. The shaded area indicates varia-
tively low. approximately equal to body weight. tions among subjects. A. Force pattern for normal men.
In the women, the force pattern was the same but 8, Force pattern for normal women. Adapted from Paul, IP
the magnitude was sorncwhat loweI~ reaching a max- (1967). Forces at the human hip joint. Unpublished doctoral the·
imum of only approximalely four times body weight sis. University of Chicago. C, Muscle activity during stance
at late sfance phase (Fig. 8-128). The lower magni- phase of gait. The first peak corresponds mainly for the ex-
tude of thc joint reaction force in the women may tensor and abductor muscles. The last peak. is for the flexor
have been the result of several factors: a wider female and adductor muscles. Adapted from the University of Califor-
pelvis. a difference in rhe inclination of the fcmoral nia. (1953). The pattern of muscular acrivity in rhe lower excrem
neck-to-shaft angle, a difference in footwear. and dif- i!'/ during ,·valking. Univ Cal Prosthet Dev Res Rep, 2(25). 1--4/.
t\
8-13;\). At a faster cadence. the forces •.\Cling o
~
..e
0
800
600
prosthesis grcatl~' increased because of an inc
in muscle ac(ivi(~' (Fig. 8-138). At both cade
lL
400 the magnitude or the forces during swing phas
arproxirnatel~: half that during stance phase.
200
l~lble 8·2 summarizes the typical peak joint
1200
~ 1000
'"e0
, ,ImI!DJI
800
lL
or-,
,1
SlanceDphase
i
1
i
2
i
3
Activity
Walking
Reported
Peak Force
BW
-_.,-.'.'..._-_._---_
2.7-4.3
2.7-3.6
Instrumentation
... _--_.,.._,._--
Insirurnented
implants
Instrumented
Reference
Bergmann
1993, 19
.., ...,: ..
Usc of the instrumented nail plate demonstr
that, for a bedridden patient with a fractu
femoral neck, the forces on the fernoral head
ing activities of daily' living approached those
iog walking with external supports. These stu
support clinical protocols for carly mobilizatio
patients and decreased bed rest for patients
hip fractures. The magnitude (approximatel
Nlll) of the moments acling on the nail-plate .
lion in the transverse plane (i.e .. during inte
A B and extcrn~ll rotation) was only approxirnatel)!
half the magnitude (18 Nm) of the moments ac
in the frontal plane (Le., during abduction)
A, When the patient used elbows and heels to elevate the many activities.
hips while being placed on a bedpan, the force on the tip
of the instrumented nail was 670 N. With a spica cast, the
EFFECT OF EXTERNAL SUPPORT ON THE
force on the tip of the nail was 190 N. B, The use of a
trapeze and assistance from an attendant reduced the
HIP JOINT REACTION FORCE
force to 190 N without a cast and to 70 N with a spica cast.
Reprinted "vith permission from Frankel, VH. (7973). Biome- Static anal.\·sis of the joint reaction force on
chanics of the hip. In R. G. Tronzo (feU Surgery of the Hip Joint femoral head during walking with a cane dem
(.0,0. 105-125). Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger strates that the cane should be used on the side
posite the painful or operated hip. Neumann (1
High and low load on the hip joint during daily activities. Raising from a low chair produces
approximately 8 times body weight (A). Walking with a cane on the ipsilateral side of the
affected hip produces approximately 3.4 times body weight (B), and walking with a cane on
the contralateral side of the affected hip reduces hip joint load substantially to 2.2 times
body weight (C). This figure illustrates how load on the hip joint can be manipulated by
simple means (X denotes affected hip).
-:i:::~C::I::J::r:S:~ t:~::r::e~h:i::~re:~~o<~Oint Rea~:~::e:::C:uSCle
I force (E) was then found from the
I the
i
faKe acting on the femoral head in Ihe late swing phase of
gait cycle for an 8·year-old boy INeighing 24 kg and
momenl relationship
T ::::: Fd,
I wearing a )ong-Ieg brace. The main muscle force was pro- where F is the extensor muscle force and d is the perpendicu~
duced by contraction of the gluteus maximus muscle and lar distance from the center of rotation of the femur to the
identified through electromyography. The torque about the middle of the gluteus maxim us muscle. Distance d was mea.,
hip joint \ivas calculated according to the formula sureej from a roentgenogram and found to be 3.2 em, From
H'e equation E;::;: TId, the muscle force on the normal Side',
T ~ la,
. . " as calculated to be 338 N, and on the braced side, 600 N.
where
The joint reanion force on the femoral head (J) is equal to
T is the torque expressed in newton meters (Nm)
the muscle force (E) minus the gravitational force produced
I is the mass moment of inertia expressed in newton meters
by Ihe weight of the limb (W,). In this example, W L \·\las esti-
times seconds squared (Nm sec!)
mated to be 40 N.
is the angular acceleration in late swing phase, expressed
-;,-
in radians per second squared (rlsec 1). On the normal side, On the braced side,
J = E -\iV, J = E -\iV,
In the case of (he braced side. I = I , .;. I;; where
J = 338 N - 40 N J=600N-40N
is the mass moment of inertia of the leg
J = 298 N. J = 560 N.
is the mass moment of inertia of the brace.
Thus, tile Joint reaction force on the femoral head in the
On the normal side, On the braced side.
br~1Ced limb v"as over 80% higher than the force in the non~
I "" 0.45 Nm se(' 1 0.45 Nm sec; + 0.35 Ntn sec'
;.cc
Thus, Thus,
I = 0.45 Nm sec:' T = (.45 Nm sec) + 35 Nm sec!)
.: ~
x 24 rlsec~ x 24 rlsec~
studied the effects of cane use in 24 subjects with a a large push may not be possible because of a
,;:: mean age of 63 years. During walking, the e1ec- of strength in the upper extremities.
tromyographic activity of the hip abductor muscles The use of a brace on the leg may aller the f
was measured, Neumann found that usc of a cane on the hip joint but may not always reduce the
on the contralateral side of the affected hip joint, reaction force on the femoral head. An ischial
with careful instructions to use with near maximal leg brace used in the treatment of Perthes' dis
effort, could reduce the muscle activity by 42% (Fig. raises the joint reaction force during late swing p
8-16). This calculates to a reduction of approxi- because the large mass moment of inert ia o
mately one times bod~; \veight from 2.2 body weight brace results in a higher extensor muscle force
with a cane, compared with 3.4 body weight with- ing this part of the gait cycle (Calculation Box 8
Out a cane. These studies give important inforllla~
lion to the clinician about ways to moderate the
load for the patient with hip problems. SUl1lmary
Such use reduces the force on the femoral head
of the painf-ul joint without necessitating an anlalgic 1'; The hip JOll1t is a ball-and-socket joint
body position. A cane used on the side of the painful posed of the acetabulum and femoral head,
hip works through a shoner levcr arm and thus an 2 The thickness and mechanical properties o
even greater push on the cane is needed to decrease cartilageon the femoral head and acetabulum
the joint reaction force. For the olcler patient, such from point to poinl.
-_.~,
Fl·ss.\', ~1.I-1.. ;\'Diaye, A.. CalTd. J.P.. et :II. (1999)_ Lo
3 Hip llexion of at lca~·a 120", abduction of at tht..· l·{.·lltl-r or rOlation of IIII.' hip. Sl/r.g nmliol A//at,
least 20", and extenwl rOl<.l.lion of at least 20" are 24;-250.
necessary for can}'ing out daily activities in a nor- FI'~lnkd, V.H. (19;3). Biollll'challil:s or the hip. In R.G. T
mal manner. (Ed.), Slll'.~t:ry o( I!lt' Hip }Oil/l (pp. 105-125). Phil~ldl.
lea &. Fdlif!l'r.
\4 A joint reaction force of apprOXill'latc1y three Frankd. V.H. (1960). In nUt FI.'J/ulI"iI} Nt'd: {-'Wlclioll. F
timcs body weight acts on the hip joint during a sin- .\-1f.'(:IUllli:'/II.\, "/lenla! FixaTioll. Springfidd: Char
gle-leg stance with the pelvis in a neutral position; TlwllWS.
its m;gnitudc varies as the position of the upper Fr'lnkd. V.H .. BurSil'in. A.H .. L~·grl·. L., l't al. (1971). Th
L.lil: nail. ) BOIH' 10illl SIII"~. 53:1. 1232.
body changes. Free, S.A. & Oelp, S.L. (1996). Trochantt.'rll.: transfer i
_~'> The magnitude of the hip joint reaction force is hip n:pJal:i.:IlIl.:nl: Effecls on Ilit' lTlOfllL'llt arms nnd
gellt..'ralillg c'lpadtic:;s of Ihe hip abductors. J Onlw
infiuenced by the ratio of Ihe abductor muscle force
1-I{2L 1-15-250.
and gravitational force lever anns. A low ratio yields Gn.·em\'~a1d. A.S. & 1-I<I\'llI,:S, D.W. (1972). Weight-hcaring
a greater joint reaction force than does a high ratio_ ill lhe human hip j{~Jinl..! BOIlt' .!Oilll Siltg. 5-1B( I), 15
Hurwitz. D.E. & Andri.tt:("hi. '1'.1>. (1998). Biomechanics
;;_~ The hip ,joint reaction force during gail reaches
hip. III J.J. Cdbgh'111. A.G. Rosl'nberg. &. I-I.E. R
levels of three to six limes body weight or more in (Eds.1. The: Adult flip (pp. 73-85). Philaddphia: Lipp
stance phase and is approximately equal to body Raven Publishers.
weight during swing phase. Hllr",it;',. D.E. & Andri~\(:("hi. T.P. (1997). Biolllcl:hanks
hip .tlld the knl'l'. In ~'1. Nordin, G.B.J .•\ndnsson. &
j.7 An incrense in gait velocity increases the mag- POPl' (Eds.) . .\lusculoskclewl Disorders ill {Itt' Irork
nitude of the hip joint reaction force in both swing Principles (Jud Prauice (pp. -186--196). Phila(k']phia: M
and stance phase. Year Book.
Inrn;lIl. V.T. (19-47). Flll1l:lional aspects of t!ll' abductO
,'8 The forces acting on an internal fixation device c1es of thl' hip. J BOllI.' loim Sll"~. 29:\. 607.
during the ~\ctivitie; of daily living vary greatly' JohnslOn, R.C., Br~Hl(I, R.A .. &. Crowninshicld. R.D. (
depending on the nursing carc and the therapeutic Re('onslnH:lioll of tht' hip. } BOI/t' Join, Smg. 6
activities undertaken by the patient. 646-652.
Johnston. R.C. & Smidt. C.L. (1969). !\leasur(,llll'nt o
/9 The lise of a cane or a brace on the leg can al- join! motion during walking. Evaluation of 'tll I'll'
tcrthe magnitude of the hip joint reaction force. niOllll'tric Illt.'lhod. 1 BOll...' loiJ/! Sll}".~. 51:\, 1083.
Johnston, R.C. & Smidl. C.L. (1970). Hip motion tlll
m('Il{S for sell-tted .\Ctidties of daily li,·ing. efill O
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8'0mi'd,. 26(5). 485-499. j\'kLl'ish, R.D. & Chilrnh:y. J. (1970). Abduuion forct's
Drng::lllil·h. L.F.. Andrincchi. T.P.. Strongw::llcr. :\.1\'1.. ct ~\1. one-!l.'ggcd st~lnc('. J B;oll/cch. 3, 191.
(l980). Electronic tlll.:aSLlrcrnent or instantaneous fOOL- ;\'ld,linn, ~R.H. &: Huchil1!.;s, R.H.R. (1988). In C%}" Il
floor conl;:\ct paltl'rns during gait. 1 BiOlIICdl. 13. S75. HI/lllml AWIlO11/Y (2Il1.! cd., p. 302). Chic,lgO: )\:.11
English. T.A. & Kilvington, M. (1979). In \'ivo re('ord~ of hip ,\-kdic<ll Publishl'rs, Inc
IO:.lds using ::1 fl'llloral impblll with lelemetric output (a MlllT~I\'. ~LP. (1967).. G.dt <lS ,I lOt~t1 pattern of moveme
preliminary l't:ponl. 1 Biollled ElIg, 1(2), 111. 1 pjlYs .lled, -16, 290.
\-!urray, i'",1.P., Kor.\', R.C., &: Clarkson, 13.11. (1969). Walking Re!uh'd Bio-LII~il/ecrilig Topics (pp. 351-357). Ox
patterns in he:dthy old nH:n. } Geroll/ol, 2-1, 169-178. f\:rgamon Press.
Nemeth, G. &: Ohlsen, I-l. (1985). In vivo moment arm lengths Sutherland, A.G., D'Arcy, S .. Srn:lrt, D., et al. (1999). Ab
for hip extensor muscles at difTerent angles of hip fle\ion. tor muscle weakness and stress around acetabu!:lr co
} Biolllech, 18, 129-149. nents of total hip arthroplasty: A finite dement ana
Nemeth, G. & Ohlsen, H. (1989). rvlolTlel1t arms or hip abduc- 1111 Orthop. 23(5), 275-278.
tor and adductor muscles in vivo by computed tomogra· University of California. (1953), The pattern of muscula
phy. Cfill 13iolllccll, 4, 133~136. tivity in tht: lo\\'er extremity during walking, (jllll
Neumann, D,A, (1998). Hip abductor JllLlscle activity as sub- Pros/hd DcI' Rcs Rep, 2(25). 1-41.
jects with hip prostheses walk with dirrerL~nt methods of van den Bogert, A.J., Read, L., &. Nigg, B.rv1. (1999). An ;
'using a cane. Pllys Ther, 78(5),490-501. sis of hip joint loading during walking, running and
IWhrle, H., Scholten R., Sigolo!to, C., et al. (1984). Joint ing . .lIed Sci Sports, 31(l), 131-142.
forces in the human pelvis-leg skeleton during walking. } Vas:lvada, A.N., Delp, S.L., \.laloney. \V.J., et a!' (1994).
Biolllcch, 17, 409-424. pens;:lling (or changes in Illuscle length in total hip <l
Rushfcld, P.D., \tann, R.\V., &: Harris, W.H. (1979). Influence pbst~,. Effects on tllL' llHHTll'nl gt:nt:rating capacity o
of cartilage geometry on the pressure distribution in the muscles. Cfill OnllOp. 302. 121-·133.
human hip joint. Sciellce, April 27, 204(4391), 413-415. VonF.isenhart-Rotht:, R.. Eckstein, r.. ~luller-Gerbl. rlit.,
Rydell, N.W. (1966). Forces acting on the remoral head pros- (1997). Direct comparison or contact <.In:as, contact
thesis: A study on strain gauge supplied prostheses in liv- and subchondral mineralization in Illunan hip joint s
ing persons. Acta Orr/lOp S("(lIld, SlIppl88. 1-132. mens . .. \I/IJ{ f:'lIlbryol ([kr/), 195(3), 279-288.
Rvdell, N. (1965). Forces in the hip-joint. Part If: Intravital
. measurements. In R.rvl. Kenedi (i~d.), l3iolllt'cllilUics (jlld
Biomechanics of the
Foot and Ankle
G, James Sammarco, Ross Todd Hockenbu
Introduction
Growth of the Foot
Kinematics of the Foot
Foot and Ankle Motion During Gait
Causes of leg Rotation During the Gait Cyde
Muscle Action During Gait
MotIon of the Tarsal Bones
Sublalar Joint Motion
Transverse Tarsal Joint Motion
Tarsometatarsal and Intertarsal Motion
Motion of the Hallux
Motion of the Lesser Toes
The Medial longitudinal Arch
Muscle Control of the Foot
Kinetics of the Foot
Soft Tissues of the Foot
Ankle Joint Biomechanics
Kinemaiics
Range of Motion
Surface Joint Motion
Ankle Joint Stability
Kinetics of the Ankle Joint
Statics
Ankle load Distribution
Dynamics
Effects of Shoewear on Foot/Ankle Biomechanics
Summary
References
Introduction found impact on the foot and ankle's shock-abs
ing, propulsive, and stabiliZing roles. Clinical c
The biomechanics of the fool and ankle arc complex lation of alterations in biomechanical Functio
and intricately associated with each olher. The fOOl presented in case studies. Footwear in \Vestern
is an integral mechanical part of the lower cxtrcrn- ciety may VaJ'y from a rigid ski boot to a soft
ity necessary 1'01' a smooth and stable gaiL The an- casin. These externally restrictive materials ma
kle transfers load frolll the lower extremity to the ter normal foot and ankle biomechanics
foal and closely inllucnccs foot orientation with the ultimately innucncc the development or s
ground. pathological conditions, slich as hallux valgus.
The fOOL is comprised of 28 bones (including
scsamoids) whose motions arc closely inlcn-c1alcd
(Fig. 9-1). Besides acting as a structural sllpponing Growth of the Foot
platform capable of withstanding repetitive loads or
mulliples of body weighl. the fOOL/ankle complex The foot is formcd when the limb buds develop
also must be able to adjust to different ground sur- ing the eighth week of gestation. Foot length
faces and vat)'ing speeds of IOCOl11CHion. The unique width increases linearly from age 3 to 12 in
qualities of the 1'001 allow it to be rigid when ncccs- and age 3 to 15 in boys at an average of 8 to 10
Sal)', as in ballet dancing on point, or quile flexible, per year, followed by a plateau in growth (Che
as in walking barefoot on the sand. The transition al.. 1997). Blais and associales (1956) showcd
from shock-absorbing platform to rigid lever capa- the foot appe«rs to be closer to the adult size a
ble of forward propulsion occurs wilh cach slep of times during normal development of the child
lhe gail cycle. arc other parts or the limb. On average, at a
The ankle is compriscd of lhrec boncs Ihal form )'ear in girls and 18 months in boys, the leng
the ankle mortise. This joint complex consists of the the foot is one half the length of the respective a
libiotalar, flbulotalar, and tibiofibular joints (Fig. foot (Fig. 9-3). This situation contrasts with th
9-2). The ankle is a hinge joint whose stability de- the femur and tibia, which do not attain their
pends on joint congruency and the medial. lateral, ture length unlil 3 years later in both boys and g
and syndesmotic ligaments. The relativel.\' large size or the fool, then, is im
This chapter discusses the motions that occur in tant for providing a broad base on which the ch
the foot and ankle during the various phases of gait body is supported. and Lhis base may at tilTlCS c
as well as during extremes or motion. The close in- pensate for the child's lack of muscle strength
terplay between lower extremity rotation and Fore- coordination.
foot orientation is explained. The ground (foot-to-
floor) reaclion force and dislribulion of forccs on
lhe planlar aspeci of the fOOL are explored. The 10- Kinematics of the Foot
calion of forces as they pass from the tibiofibular
complex into the dome of the talus and then into the Gross motion of the foot is complex and oc
foot is disclissed. Vve also discuss the roles of liga- m'ound three axes and on three planes (Fig.
ments and muscles in the support of the medial lon- Flexion-extension occurs in Lhe sagittal p
gitudinal arch. Finally, ankle motion and ligamen- abduction-adduction occurs in Lhe horizonta
tous stability is outlined. transverse plane, and inversion-eversion occu
A discussion of sophislicated electromyographic the coronal or frontal plane. Supination
activity during walking is not within lhe scope of pronation are terms commonly used to desc
this chapter; however, the activity of certain extrin- positioning of the plantar surface of the foot
sic and intrinsic muscles is by necessity presented to occur primarily at the subtalar (talocalcan
allow a beller understanding of foot and ankle con- joint. During supination the sale faces medi
trol during gait. The moments produced about and during pronation the sole faces lnter
joints by muscle action and resultant effects on foot Supination is a combination of inversion, flex
and ankle position are detailed. Joint axes and in- and adduction. Pronation is a combinatio
stant centers of joint motion are described. Refer Lo eversion, extension, and abduction (Fig. 9-5).
Chapler 18 for information aboul the application of motion includes Oexion, extension: adduction.
biomechanics to gail. abduclion.
Any pathological change in root or ankle struc- For practical purposes. foot motion can be
ture or motion, however subtle, may have a pro- sidered to be of two distinct types; non-we
Base\
\ 'KJ'"'R,..
" Os trigonum
Head Calcaneus
Phalanges \
Sesamoids Tuberosity
MEDIAL VIEW
Trochlea
Os Metatarsals
trigonum
calcan~-~~"""""'''~
Tuberosity
Point or insenion
01 the carcaneolibular -.;...·..><'·:hlea ('ubercle) / .
ligament TuberOSIty Head
Groove lor
peroneus longus TU!)fHc!e
LATERAL VIEW
Calcaneus
Latera! process
Medial
malleolus
lateral
Cuneilorms Middle
{ Medial Lateral malleolus
r"rsomelalarsal joint Tibiofibular articulation
(of Lisfranc)
HaUul(
-Great 100-
DORSAL VIEW
Top, View of the medial aspect of the foot. Middle. View of the lateral aspect of the foot.
Bottom left, Superior view of the foot. Bottom right, Anterior view of the ankle mortise,
La!. Med. beal"ing and weight-bearing. Passive. nOI1-wdgh
Interosseous bearing Illotion may be tested with the patien
L
membrane -~-'-.- 0~, Ii I
(~¥J~Tjbia
seated and the foot and ankle hanging free. Subtala
Fibula .....: 0 f&t~~: motion is evaluated by grasping the tibia with on
.< ;:;if4~. Tibiotalar joint hand and inverting and cvcrting the heel with th
t . . ~istal
llbloflbular
z:f,
....z..
...-;&"4.~
::~.,-:"~r-7: •.• other hane!. Abduction and adduction of the fore
•t foot can be tested if the heel is held immobile
I
the patient to raise lip on his 01' her toes. Extel'nal ro
Ankle joint complex composed of the tibiotalar, fibulotalar. tation of the leg while bearing weight on the foo
and distal tibiofibular joints. causes the hed to invert and the forefoot to pronate
therefore raising rhe arch. Rotating the leg internall
has rhe opposite effect: it lowers the arch.
f
~'
F
~;:
g LENGTH OF NORMAL FOOT
i Girls
30 ,----,----,----,----,----,----,----,----,----, 30 ~
Boys
t 28 +-+-+-f-+-+-+-+-+--I
.1. !.!
26 +-+--+--+-+-+-++'-+--1
28
26
I I I I I I I I.! . l
I Iii ' I 0 / -
24\ V · 1 +1
24+- +1-+1--h-t-:·,pv';l"/~····--4
f E 22 W-+-~~·~····· 4+=1EE 22\ I .. i<;V i
::.~ 20 ./...' ::.:& 20 I
I I·l/;{.
0
f
;'
I~ § 18:/ § i lOX)· i
~
16 t-+--flfC'fJ+'-I-+--T.:-'-...L-j 18 \ all· I I
I 1,0
14l-l!f+-++-+--1·······..· · · ·
P.'cenmes
50
16\ i/.'./I/!· I 'I
14 +-fff!l+-+-+-+--l---'f---H
.f. I ... ~59~5 %' • I
i
~
12
o
·i
10'O±jjt±±t::±j lot,±l=l:±jj=±jj
2
\
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
12 H'l-+-+-+-+--l-f---H
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1618
F
~'
Age (years) Age (years)
I.
lengths of normal girls' and boys' feet derived from serial measures of 512 children aged 1
to 18 years. Left, Foot length versus age in girls. Note plateau in growth after age 12.
Right, Foot length versus age in boys. Note plateau in growth after age 15. Adapted with
permission from Blais. M.M.• Green. W T.. & Anderson. M. (1956). Lengths of the growing (oot. J
Bone Joint Surg. 38A. 988.
thlllst on the subwlar joill!. In the middle or
phase and at push-ofr. the entire lower cxtrcll
Dorsiflexionl Eversion! ~i~lS t(~ reverse and ,:otatc L·.'(t:nlall~' as ..1he. ~
planlarflexion inversion JOint Sll1lllltancollsl~' II1vcrts (Fig. 9-9). \\illh IIlV
of the subtalar joint and supination 01" the fo
foot is transformed into a rigid stntclurc cap
propulsion. Olerud and Rosendahl (1987) and
berg Cl al. (1989a-d) Im"e experiml'ntallv me
lhe coupling 01 tibial rot~lliOIl to subtalar m
They h<:\ve shown that lhe foot supimues I" fo
0.2 to 0.44" 01" libial external rotation.
I I
ll~l/~ 1~lf~1
! I Heel slnke : Fool flat
Stance Phase
l~~l-p-"-Sh-O-lI~'-T-o-e-o-I-,-1
/1 II////II!
<l~--------_~
Stance phase Swing phase
.~----_~
I L 0°" I 15~o I 30~'o I 45~'o 1 60~o
~I2J~]~~
Double Double
limb Single limb limb
support support support
<1-+ ~ ~ <1-+
SWing Phase I
IAcceleration [Toe c1em""e I Decelemtion iH~e~
I 70% _~~~~ l 100~,,
IIBII
62% of the normal gait cycle is spent in stance phase and
38% is spent in swing phase.
_ .. '--~~~~~
62
Percent of Walk Cycle
A
Walking
Ji AA A A
o
:
10 20
;
Stance ~65'
If:
30
II
40
:'
50
,
60
:
j 70
SWina(?5~o)
80 90 100
Right heel Mid Left heel
I. osl"rt~k_e ,-st-a.L:c-eT--T--,-,-F-O-'t-O-'-t'---S-1lr~ke
Q • + + 'I''I' + ~
RighI twel Mid Toe Double limb ~:~tl Mid Double limb Right heel
slrike slance off unsupported strike stance unsupported slnke
Running
Stance (40%) Swing (30'%)
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
i
IBDI'--
{ ~ftJz~~~~ _
i Comparison of walking and running cycles. In the running cycle, stance phase decreases,
9p
•
1
float
S_W_in__phase
__
develops: _d_O_U_b_l_e_l_im_b_S_U_P_P_O_rl_d_iS_a_p_p_e_a_rs_,_a_n_d_a_d_o_U_b_l_e_l_im_b_U_n_s_u_p_p_o_r_te_d_o_r
_h_a_se_in_c_r_e_a_se_S_'
..
Heel contacl
.. ..
Toe-off Heel contact
Ankle _.
rotation
i
! '
!.......-:-- Stance phase _:
,6~T
.:t;
:.... ,I
FOOl immobile ....:
l
I
-----'_._~
°,._L_~_~.. -----,----;c;;~'
m ~ W W 100
I
I
I
Percent of Walking Cycle I
I
• c o
joint axis, the leg internally rotates with ankle dorsi~ Mitered hinge model of leg, ankle, and subtalar mo
flexion and externally rotates with ankle plal1larflex- A. Outward rotation of the upper stick causes inwa
ion. Additional mechanisms by which leg external ro- tion of the lower stick. 8. Inward rotation of the up
tation occurs during late stance include the swing of stick causes outward rotation of the lower stick. C.
the opposite leg that causes external rotation of the nal tibial rotation causes supination of the foot. O.
planted leg and the obliquity of the metatarsal break tibial rotation causes pronation of the foot.
(Fig. 9- I 2). The metatarsal break is an oblique axis of
50 to 70" with respect to the long axis of the [oat
formed by the centers of rotation of the metatar-
sophalangeal joints. With push-off. the foot and
lower extremity externally rotate with respect to the
sagittal plane because of this oblique axis.
Number of
specimens
MUSCLE ACTION DURING GAIT 20
I I I
1__ Slance -.1.,Sw;n9....1
I
$
Muscle activity I phase I phase I
I 1 I
I I
The muscles of the lower extremity are more ac- Pretibial muscle -NjWl~---- .......INlVNm'fM/'lir
live dudng nmning. The gluteus maximus and ham-
strings arc active in midstance through toe-off and Triceps (calf) .L--../MlWWJW'J,IIlWil,J----...L
I
increase their activity 30 to 500/0 1O decelerate the 1
,;.: stance phase limb. Dorsillexors of the foot and an- Foot I I
kle are active in 700/0 of the running cycle. The in-
trinsics, plantar flexors, and peroneals are impor-
tant stabilizers of the plantar surface and hindfoot
during the foot nat phase (Aclelaar, 1986). '"""-1 li Jl Inilial
floor
Lift
off
Initial
floor
MOTION OF THE TARSAL BONES contact contact
Subtalar Joint Motion
The joint between the talus and calcaneus is
lermed the subtalar joinl. Its complex motion in Schematic phasic activity of leg and foot muscles during
three planes produces the motions of supination normal gait.
and pronation, c1inicnll.y referred to as subtalar in-
in it study enlailing eXlkTinh..'lllal sL'kClive fusio
thl:sC joints. Sliblala,· joint arthrodesis redllcL'd ta
~l\·iclilar Illolion to 26% or its normal mol ion and
duced calcaneocuboid mOlion lO 56~~ normal. Ca
neocuboid arthrodesis n.:duccd sublala,· motio
92 % normal and talonavicular motion to 67':'/c
mal. Selective fusion of the lalomwicuhu- joint
A the most profound effect on the remaining joillls
ducing their relT'laining Illotion to only 1" each. B
doin (1991) showed thal "xperimelllal slIbtala
sion resulled in Significant reduction in talonavic
joil1l contact and nlso reduced ankh.: joil1l contac
9;t~'---
-
~d Lat.
..-:--- Navicular
Calcaneus
B
Normal Varus
bar.
& l\IIasquelel, 1994), Mizcl (1993) described
plantar first metatarsocuneiform ligament as
major restraint to dorsal angulation ancl sllb
! ------------------- quent dorsal displacement of the distal fi
metatarsal head.
Oblique axis of the transverse tarsal joint. Flexion and ex~
tension occur about this axis. A. lateral view. B, Top view.
Reprinted wirh permission from Manter. 1. T. (1941). Movemenrs
Motion of the Hallux
of the subta/r1r and transverse tarsal foints, Anat Ree. 80, 397. The hallux must accommodate a \vide range of m
lion of the foot to perform a great variety of tas
Dorsal
Phalanx
Plantar Med
Llslranc's JOInt
Dorsal
Melatarsal
Medial
A B Plantar Late
A, Top view of the tarsometatarsal joints, known as Lis· Contact distribution of the first metatarsophalangeal
franc's joint. Note the recessed second metatarsal base. B, ! in 0<> (neutral), 40° of extension. and 70<> of extension
Cross-sectional view of lisfranc's joint seen on computed ! Joint contact of the proximal phalanx. Bottom, Joint
tomography scan. Note the arch-like structure. tact of the metatarsal head. With increasing extensio
. tension .
proximatelv 90" eXlension to 50" flexion. The ex- contact points corresponds to a similarly numbered in·
trinsic and intrinsic muscles contribute to the toc stant center. The arc indicates the range of motion of the
extensor hood. which controls motion of the hallux, which is more limited than that in a normal foot.
metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints
Extensor digilorum longus relaxed
!
Extensor digitorum
Flexor digilorum
Interosseous
muscle
I
longus tendon
Sling
Extensor
hood
longus tendon
insertion site
Extensor sling
Extensor digitorum
longus contracted
Flexor 1
Lumbrical tendon
tendon sheath
Deep transverse
ligament Flexor digitorum Sling traction
brevis tendon
Extensors
- Flexor
digitorum
Flexor
Lumbricals
longus
I digitorum
~brev!s
Interossei
Lumbricals
I -------------
A claw toe deformity is produced by an imbalance o
extrinsic and intrinsic muscles. Relative weakness of t
terossei and lumbricals with overpull of the extrinsic
The intrinsic muscles (interossei and lumbricals) act to flex extensors and flexors produces an intrinsic minus def
the metatarsophalangeal joint and extend the interpha- mity of metatarsophalangeal extension and interpha
langeal joints. langeal joint flexion.
tic rod. The SlI-uts arc under compression and
tie rod is under tension (Fig. 9-30). BOlh mod
c
h(:t\·c validity and can be demonstrated clinically.
The structure analogous to the tic rod in
truss model is the plantar fascia. The plantar fas
originates on the mediallubcrosily of the calcane
and spans the transverse tarsal, tarsometatars
and metatarsophalangeal joints to insert on
W W metatarsophalangeal plantar plates and collate
2 2 ligaments as well as the hallucal sesamoids. Do
nexion of the metatarsophalangeal joints pla
GE'------------ traction on the plantar fascia and causes elevat
of the arch through a mechanism known as
The beam model of the longitudinal arch. The arch is a
"windlass effect" (Hicks, 1954) (Fig. 9-31). Dur
curved beam consisting of interconnecting joints and sup-
porting plantar ligaments. Tensile forces are concentrated
toe-off in lhe gail cycle, lhe loes are dorsiflexed p
on the inferior beam surface; compressive forces are gen- sively as the body passes over the foot and the pl
erated at the superior surface. tar fascia lightens and aels to shorten the distan
I ----------------
e
between the metatarsal heads and the heel, th
elevating the arch. The traction on the plantar f
cia also assists in inverting the calcaneus lhrou
its altachment on the medial plantar aspect of
THE MEDIAL LONGITUDINAL ARCH calcaneus.
The arch has both passive and active suppo
models e~ist to describe the medial longitudi-
'[\1,10
I-luang et al. (1993) performed an in vitro study
nal arch of the foot: the beam model and the truss the loaded fOOl and foundlhat division of the pl
model (San-anan, 1987). The beam model slates tar fascia resulted in a 25°M decrease in arch st
that the arch is a cun'cd beam made up of intercon- ness. They found the three most important sta
necting joints whose structure is dependent on joint contributors to arch stability in order of imp
and ligamentous interconnections for stability. Ten-
sile forces are produced on the inferior surface 01"
the beam and compressive forces are concentrated
on lhe superior surface of lhe beam (Fig. 9-29). The
truss model Slales that the arch has a triangular
structure wilh two slnlls connected at the base by a
o
B
Electromyography of the musculature of the foot and ankle during one normal gait cycle
(heel strike to heel strike) .
•
The strongest extensor of the ankle is lhe tibialis The primary evertcrs of thc foot and ankle arc th
anterior, which is 1110st active during stance phase peroneals. The peroneus longus inserts on the ba
from heel strike 10 foot nat. The ankle and toe ex- of the first metatarsal and Illcdial cuneiform an
tensors fire eccentrically to slow the descent of the acls to depress the metatarsal head. Injury or para
foot and prevent foot slap. They also are necessary ysis of this muscle may allow elevation of the fir
to allow fOOl clearance fTom lhe noor during the metatarsal head and decrease loads borne by th
swi ng phase. first metatarsals and can rcsult in the developme
The strongest inverter of the foot ancl ankle is the of a dorsal bunion. Thc peroneus brevis stabiliz
posterior tibialis muscle. The postcrior tibialis is a the forefoot laterally by resisting inversion and w
dynamic supporter of the medial longitudinal arch. found by Hinlermann and associates (1994) 10 b
Il flmctions to invert the subtalar joint during mid- the strongest everter of the foot. Loss or perone
and latc stance, thereby locking the tranSVel'se tal'Sal muscle strength can result in varus of the hindfo
joint and ensuring rigidity of the foot during toe-all (Sammarco, 1995).
Loss of this muscle results in acquit'cd pes planus The interosseus muscles are active during la
with Ilattcning of the arch, abduction of thc forefoot. stance and are thought to aid in stabilizing the for
and evcrsion of thc heel (Fig. 9-35). Patients with foot during toe-olT. An imbalance between the i
posterior tibialis tcndon dysfunction usually are un- Irinsics and extrinsics will lead to toe deformiti
able to activcly invert their heel while attcn1pting a such as hammer toes, claw toes, or mallei toes.
single toe rise. They have difficulty performing a sin· ,Both intrinsic and extrinsic muscles; mediate th
gle toe rise because of their inability to form a rigid positional control of the great toe. A cross·section
platform on which to support their weight. the proximal phalanx shows the relative position
Longitudinal
axis
I
• I.
Sublalar
axis I
I
EHL I
I EDL
I
I
I
I
I
Ankle axis
I
TP.
Loss of the medial longitudinal arch in an acquired a
FDL.
'------------------
l
~matiC
Kin.etics Foot
The magnitude of loads experienced by the foot is as- cross·section of the proximal phalanx
tounding. Peak vertical forces reach 120°10 body hallux showing normal positions of the various tend
weight during walking, and they approach 275°10 dur- relation to the bone.
ing running. It is estimated that an average 150-lb
The distribution of loads under the foot durin
stance has been the subject of intense investigatio
for the last half centul)'. Ini1iall:\', the concept of
15 "transverse metatarsal arch" was promoted, i
which loads were borne primarily by the heel, firs
and fifth metatarsal, as if the foot were a tripod
This concept was disputed by Morton (1935), wh
thought the forefoot had six contact points tha
shared equally in weight distribution, namely, th
two sesamoids and the four lesser metatarsal heads
Recent plantar pressure studies b.y Cavanaugh et a
25
(1987) of subjects standing barefoot have deter
mined that the distribution of load in the foot is a
follows: heel 6W/o, midfoot 8(Ye, forefoot 28%-, an
toes 4% (Fig. 9-38). Peak pressures under the hee
are 2.6 times greater than forefoot pressures (Fig
40
9-39). Forefoot peak pressures occur under the sec
ond rnetatarsal head (Fig. 9-40).
Static foot radiographic measurements fail to pre
dict 65(Jr) of the variance found among d~'namic pres
50 sures measured in various subjects. Therefore, th
dynanlics of gait exert the primary' inOuence o
plantar pressure during walking (Cavanagh et a!
1997). Hutton et al. (1973) studied the progression o
the center of pressure across the sole of the foot du
ing gait (Fig. 9-41). During barefoot \valking, th
center of pressure is initially! located in the centra
heel and accelerates rapidly across the midfoot t
reach the forefoot, where the velocity decrease
Peak forefoot pressures are reached at 80% stanc
phase and are centered uncleI' the second metatarsa
-'----------
i
4.5
80
x·
Med 70
60
"
<l.
~
~
50
5 40
x "'"'
~
30
Lat Ii:
20
10
0
0% Lal 1000;/" M
Foot Width
A B
Metatarsal head pressure distribution during standing. A. A The distribution of pressure along the metatarsal head
line (XX') drawn in the contour plot between the approxi- (XX') indicating maximum pressure under the second
mate locations of the first and fifth metatarsal heads. B. metatarsal head.
",'jiI.
l lached as is evident by the somctirncs dramatic do
sal foot swelling found during trauma or infection o
,!t
the foot or ankle. The plantar skin is firmly attache
to the underlying bones, joints, and tendon sheaths o
.. 55%
\50%
the heel and forefoot by specialized extensions of th
45o~,\40% plantar fascia, This function of the plantar fascia is e
35'0 ,30% sential for traction between the floor and the foot
weight-bearing skeletal structures to occur. Durin
25% ,,
,, extension of the metatarsophalangeal joints. thes
, plantar fascial ligaments restl;ct the movement o
20% t, skin of the forefoot and pia mar metatarsal fat pa
,
,: (Bojsen-Moller & Lamoreux, 1979).
15% +, The heel pad is a highly specialized struclure de
,, signed to absorb shock. The average heel pad area
t 10% 23 cm~, For the average 70-kg man. the heel loadin
: pressure is 3.3 kg/cm~. which increases to 6 kg/em
r, 5"
,
10
with running, At a repetition rate of 1,160 heel im
pacts per mile. the cumulative effect of running
;2% impressive. These cumulative forces would no
I mally result in tissue necrosis in other pans or th
1mIIIIL-.- _ body (Perry, 1983). The heel pad consists of comma
shaped or U-shaped fat-filled columns arrayed ven
The progression of the center of pressure along the sale of the cally. The septae arc reinforced internally with cla
foot during normal walking is expressed as a broken line. Each
I point on the sale corresponds to a percentage of the gait cy-
cle. Note the rapid progression across the heel and midfoot to
reach the forefoot. where most of stance phase is spent. It
then progresses rapidly along the plantar aspect of the hallux.
o 15 30 60
(0, ot bOdy
Force wDi('hn HS FF HO TO
Vertical
100
60
20
I
- - -/" I'\.
\
,
\
1\0.
0 --
Fore t 20
,- ....
Shear 0
......... V
AFT j 20
Medial 10
t
Stlear
IA
j
0
.... ..... I I
Lateral 10
I i
Torque (Nm) HS FF HO TO
Medial 9
t 0
j
Lateral 9
Ground reactive forces acting on the foot during the gait cycle. HS, heel strike; FF, foot
flat; HO, heel-off; TO, toe-off. Reprinted ~vitfJ permission from Mann, R.A (7982). Biomechan-
ics of running. In AAOS Symposium on the Foot and Leg in Running Sports (.0.0.30-44). St. Louis:
C V Mosby Co.
•
tic transverse and diagonal fibers to produce a spi- anteriorly than posteriorly (Sarrafian, 1993a
ral honeycomb effect (Fig. 9-44). The multiple small single ankle joi.llt axis has been described as
closed cells arc arranged to most effectively absorb ing just distal to the mcdi,il malleolus and jus
and dissipate force. \,Vith age, septal degeneration tal and anterior to the lateral malleolus (In
and fat atrophy occur, which predispose the calca- 1976). This empirical "general" ankle axis ca
neus and foot to injury (Jahss et a!., 1992a,b). estimated by palpating the tips of the ma
(Fig. 9-45). The single ankle axis is angulated
terolaterall y' in the transverse plane and infe
Ankle Joint Biomechanics erally in the coronal plane. Several authors
KINEMATICS disputed the theory of a single axis of ankle
tion and have described multiple axes of moti
The ankle mortise forms a simple hinge consisting the ankle moves from dorsiflexion to planta
of the talus, medial malleolus, tibial pia fond, and ion (Barnett & Napier, 1952; Hicks, 1953; H
lateral malleolus. The talus is shaped like a trun- mann & Nigg, 1995; Lundberg et aI., 198
cated cone, or frustunl, with the apex directed me- Sammarco et a!., 1973). Barnett and Napier (
dially (tnman, 1976). The talus is 4.2 mm wider describe a dorsiflexion axis inclined down
Structure of a normal heel pad as seen on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), A, Lateral
view. Note vertically oriented fat-filled columns. B, Top view of the heel pad demonstrat-
ing the spiral structure of the septae, which separate the fat-filled cells .
•
and laterall.\' and a plantarflexion axis angled
downward and medially (Fig. 9-46). The ankle
joint axes for dorsillexion and plantarflcxion cliffeI'
by' 20 to 3D" in the coronal plane but remain par-
allel in the transverse plane.
A small amount of talnI' rotation occurs during
ankle motion, which varies with axial load. Lundberg
X'
~
Y-~Y
,~ ~Z'
&.$
the instant centers of rouuion fell within the tali of
normal ankles but that their positions changed
,,'ith ankle motion (Fig, 9-49), This confirms that , ,
, f
\
the ankle axis of rotation does not remain constant \
\ " IJ 5 " 1 1
with motion, Surface motion from full plantarllex- _.....--1-......
ion to full dorsiflexion was also determined. Be-
I
I
I
" ,' _4
\
,,~ ginning in full plantarncx-ion. the ankle joint I "
,<
"
' I
,I
-0... ;howecl early distraction as dorsillexion began. \
I I'
,' ,I
I
Joint gliding then took place until full dorsillexion I
,," \ I
1 marie sWdy. OrttlOP Clin North Am, 4, 75. accessory functions of the anterior talofibular
ment are resistance to anterior talar displacem
from the.: m()J"tisc, c1inicall.\' refclTt:d lO as anlcrio
drawel: and resistance LO int<:rmtl rotation of (h
talus within the mortise (Fig. 9-54). The calcnn
ofibular ligament spnns both the lateral ankle joi
and lateral subtalar joint. thus conlributing lo sltt)l
Jar joinl stabilitv (Stephens & S'lllll11arCO, 1992). Th
posterior talo(lbular ligamenl is under greatest strai
in ankle dorsiflexion and aCls lo limit posterior (al
displacement within the monise.: as \\'ell as limit tal
eXlernal rotation (Fig. 9-55) (Sarrafian, 1993a). I
vitro tesling of unloaded ankles subjected to alllcrio
drawer testing del1lonstrated that the anterio
talofibular ligamcill was most important in pla
tarnexion and that the calcancofibular and postel"i
taloflbular ligaments were most important in ank
dorsiflexion (l3l1ll1clI el aI., 1991 l.
Groove lor
,,:-'- Tibialis Posterior
- Tendo calcaneus
_ Groove for
FI. Halfucis Longus
n-
/f.J
Bursa
- Calcaneus
Top, Lateral side of the foot and ankle. Bottom, Medial side
of the foot and ankle_ From Anderson, 1. (Ed.) (1978). Gram's
Atlas of Anatomy. Baltimore, MD. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
20
D
as £
<
ATF o Sprain Injury
basketball player with an injury that results from a
A filII on a plantarflexed and inverted ankle position
during a game (Case Study fig. 9·2·1).
IR
Abrupt rupture
Microtears [ .j.
associa~e~ ~vilh
139 N
sprain InJury
..
I
A
~-----
B
k.."".......
,_..~ :00""" "",.. ",,,,L _I!!""'l'-""""
-~
-...:.<..
..._ ... _~...~~=. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ------,---~.~.~'-7.".7.=.'
,:,,:,.~.4,~,~~.
TI14'"
(Medial talar lill) LS 1.9 mm
AS 5.6 mm
IT 0
t
these forces are found to be quite large. The joint
reactive force is approximately 2.1 times body
weight. and the Achilles tendon force reaches ap- ForceW
proximately 1.2 times body weight. The great force A
required for rising up on tiptoe explains why the
Calculation Box Figure 9~1-1.
patient with weak gastrocnemius and soleus mus-
cles has difficulty performing the exercise 10 times
in rapid succession. The magnitude of the ankle ~a
joint reaction force explains why a patient with de- '\
generative arthritis of thc ankle has pain while ris- :,\ \
ing on tiptoe.
An in vilro sludv bv Wang el al. (J 996) found lhal
~ " Force A
'--J- __ ."-_ .. /
'-:C J~-"-'.""
toebox compresses the forefoot medially' and later-
ally, thus contributing to the development of hallux
valgus, hammer toes, and bunionettes. A study of
356 women by Frey ot al. (1993) found that 88%
of women \\'ith foot pain wore shoes that \vere on
average 1.2 em narn)\ver than their foot. Women
who \vore shoes on average 0.5 em wider than the
foot had no symptoms and less deformity. Shoes
with elevated heels increase forefoot pressure com-
pared with standing barefoot (Snow, \Villiams, &
Holmes, 1992). A 1.9 cm heel increased forefoot
pressure by 22%, a 5 em heel increased peak pres-
sure by 57%. and an 8.3 CIll heel increased peak
pressure b:v 76%. An elevated heel can cause pain
Ankle joint reaction force expressed in multiples of
weight in a normal ankle during the stance phase o
- Normal subjects at two velocities. In the faster cadence, there were
"n" Preop. pIs.
peaks of three to five times body weight, one in ea
,,_. Postop. pIS.
stance and one in late stance phase. In the slower c
5
only one peak force of approximately five times bo
~ 4 weight was reached during late stance phase. Repr
'0;
with permission from Stauffer, R.N., Chao, E.Y.S., &
;:, 3
ster, R.L. (1977). Force and motion analysis of the n
'8
£ 2 diseased and prosthetic ankle joints. (lin Orthop, 12
"'"
o
u.
100 20 40 60
A under the metatarsal heads and mav also
0.4
tribute to interdigital neuroma formation.
0.2
:E i"
C> 0 ""..,...•"..,.
tion of thc heel also Illa}' ovcr time res
'Q5 lL.
0 Achilles contracture, limited ankle dorsif
~
>.
D
and an altered gait. The amount 01" ankle joi
0.2
0
£ tion in the gait cycle decreases as heel hei
'" 0.4 '"<;;'"
'0 creases (Murray ct aI., 1970).
"
0
u.
t;:
« 0.6 'iD
0.8
I '" Summarv
100 60
Percentage of Cycle 1 The I"oot alternates in form and functi
(stance phase)
t\veen shock-absorbing flexible platform and
B
propulsive lever during different phases of t
cvcle.
2 The ankle and subtalar joint act like a m
A, The compressive component of the ankle joint reaction hinge. Ankle dorsiflexion and tibial internal ro
force expressed in multiples of body weight during the are associated with subtalar eversion (pron
stance phase of normal walking for five normal subjects
ankle plantarllcxion and tibial external rotati
and nine patients with joint disease before and after pros-
associated with subtalar inversion (supinatio
thetic ankle replacement. B, The fore-aft shear component
produced in the ankle during the stance phase of walking 3 SlIbtalar motion is screw-like and infl
for the same subjects. Reprinted with permission from Stauf- the flexibility of the transverse tarsal joinl.
fer, R.N., Chao, E. Y5" & Brewster, R.L. (1977). Force and motion lar inversion locks the transverse joint and
analysis of the normal, diseased and prosthetic ankle joints. (fin the foot to become rigid; subtalar eversio
Orthop, 127, 789.
locks the transverse tarsal joint and allow
flexibility.
"4 The Lisfranc's joint (tarsornctt\tarsal joints) is 15 The deltoid ligament prevents ankle ever
intrinsically stable and relatively immobile as a re- sion, extcTnal rotation, and lateral talar shift. It i
sult of its arch-like configuration and the key-like kc~" in maintaining the integl-it,Y of the syndes
structure of the second tarsometatarsal joint. mosis.
,~ The first metatarsophalangeal joint exhibits a 16 The fibula bears approximately one sixth of th
wiele range of motion, with gliding throughout Illost force exerted through the lower extremity.
or its range and jamming at full extension. JZ The distal syndesmotic ligaments preven
<,§:,(' The medial longitudinal arch acts like both a separation of the distal fibula and tibia and hel
beam and a truss. The arch is elevated through the lransmit force through the distal fibula on wcight
windlass mechanism of the plantar fascia. The pos- bearing.
terior tibial tendon provides c1ynarnic support to the 18 Ankle joint centroid (cenler of pressure) pos
arch. tion changes wiLh ankle flexion-cxtension and inver
? Foot muscle action during standing is rela- sion-eversion. TalaI' surface contact is maximize
tively silent, but sequential firing of both extrinsic and joint pressure is minimized in dorsiOexion.
and intrinsic muscles is necessary to produce a nor- 19 The rorces acting on the ankle can rise to level
mal gait patlcrn. The anterior tibial musculature exceeding five tin1es body weight during walkin
fires during early stance to slow fOOL plantarOexion and thirteen times body weight dudng running.
and prevent fOOl slap. The posterior cnlf muscula-
ture fires during mid- and late stance to control pro~ 20 Narrow shoes and high heels can ad\'ersel~' af
grcssion of the body over the foot. fect foot mechanics, leading to forefoot deformities
heel pain, and Achilles contracture.
~8 During barefoot standing, the heel bears 60%
or the load and lhe forefoot bears 28(Yr!. Forefoot
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motion: :\ radiographic and ~tatislical an~tlysis. FOOf Allklc SlIl";.!ay o{ llli: FpPI illld ..\/lk/t· (PP. 3-431. 51. L.ol
llIl, /6, 117. \Iosby Co.
Grecnwilld, S. (I 97i'). Unpllhlish~d d<ll;:t dtl'd in R.N. Stauf- :\lallkr. J.T. (19411. '\\()\"l'r1ll'IHS of thl' sllhwlar Hnd Ir;l
fer, E.Y.S. Chao. ~\nd C. Brewster. F()l'c~' alld mOlion analy- lars;l! joinb..··1))111 Rl'(.'. 80. 397.
sis of the lIorll\;d. diseased, and pr(lslh~'lic ;Inkle joint. C!i!1 Mit.:helsnn. J.D .. Clal'h'. 1-1../ .. &. Jinnah. R.I-!. (1990).
Onhop. 127. [89. f~'cl 01' loading on libiol:dar alignlllent in (,;,Id;\\'er
Harper. ;\1. (1987). Deltoid ligamcllt: An t:Xpl.'l'illlClltal cvalua . fOOl .-\111:11.'. 10. 280.
tion of funclion. FOOl Allkle, 8. 19. \lidl~·lson. J.D. 6.: Hl.'lgl'Il\C'. S.L. Jr. (1995). Kill~'lllati(
Harpcr. '\'1. (1991). The lateral ligamentous support of tht.' ;l.\i:tll~· loaded :Inkk. rHiIl ..\l1klt' 1111, 16,577,
subtalar joint. FOOl Allklt', II, 334. :\tizl.:I. ,\I.S. (1993). Th~' role of the plallt~tr first me
Hil-ks, J,H. (1954). Thc mechanics of the foOl 11: The plantar l.·ul\~'ir()rll1 ligallwnt in w('iglllhearing 011 11
aponeurosis and the arch, ) ..lllal, 88. ~5. Illl'tatarsai. fOOl .-\lIkle. I-l, 82.
Hinterm<tnn. B, '* Nigg. B,M. (1993). In vitro kinem.. tics of
the .. xi .. lly loaded ankle cOJnple.'\ in r('sponsl' to dorsiflcx·
.\I()rlon, D,J. (l935L TlI(' /lumlill Fool. liS Emlmiol/.
(1';:.'" 111111 FII//dio//al J)i...;on/as. ;'\('\\. York: COllllllhi:1
ion and pl:IIH:ll'flexion. fOOl AI/kl.: 1'11. 16. 514, Sil.\· Pr...· ss .
Huang, C.K .. Kitaoka, 1·1.8,. An. K,N .. et :11. (1993). Biom~'· .\ Illrra.,·. .\-J.P., Drought, .-\.11 .. &. Kor.\'. R.C (1964). W
chanical c\'aIUalion of longitudinal <In..-h sl~lhili[y. fool AIl- paul'rlls in nnnll:ll Ill~·n. J BOllt' JOill1 51/1':-:, ,lti.-\, 33
k!c, I{ 333. ~\Iurray, ,\I.P., Knry, R.C, 6.: Sepie, S.B. (19;0). \V'llki
Hutton, W.C" SCUlL J.R.R" 6: Stokes, J.:\.F. (1973) The llll'- terns or normal woml'n . .-II'"h I'hys ,\fed Udwhil. 51
chanies of thl! fool. In L. Klentrlllan (Ed.). The FoOl tIIul
Nigg, B.:'V1., Skorran, G., Frank, e.8., l't .d. (1990), Elongation SherefT, ,\l.J., Ikjahi, F.J .. &. Kummer, F.J. (1986). Kinern
and forces of ankle ligamellts in a ph:,siological range 01 or the first met~llarsophabngeal joint. .I BOlle Joint S
motion. Fool ..\/ll:Ie. I J, 30. 68..1, 392.
Okrud, C. &. Rosendahl. Y. (1987). Torsion-transmitting prop- Silver, R.I.., de la G~lrz~l, .I., l\: Rang, M. (1985). The my
erties of the hindfoo!. Cfill On/wI', 2/4, 285. llluscle balance: i\ stud~ of 1"t.'lati\'e strengths ~lnd ex
Ohdrie-Harris, D.1 .. Reed, S.c.. &. Hedman, T.P. (1994), Dis- sions about the foot and ankle. J BOlle Joiu! Surg,
~rllplion of the ankk syndesmosis: Biomechanical stud~' of 432.
ligamentous reslrainb. /\rlhroscopy, 10, 558~560. Snow, R.E., \Villiams, K.R., & Holmes, G.B. Jr (1992). Th
Ouzoniall, T.1. & ShL'I'l'IT, \.Lf. (1989l. In \'tIro dClL'rrnination reets of wearing high heeled shoes on pedal pressure
of midfool motion. 1"001 Allkte, !O, 140. women. Foo! Allkle, /3. 85-92.
Pereira, D.S .. Koral, K.J., Resnick, R.B .. ct al. (1996), libio- So~\nll's, R.\\'. (1985), Foot pressures during gait. J 13io
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11Il, 17, 269. and !'ll(Jti(lll ~lnal.\'sis of till: n()1'mal, disl'<lsl:d and
Perry, J. (1983), Anatomy and biomechanics or the hindfoot. thetic ankle joints. Clin Orthop, /27, 189.
Cfill OrtflOP, 177, 9. Stephens, :\1.\1. & Sammarco, G.J. (1992). The stabili
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Bio!llcch, /5, 627. subtalar joints. FOOl AI/klc, 13, 130.
Renstrom, P., \Venz, \1., Inc<l\'o, S., et aL (1988). Strain on Stiehl, J.B., Skrade, D.A., Needleman. R.I.., et al. ([ 993)
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AllisclIloskdCf(/! Systelll (2nd ed., pp. 193-2(9). Philadel- ity of the loaded ankle. Relation between articula
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Norlh Alii, -t, 75. Wang, O.W., Whiltle, .\1.. Cunningham . .I .. et al. (1996). F
Sarrafian, S.K. (1987), Functional characteristics of the foot ~Hld its ligaments in load transmission and ankle joint
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l:lc, 8, 4. Wanin:nhaus, A. & Pn:Llcrklieber, \1. (1989), First
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ankle. In An(ltomy or the Foo! ami Anl:lc (pp. 474-602l. FOOl Allkfe, 9, 153.
Philadelphia: Lippincott. \Vaters, R.I.., Hislop, I-U., Perry, .I., et al. (1978). Energc
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Philadelphia: Lippincott. \Vright. D.G" Desai, S.\1.. 6: Henderson, \V.H. (19M), A
Scranton, P.E., ;V\c,\'laster, J.I-I., &. Kelly, E. (1976). Dynamic of the sublalar and ankle joilll comrle.'\ during the st
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Biomechanics of the
lumbar Spine
Margareta Nordin, Shira Schecter Weiner adapted fro
Margareta Lin
Introduction
The Motion Segment: The Functional Unit of the Spine
The Anterior Portion of the Motion Segment
The Posterior Portion of the Motion Segment
The Ligaments of the Spine
Kinematics
Segmental Motion of the Spine
Range of lvIotion
Surface Joint Motion
Functional Motion of the Spine
The lvIuscles
Flexion and Extension
Lateral Flexion and Rotation
Pelvic Motion
Kinetics
Statics and Dynamics
Statics
Loading of the Spine Dunng Standing
Comparative loads on the Lumbar Spine During Standing, Sittin
and Reclining
Static Loads on the Lumbar Spine During Lifting
Dynamics
Walking
Exercises
lvIechanical Stability of the Lumbar Spine
Intra·Abdominal Pressure
Trunk Muscle Co-Contraction
External Stabilization
Summary
References
Introduction 11 12 13 14
2
The human spine is a complex structure whose
principal functions are to protect the spinal cord 3
10
and transfer loads from the head and tnmk to the
pelvis. Each of the 24 vertebrae articulates with the
adjacent ones to permit motion in three planes. The 4
spine gains stability from the intervertebral discs
and from the surrounding ligaments and muscles;
the discs and ligaments provide intrinsic stability 5
Molion
segment
~-----
tissues (Fig, 10- I). The anterior pOl,tion of the se
ment is C0111posed of two superimposed intervert
bral bodies, the intervertebral disc. and the longit
I Anteroposterior (A) and lateral (B) roentgenograms of the dinal ligaments (Fig. 10-2). The c9ITcspondi
I lumbar spine. One motion segment, the functional unit of vertebral arches, the intervertebral joints formed
1 the spine, is indicated. the facets, thc transverse and spinolls processes, an
I!l
various ligaments make up the postcrior portion. T
25
Anterior The nucleus pulposus Iic's directl~' in the cente
Vertebral body all discs e\cept tllOSL' in tilL' IUlllhar segments, wh
Iliopsoas it has a slightl~, posterior position. This inner m
muscle Arch is surrounded b,\' ;:\ tough outer covering, the ann
lus fihrosus, composed 01" fibr()cani];:I!~:e. The cri
Spinal canal Transverse cross arrangcrnent 01" the coarse collagen fiber b
with cord process
dles within till' fibrocartilage all<)ws the annu
Interspinous Facet fibrosus to withstand high lk'!l{ling and torsicJ
ligament loads (se(' Fig, II-II). Discs with annular tears d
Spinous pia." increased [,(ltational 1T'IOlllents during k,ad
Erector process
spinae muscle compared with IHlndegenerated discs (Haughton
Posterior
aI., 2000). The end phlte, composed of hyaline ca
lage, separ(a~s the disc from the vertebr<:11 bod~' (F
10-2). The disc composition is simihlr to that or
ticular cartilage, described in detail in Chapter 3
Transverse section of a motion segment at the L4 level During dail.v activities, the disc is loaded in a co
viewed by computed tomography. The vertebral body, pIc.\: manner and is usually subjected to a combi
arch, spinal canal with spinal cord, and transverse tion ()I" comp]'ession, bending, and lo]·sioll. Fle.\:i
processes are clearly seen. The view is taken at a level that
extension, and lateral lle.\:ion or the spine produ
depicts only the tip of the spinous process, with the inter-
rnainl~' tensile ,Ind compressi\'(' stresses ill the d
spinous ligament visible between the spinous process and
the facets of the intervertebral joints. Directly anterior to
\\'hereas rotation produces mainly shear stress.
the transverse processes and adjacent to the vertebral \\-'hen <:1 motion segment is tr<:lllsected vLTtica
body are the iliopsoas muscles. Posterior to the vertebral the llucleus pulposus 01" the disc protrudcs, indic
I body, the erector spinae muscles can be seen. ing that it is under pressure. !\iIcasurement (If the
.. _----------
tracliscal prcssure in normal and slightl." degenera
cadavcr lurnbar nuclei pulposi has shown an intr
~!!II!JIIII!~~~~~~~~~~-----'---~~;~"_'.<"-
~ -~_.,__ ;- ... _~-<C-'t'"
Except for the facets of the two uppermost cervi- a high collagen content, which limits tht.:ir ext
cal vertebrae (CI and C2), which arc parallel to the bility during spine motion. The ligalllL'llllllll fla
transverse plane, the facets of the cervical inten.1cr- which connects two adjaCL'1l1 \'(,I"lcbral arches l
tcbral joints are oriented at a 45° angle to the trans- (lldinall~·, is an exception. having a lal'gc percen
verse plane and arc parallel to the frontal plane (Fig. of dastin. The clasticit.Y of (his ligamclll <.lIlows
10-6A). This alignment of the joints of C3 to C7 al- contract during c.'\h..:nsion of the spine and 10
lows flexion, extension, lateral flexion, and rotation. gate during nc.'\ion. Even when the spine is in a
0
The facets of the thoracic joints arc oriented at a 60 tral position, the ligamentum flavul11 is uncleI'
angle to the transverse plane and at a 20° angle to Slant tension as a result of its elastic prope
the frontal plane (Fig. 10-68); this orientation allows Because it is located at a distance from the cent
lateral flexion, rotation, and some flexion and exten- motion in the disc, il pre-stresses the disc; th
sion. In the lurnbar region. the facets arc oriented at along with the longillldinal ligaments, it create
right angles to the transverse plane and at a 45° irllradiscal pressure and thus helps provide intl-
angle to the frontal plane (Fig. 10·6C) (White & support to the spine (Nachemson &. EV<.H1s,
Panjabi. 1978). This alignment allows Oexion, exten- Rolander, 1966). Research suggests that with de
sion, and lateral Oexion, but almost no rotation. The erative changes such as spond~"lolisthesis, tra
lumbosacral joints differ from the other lumbar in- spurs, and disc degeneration, which rna}' lead t
tervertebral joints in that the oblique orientation of stability, altered mechanical stress \vill increas
the facets allows appreciable rotation (Lumsden & load the ligamentum fluvul11 and callSt: hypertr
Morris, 1968). The above-cited values for facet ori- (FlIkllyama el aI., 1995).
entation are only approximations, as considerable The amount of strain on the various ligam
variation is found within and among individuals. differs with the type of motion of the spine, D
The facets guide movement of the Illotion segment llc.'\ion, the interspinous ligaments arc subject
and have a load-bearing function. Load-sharing be- the greatest strain, followed by' the capsular
tween the facets and the disc varies with the position ments and the ligamcnturn flavum. During e
of the spine. The loads on the facets arc greatest (ap- sion, the anterior longitudinal ligarnent bear
proximately 30% of the lotal load) when the spine is greatest strain. During latcral fle:don, the contr
hyperextended (King et aI., 1975). Because the facets eral lransverse ligament sustains the hig
arc not the primary SUPPOI1 structure in extension, if strains. followed by the ligament nuvulll and
total compromise of these joints occurs, an alternate capsular ligaments. The capsular ligaments o
path of loading is established. This path involves the facet joints bear the most strain during rot
transfer of axial loads to the annulus and anterior (Panjabi et aI., 1982).
longitudinal ligament as a way of supporting the
spine (Haher et aI., !994). High loading of the facels
is also present during forward bending, coupled with Kinematics
rotation (EI-Bohy & King, 1986). The vertebral
arches and intervertebral joints play an important AClive mol ion of the spine as in any joint is
role in resisting shear forces. This function is demon- duced b.'/ the coordinated interaction of n
strated by the fact that patients with deranged arches and muscles. Agonistic n1uscles (prime mo
or defective joints (e.g., from spondylolysis and lis- initiate and carry out motion and antagon
thesis) are at increased risk for fOl'\vard displacement muscles control and modif." the motion, whil
of tbe vertebral body (Adams & Hutton, 1983; Mi11er contraction or both groups stabilizes the s
et aI., 1983) (Case Study 10·1). The transverse and The range of motion differs at various levels o
spinolls processes seniC as sites of attachment for the spine and depends on the orientation of the f
spinal muscles, whose activity initiates spine motion of the intervertebraljoinls (Fig. 10-6). Motio
and provides extrinsic stability. tween two vertebrae is small and docs not o
independently; all spine movements involve
combined action of several motion segments.
,,- THE LIGAMENTS OF THE SPINE
skeletal structures that influence motion o
The ligamentous structures surrounding the spine lrunk are the rib cage, which limits thoracic
contribute to its intrinsic stability (Fig. 10-2). All lion. and the pelvis, which augments trunk m
spine ligaments except the ligamentum Ibvulll have ments by tilting.
;;;:
~_Q- ' .. ; -
Cervical
(C3-C7)
Thoracic
,,
Lumbar
c
Orientation of Orientation of
the facets to the facets to
the transverse plane the fronlal plane
Orientation of the facets of the intervertebral joints (ap- and are parallel to the frontal plane. B, The facets of the
proximate values). Reprinted with permission from White, A.A. thoracic spine are oriented at a 60° angle to the transvers
& Panjabi, M.N. (1978). Clinical Biomechanics of the Spine. plane and at a 20° angle to the frontal plane. C, The facet
Philadelphia: J,8. Lippincorr. A. In the lower cervical spine, the of the lumbar spine are oriented at a 90° angle to the tran
facets are oriented at a 4S~ angle to the transverse plane verse plane and at a 45° angle to the frontal plane.
~
,'Sponaylolisthesis: Anterior Slippage of One Vertebra in Relation
to the Vertebra Below It
'- 30-year·old male gymnast complains of severe back pain interarticularis (aspect of the postenor arch of the vertebra
A'''''..' , with radiation to both legs. The pain is associated with that lies betyveen the inferior and superior facets). This bilat·
periods of strenuous training and the symptoms decrease eral defect leads to an (lnterior displacement of the vertebra
~ith rest or restriction of activity, After a careful examination lS onto S1. As the l5 vertebra begins 10 slip forvllard, the cen
b'ya specialist and MRI films. a diagnosis was made of ter of gravity of the body is displaced anteriody. To compen-
spondylolisthesis at the level L5-S1 (Case Study Fig, 10-1-1), sate, the lumbar spine above the lesion hyperextends and the
with concurrent bilateral pars interarticularis defects of L5 upper pan of the trunk is displaced backward. Because thi) is
(Case Study Fig, 10-1-2), a disease continuum. the abnormal forces placed on the inter
-' Physiological loads during repeated flexion-extension mo- vertebral disc leads to herniation into the neural foramina,
tiOn, of the lumbar spine caused a fatigue fracture of the pars producing moderate stenosis. of both l5-S I nerve rootS.
,i;
•t"
~,.
Case Study Figure 10-1-1. Case Study Figure 10-1-2.
SEGMENTAL MOTION OF THE SPINE the relative amount of motion at different leve
the spine. Representative values from \Vhite
The vertebrae have six degrees of freedom: rotation
Panjabi (1978) are presented in Figure 10-7 1
about and translation along a transverse, a sagittal.
lc)\v a comparison of motion at various levels o
and a longitudinal axis. The motion produced dur-
thoracic and lumbar spine. (Representative v
ing nexion. extension, lateral nexion, and axial rota-
for motion in the cendcal spine are included
tion of the spine is a complex combined motion re-
comparison.)
sulting fTom simultaneous rotation and translation.
lnvestigations of the thoracic and lumbar s
show that the range of l'lexion and extension i
proximately 4° in each of the upper thonlcic mo
Range of Motion
~:" segments, approximately 6° in the mid thoraci
Various investigations using autopsy material or gion, and approximately 12° in the two lower
radiographic measurements in vivo have shown di~ racic segments. This range progressively incre
vergent values for the range of motion of indivi- in the lumbar Illotion segments. reaching a m
dual motion segments, but there is agreement on mum of 20' al Ihe lumbosacral level.
o 10' 20 0' 10 20 0' 10' 20"
I ' I I ' I I ' I
OC- Cl
Cl - 2 '-'47'
2 -3
3-4
4 -5
5 -6
6-7
C7 - Tl
Tl - 2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9 - 10
10 - 11
11 - 12
T12 - Ll
L1 - 2
2-3
3-4
4-5
L5 - 51
Flexion- Lateral Rotation
extension flexion
A composite of representative values for type and range of motion at different levels of
the spine. Reprinted with permission from White, AA & Panjabi, M.N (978). Clinical Biome-
chanics of the Spine. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincorr.
Lateral flexion shows the greatest range in each center of flexion-extension and lateral flexion in
of the lower thoracic segments, reaching 8 to go. In motion segment of the lumbar spine lies within t
the upper thoracic segments, the range is uniformly disc under normal conditions (Fig. 10-8A) (Cosse
6°. Six degrees of lateral flexion is also found in each et aI., 1971; Rolandel~ 1966). With abnormal conc
of all lumbar segments except the lumbosacral seg- tions such as pronounced disc degeneration, t
ment, \vhich demonstrates only 3° of 111otion. instantaneous center pathway will be altered (F
Rotation is greatest in the upper segments of the 10-8B) (Gertzbein et aI., 1985; Reichmann et aI., 197
thoracic spine, \vhere the range is 9°, The range of
rotation progressively decreases caudally, reaching
FUNCTIONAL MOTION OF THE SPINE
2° in the lower segments of the lumbar spine. It then
increases to 5° in the lumbosacral segment. Because of its complexity,') the motion of a single nl
tion segment is difficult to measure clinically. A
proximate values for the normal functional range
Surface Joint Motion
motion of the spine can be given. Variations amo
i\''Iotion between the surfaces of two adjacent verte- individuals are large and show a Gaussian distrib
brae during flexion-extension or lateral flexion may lion in the three planes. The range of motion
be analyzed b:v means of the instant center method strongly age~dependent, decreasing ·b~v approx
of Reuleaux. The procedure is essentially the sanle mately 30% from youth to old age, although \vith a
as that described for the cc,·vical spine in Chapter ing, loss of range of motion is noted in flexion a
11 (see Figs. 11-18 and 11-19). The instantaneous lateral bending while axial rotation motion is mai
Moderate disc rained with cvidcnc~ or increased coupled m
Normal I degeneration J (iV!cGill et aI., 1999). Differences have also
G-J
iJ
~
noted between the sexes: men have greater m
in flexion and extension whereas women arc
mobile in later,,1 Oexion (Bie.-ing-Sorensen,
Moll & Wright, 1971). Loss of range of motion
A
~ B
(. ' L5
mainly by motion in the cervical spine and hi
THE MUSCLES
The spinal muscles can be divided into flexo
extensors. The main flexors arc the abdomina
Instant center pathway for a normal cadaver spine (A) and a
cles (the reClus abdominis muscles, the intern
cadaver spine with moderate disc degeneration (B). Instant external oblique muscles. and the transver
centers were determined for 3~ intervals of motion from dominallllllsclc) and the psoas muscles. In g
maximum extension to maximum flexion. In the normal muscles anterior to the vertebral column act
spine, all instant <enters fell within a small area in the disc. ors. The main extensors arc the ercCLOr spina
In the degenerated spine. the centers were displaced. and cles. the multifidus muscles. and the intcnra
hence the surface motion was abnormal. Reprinted wirh per· sarii muscles auached to the posterior eleme
mission from Gerr£bein, S.D., er al. (1985). Centrode patterns and general, the muscles posterior to the ve
segmental instability in degenerative disc (Jisease. Spine, 10,257. columns act as extensors (Fig. 10-9). The ex
Anterior
Rectus abdominis muscle Transversalis fascia
Transversalis
Internal oblique Vertebral body
External oblique
Lumbar fascia:
Anterior
Middle
Posterior
Quadratus Erector
lumborum spinae muscle
muscle
Posterior
An MRI transverse cross-section of the body at the l4 level of a normal adult human spine. The major trunk ffius<les are
(R, right; l, left). By courtesy (rom Ali SfJeikzahed, PhD., Hospilal for Joint Diseases, Mr. Sinai, NYU Health, New York, NY, USA.
muscles bridge between each vertebrae and motion
segment as well as over several vertebrae and mo-
tion segments. \Vhen extensor muscles contract
symmetrically, extension is produced. "'!hen right
and left side flexors and extensor muscles contract
asymmetrically, lateral bending or t\visting of the
spine is produced (Andersson & Lavender, 1997).
\\
VFRA (pV)
\( 1\
abdominal muscles are active on both sides of
the spine, as both ipsilateral and contralateral mus-
cles cooperate to produce this movement. High
coactivation has been measured for axial rotation
(Lavender et al.. 1992; Pope et aI., 1986).
FIG. 10-11
------
Pelvic Motion
Example of eleetromyographic activity of the erect
Functional trunk movements not only involve a
spinae muscles collected with surface electrodes du
combined motion of different parts of the spine but side-bending of the trunk. The figure illustrates tru
also require the cooperation of the pelvis because bending to the right and muscle activity at the ll,
pelvic Inotion is essential for increasing the range of lS level of the lumbar spine. Substantial contralate
functional motion of the trunk. The relationship be- cle activity (left) of the erector spinae muscles is re
twecn pelvic movements and spinal motion is gen- when bending to the right to maintain equilibrium
erally analyzed in terms of motion of the lum- duced wirh permission from Andersson. G.BL Orrengr
bosacral joints. the hip joints. Ol' both (Fig. 10-12). Nachemson. A. (1977). fIHradiscaf pressure. intra-abdom
Load transfer From the spine to the pelvis occurs pressure and myoelectric back muscle dcrivily related to
through the sacroiliac (SI) joint. Biomechanical and foading. Clin OrtllOp, 129. 156,
,I,
arc the EiV1G-c1l'iven model based on c!cctromyo
{ ',.
The pelvic ring with its linkage to the spine and the lower graphic trunk mllscle rccordings and the morc tr
extremities. The antero-posterior view of these structures ditional biomcchanical model based on trunk mo
on film gives a hint of the irregular shape of the sacroiliac mcnts and [OI'ces (Chaffin & Anderson, 199
joint 5urlaces. but an oblique projection is required for an Lavender et al.. 1992; Marras & Granata, 199
accurate view of the joints. Sheikhzadeh, [1997]. The eflixi orpllre alld COl
billed loading OIl the recruitment pattern or ten s
lecled Intlll< IIlllscles, Unpublished doctoral thesi
New York University. New York).
/' .......
)i
~
mate!y 20 to 40 N (Gregersen & Lucas, 1967; Lucas ~ : r'"
((
& Bresiel; 1961). The critical load is much higher in
vivo and varies greatly among individuals. The ex·
!'. \~\,
\ ;,;
trinsic support provided by the trunk muscles helps \ i !
stabilize and modify the loads on the spine in both 'J
dynamic and static situations.
.~
500
~ . '"
Nonspecific Low Back Pain
0 Nachemson, 1975 ".~
35-year-old male presents complaints of low back
"(;9.-
,S
400 0 Wilke, 1999
~ A pain with radiation lO the posterior aspect of the le
en thigh, not past the knee. His pain staned 3 weeks ago,
c
'5 % ter working a 12-hour shift, when he lifted \-vhile twistin
300
c
'1" ~
'"
iii i~
',Z
c!ll an unusually large, yet lightweight box, During the iirst
£ ] week of pain, he visited his physician, who prescribed pa
;) ~
,;I J.!
'C
~
,.i
200 medication. Currently, he is still in pain, panieufarly durin
ro"
;,
,~
~~~~
ina I and back muscles and poor flexibility in hiS ham-
~ '1 strings. psoas, and back muscles. Neurological tests were
c
normal and diagnostic x-rays were normal as well, leadin
to a diagnosis of nonspecific low back pain (Case Study
Fig.10-Z-1).
Tension
Compression
.,. -~ .-;
conwct with the backrest. increasing the loads on the
lumbar spine (Andersson et aI., 1974) (Fig. 10-17).
Loads on the spine arc minimized when an incli-
assumes a supine position because the loads
b)' the bod;!s weight arc eliminated (Fig,
With the body supine and the knees ex-
>tenden, the pull of the vertebral ponion of the psoas
muscle produces some loads on the lumbar spine. !
'"-~--.~. ----,.
I
the hips and knees bent and supported, how-
the !umb4\r lordosis straightens out as the psoas
>'n'luscle relaxes and the loads decrease (Fig. 10-18). B
FiG."'10.18
STATIC LOADS ON THE LUMBAR SPINE
DURING LIFTING A, When a person assumes a supine position with legs
The highest loads on the spine are generally pro- straight, the pull of the vertebral portion of the psoas
!t~>;.,S7 duced by c:'\ternalloads, such as lifting a heavy ob- muscle produces some loads on the lumbar spine. B, Whe
ject. Just how mllch load can be sustained by the the hips and knees are bent and supported, the psoas mu
spine before damage occurs continues to be inves- cle relaxes and the loads on the lumbar spine decrease.
tigated. Pioneering swdies by Eie (1966) of lumbar I
•
I~Di~sc1P;re~ss~u~re=========~;I:'===1~
were tolerated before conlplete disruption of mo
tion segmel1l occurred. The flexion angle befor
failure was recorded as 20° with 9 mm of horizon
tal displacement bct\veen the two vertebrae (0$
valder et aL, 1990). 80th age and degree of disc de
Influence of backrest inclination and back support on generation innuence the range preceding failure
loads of the lumbar spine. in terms of pressure in the third Although the vertebral body strength is relative t
lumbar disc, during supported sitting. A, Backrest inclina-
Ihe bone mass, with aging ~ the decline in bon
~ : tion is 90" and disc pressure is at a maximum. e, Addition
strength is more pronounced than is the decline i
of a lumbar support decreases the disc pressure. C, Back-
ward inclination of the backrest is 110", but with no lum-
bone mass (iVlosekildc, 1993).
bar support it produces less disc pressure. D. Addition of a Eie (1966) and Ranu (1990) observed that durin
lumbar support with this degree of backrest inclination compressive testing the fracture point was reache
further decreases the pressure. E, Shifting the support to in the vertebral body, or end plate, before the inte
the thoracic region pushes the upper body forward, mov- vertebral disc sustained damage. This finding show
ing the lumbar spine toward kyphosis and increasing the that the bone is less capable of resisting compres
disc pressure. Adapted with permission from Andersson, G.8.1.. sian than is an intact e1isc, During the testing, a yiel
Ortengren, R.. Nc1CiJemson, A.. et at. (1974). Lumbar disc pres- point was reached before the vertebra or end pla
sure and myoelectric back muscle activity during sitting. 1. SHld-
fractured. \Vhen the load was removed at this poin
ies on cln experimental chair. Scand J Rehabil Med, 6. 104.
the vertebral body recovered but was morc suscep
lible to damage when reloaded.
;,
Evidence exists that the spine may incur micro-
damage as a result of high loads in vivo. T. I-Jansson
(1977, The hone mineral contenl (Int! biomec!tanica! Influence of the Size of the Object
properties or lumbar vertebrae. All ill vitro study on the Loads on the Lumbar Spine
based on dllal p1W101/ absorptiometry. Unpublished
The size of the object held influences the loads on the lum-
thesis, University of Gothenburg, Sweden) observed
bar spine. If objects of the same weight, shape, and density
microfractures in specimens from "noI'mal" human
but of different sizes are held, the lever arm for the force
lumbar vertebrae and interpreted this microdamage
produced by the weight of the object is longer for the
to be fatigue fractures resulting from stresses and
larger object, and thus the bending moment on the lumba
strains on the spine in vivo. In vitro examination
spine is greater (Calculation Box Fig. 10-1-1). In these t\VO
confirmed the cxistance of microdamage near the
situations (Calculation Box Figs. 10-1-1 ,md 10-1-2). the
end plated with compression loading (Hasegawa et
distance from the center of motion in the disc to the front
aI., 1993).
of the abdomen is 20 em. In both cases, the object has a
Lifting and carr.ying an object over a horizontal
uniform density and weighs 20 kg. In the case of Calcula-
distance arc common situations wherein loads ap-
tion Box Figure 10-1-1, the \·vidth of the cubic object is 20
plied to the vertebral column may be so high as to
crn; in the case of Calculation Box Figure 10-1-2, the width
damage the spine. Several factors influence the
is 40 ern. Thus, in Case 1 (Calculation Box Fig. 10-1-1), the
loads on the spine during these activities: (t) the po-
forv·.wd-bendlng moment ,Kung on the 10'/'Jest lumbar disc
sition of the object relative to the center of Illotion
is 60 Nrn, as the force of 200 N produced by the weight o
in thc spine; (2) the sizc, shape, weight. and density
the object acts \vith a lever arm (U of 30 cm (200 N ;< 0.3
of the object; (3) the degree of flexion or rotation of
m).ln Case 2 (Calculation Box Fig. 10-1-2). the forvvard-
the spine; and (4) the rate of loading.
bending moment is 80 Nrn, as the lever arm (L;.) is 40 ern
Holding the object close to the body instead of
(200 (\J x 0.4 rn).IConsidering 1Kg 10N.]
away from it reduces the bending moment on the
lumbar spine because the distance from the center
of gravity of the object to the center of motion in the 20 em
spine (the lever arm) is minimized. The shorter the
lever arm is for the force produced by the weight of
a given object. the lower the magnitude of the bend-
ing moment and thus the lower the loads on the
lumbar spine (Andersson et al., 1976; Nachemson &
Elfstriim, 1970; Nemeth, 1984; Wilke et aI., 1999)
(Calculat ion Box 10-1).
Even when identical and nonfatiguing repeated
lifting tasks are perFormed, variability in lifting tech-
nique of the same subject has been shown in trunk
kinematics, kinetics, and spinal load (Granata ct aL,
1999). ,",Vhen an individual repeatedly performs an
identical lift, great variability is recorded, which in-
dicates that the brain may have several motor strate-
gies to do a task. It also indicates the sensitive re-
sponsiveness of the muscle system to subtle changes
to maintain the performance despite fatigue.
,",Vhen a person holding an object bends forward, 200 N
the force produced by the weight of the object plus
that produced by the weight of the upper body cre-
ate a bending moment on the disc, increasing the
loads on the spine. This bending moment is greater
than that produced when the person stands erect
Forward-bending Forward-bending
while holding the object (Calculation Box 10-2). moment 60 Nm moment 80 Nm
Health professionals generally recommend that
Calculation Box Calculation Box
lifting be done with the knees bent and the back rel- Figure 10-1-1. Figure 10-1-2.
atively straight to reduce the loads on the spinc.
I
~ :./.;~; :,
However, this recommcndalion is valid only if this
technique is used correctly and optimally, with the
!ji/! I ~:I~~;Cto~::haet~h~e:u~::r~;i~~on
load positioncd betwcen the feet and thcrcby reduc-
inn the lever arm of the extcrnal load (van Dieen ct
al~ 1999) (Calculafion Box 10-3),
lii}i!, I
~:
;:~ n~ ~O~; ,:;: dSehn~: ~1 i:b~:~~::;h~nBgO;~i~~r~s 10-
A literature review revealed no significant differ-
cnce in spinal compression and shear computed
forces betwcen SlOOp or squat lifting (van Dicenc ct
lifted, In Case 1 (Calculation Box fig. 10-2-1) (upright
at., 1999). However, it was suggestcd lhat loss or bal-
f standing), the lever arm of the force produced by the.- f
I weight of the objecr (lp) is 30 em. creating a forward-
ance is more likely during squat lifting. which in
turn m,,)' ,-,dd addilional stresses on the lumbar
r
i' '/
~',
bending moment of 60 Nm (200 N x 0.3 m), The
forward-bending moment created by the upper body is
9 Nm; the length of the lever arm (LW) is estimated to
"
spine.
In thc following examplc, thc frcc-body tech-
nique for coplanar forces will be used to make a
~ 2 em, and the force produced by the weight of the upper simplified calculation of the static loads on the
t',; body is 450 N. Thu5, the tolal forward-bending moment
J
~.'
spine as an object is lifted (Calculation Boxes 10-4;
in Case 1 is equal to 69 Nm (60 Nm + 9 N(m). b d and 10-4B).
• In Case 2 (Calculation Box fig. 1O-2 -2J upper 0 y
Calculations made in this way for one point in
flexed forward), the lever arm of the force produced by
lime during lifting arc valuable for demonslrating
f the weight of the object (l..) is increased to 40 em, creat- how the lever arms of the forces produccd by the
I
Ii ing a fon,.vard·bending moment of 80 Nm (200 N x 0.4 m).
furthermore, ,he force of 450 N produced by the weight
of the upper body increases in importance as it acts with
wcight of the uppcr body and by the weight of the
obj;ct affect the loads i~,posed on the spine, The
usc or the salllc calculations to compule the loads
r a lever ann (L...) of 25 em, creating a forward-bending
I
produced when an 80 kg objcct is lifted (represent-
ff, moment of 112.5 Nm (450 N x 0.25 m), Thus, the total
ing a force of 800 N) yields an approximate load o
~: forward-bending moment in Case 2 is 192.5 Nm (1125
~'M""
10,000 N on the dise, which is likely to exceed thc
fracture point of the vertebra. Because athletes who
lift wcights can easilv reach such calculated loads
without sustaining fr~ctures, other factors, such as
intra-abdominal p~-essurc (lAP), may be .involved in
reducinrr thc loads on the spine in vivo (Krajcarsk
t et aI., 1999),
I
I
Dynamics
~Lw
Almost all mol ion in lhe body increases muscle rc
<:r'=i~-A-=-::t=-=-i cl'uitmcnt and the loads on the spine. This increase
J is modest during such aclivities as slow walking
or casy twisting but becomes morc marked during
450 N variou's exercises and the coqlplexity or dynamic
movement and dynamic loading (Nachclllson &
Elfstrom, 1970),
WALKING
In a study of normal walking at four speeds, the
,I
I
200 N
compressive loads at the L3-L4 mOlion segmen
rangcd from 0.2 to 2.5 limes body weight (Fig
10-19) (Cappozzo, 1984), Thc loads were maxima
Talal fo"vard- Tolallorward- around loe-off and increased approximatel~1 lin
bending moment bending moment
I
= 69 Nm = 192,5 Nm early with walking speed. Muscle .action was
mainly concentrated in the trunk extensors. Incli
11 Calculation Box Calculation Box
Figure 10-2-1. figure 10-2-2. vidual walking trailS. parlicularly the amount o
forward flcxion of the trunk, influenced thc loads
i $---------"-~---_.
The Technique Employed During Lifting Influences the Loads
on the Lumbar Spine
In the three situations shown in Calculation Box Figures total forward· bending moment of 151 Nm(f200 N x
10-3-1, 10-3-2. and 10-3-3, an identical object weighing + 1450 N x 0.18 m!).
20 kg is lifted. Case 1 (upper body flexed forward) (Caleula- Case 3 (Cal(l,lIalion Box Fig. 10-3-3) shows that be
tion Box Fig. 10-3-1) is identical to Case 2 in Calculation Box knees per se do not decrease the forward-bending mo
10-2, v~here ttle total fONJarcl-bending moment is 192.5 Nm. If the object lifted is held out in front of the knees, the
In Case 2 (Calculation Box Fig. 10- 3-2), lifting with the arm of the force produced by the weight of the objec
knees bent and the back straight places the object closer to creases to 50 ern. and [he lever arm of the ierce produ
the trunk, decreasing the forwclrd-bending moments. The the weight of the upper body (L..:) increases to 25 em.
lever arms of the forces produced by the weight of the object tile total forwarcj-bending moment created is 212.5 N
(U and Lipper body IL,) are shortened 10 35 and 18 em, re- 1{200 N x 0.5 mj ... 1450 N x 0.25m!).
spectively. at this point in the lifting process. The result is a
.';'
200 N 200 N
The greater this flexion, the larger the muscle pressive jomt loading and EMG outpu
forces and hcncc the compressive load. Callaghan creased lumbar spine motions. 1n conc
et al. (1999) corroborated lhese findings and fur- cause of low tissue loaeling, walking is
ther showed that walking cadence affects lumbar perhaps ideal therapeutic exercise ror
loading, with increased anterior-posterior shear low back pain (Callaghan et al" 1999) w
forces noted as speed increased. Limiting arm tion to speed of walking can further
swing during walking resulled in increased com- spinal loads (Cheng ct al" 1998)_
,-
Diagram Technique for Coplanar Forces. Calculation
the Static Loads on the Spine As an Object Is Lifted
loads on cl lumbar disc I,'iill be calculilled for on,! point in tim[' 't/hen a NUJ to be posit]>,'e and counterciochvis(' moments are considered to
cer50n who weighs 70 kg lifts a 20 kg obj!'ct The spin£' is flexed ilpprW.i. negeltl'/e.i
, 35 In this example, the three priflclpdl forces ,Kling on the lurnl)ilf
Q
Thus,
allhe lurnbosilual le'lei ilfe: (1) HK force produced by \1',(' ','ieight 01
:::: r,il 0
upper body (Wi. Ciilculat.:d to be ':50 N (approxin\ille!y 65",0 of the
{\,V :< L<..J· (P >:U - iE >.: L) 0
exerted by lhe IOtal body weigh!); (2) tile fOlce produced b~i the
of the object (Pl, 200 N; "neJ (3) trw force produced by contraction
(450 N ;.; 0,25 m) " (200 N >: DAm) \t ;.: 0.05 m) 0
E ;.: 0,05 rn 112.5 Nrn -;- 80 1~m
the erector spinae muscles (El, which has a kno':m direction anel point of
ap,al",,'''''' but an unknQl,W1 magnitude (Calculi1lion Box Fig. 1O·4A·l) Solving this equation for E yields 3.850 N
Because these three forces <let at a distance from the center of motion Th!: to",1 compre~~!'/e force exe!led on the disc (Cl can now be calcu-
in the spine, they crcate moments in the lurntBr spille, Two fOPNard-ber:(j· lawd trigonof1,etricaliy (Calculation Box Fig. 10·cIA-2). in the example, C is
in,) moments (\iVl:,_ cl!ld PL,) are the products of (V{: and (Pi and the perpen- lhe sum of lhe compressive forCi':s "cLng O'lel the disc. '.vhich is inclined
diculars from the instanl center of rOIMion to the lines of action of these to the triirlSVelSe pldfle These forces are
fc,rces (,heir lever Mms), The le'/er arm (L'J for (Pl is 0.<1 III and the !e'/er arm
The compressive force produced by the weight of the upper body
(L,,) for (W) is 0.25 m. f\ counterbalanCing moment (ELi is the product of
(W:-: cos 35°).
(V'/), \'ihich acts on the disc inclined 35'0
lEi and Its lever arm, The lever elm: (l) is 0,05 m, TIl(' fI1agnitude of (E) CiJll
2 The force producHJ by the '.veight of the object (Pl, which acts on
b~~ found tilrough the use of the equilibriufI1 equa,ion for moments, For ,he
the disc inclined 35" (P '< cos 35"')
kJdy to be in moment equilibrium, the sum of the moments aCiing on the
3 Th;;,: fOlce produced by ,he erector spinae muscles (E), 'i,hich acts ap-
;u:nbar spine must be zeo (In ihis example. cloch'!ise morm,nts "re consid-
proxirn,w.:ly at il right angle to the diSC inclination.
The totdi compressive fOlce acting on the disc (C) has a known sense,
point of ilppliciltion, dnd line of iKlion but an unknown magnitude. The
n:dgnllude of C (an bt": ioundlflrough H\e use of the eq\Jiiibriurn 0quation
for forces For the body to be in force eqUilibrium, the sum of the forces
must b(, .-,qual to zero
Force W (450 N) Thus,
:::: forces a
Force C (v') :-: cos 35") ,. (P:· cos 35") .. E C °
(magnitUde Force P (200 N) (';501'-1 ;.: cos 3S~) .c. (200 N ;.: cos 35") -'. 3850 N ." C ;co 0
C 368.5 N .;. 163,8 N·· 3850 1'J
f I \,
unknown)
~
L-! Force S Solving the equation for C yields 'U82 1'1
\, \ l'
\ \ C '" 4382 N (magnitude The shear component for the reaction force on the disc (S) is found in the
~P S 373 N unknown) same'i/ay
Calculation Box Calculation Box {450 ~J '.,: sin 35") ;, {ZOO N :': sin 35") _. S ,'. °
Figure 10·4A~1. Figure 10-4A-2. 373 N
~r-----------------------------------------
8ecause C and S form" right angle (Calculation 'Box Fig 10·48·1). the
Forco S 35 Pythagorean theorem can be used !O fin,J the towl reaction force on the disc (Rt
85 35 Forco W • Force P {R'I vc .;. s;'
j R 4398N
. ; ; Forco R
Forco The direction of (R) is determined by means of a trigonometric function:
Forco<;!/ .
/ FOTeo E (tt) '" archsin (ClR) ;co 85" where (t,) is the angle belween lhe total vecto
force on the disc and the disc inc!ina,ion
~0l-L---:':--'-l.:-I-:'::-'-:!:::-''---:JL
clear the l<.lble and lumb<.lr spinL' motion is m
mi!.ed (F'ig. 10·21) and ortell emphasized in rehab
20 40 60 80 100
tation programs, arc recommended for minimiz
Percentage of Cycle
compressi\"L' lumbar loading (A,der &. l\-!cGil!. 1
Jukcr L't aI., I (98). This modilic<'ltion of the exen
has been shown to be cl"fecti\'c in terms or Illotor
Axial load on the L3~L4 motion segment in terms of body recruitment in the muscles (F.kllOlm el aI., 1
weight for one subject during walking at four speeds. The Flint, 1965; Partridge &. \\'alters, 1959); all port
horizontal line (UBW) denotes the weight of the upper 01' the external oblique and rcctus abdolninis rnus
body, which represents the gravitational component of <.lre activated. Sit-ups with feet unanchored, legs
this load. Loads were predicted using experimental data vated, or tOI"SO twisting do not significantl.v incre
from photogrammetric measurements along with a biome-
abdorninal muscle <.lclivit." (AxleI' &: J'dcGill, 1997)
chanical model of the trunk. LHS, left heel strike; RHS,
lirnit the psoas activity, <.l reverse curl, wherein
right heel strike. Adapted with permission from Cappozzo, A.
(1984), Compressive toads in the lumbar vertebral column dur-
knees arc brought t()\vard the chest and the butto
ing normal level walking. J Orthop Res, 1, 292. <.lre raised I"rom the table, aetivalL's the internal
external oblique rnuscles :.md the reclus abdom
muscle (P<.\rtridge &: \Vahers, 1959), If the rev
curl is perrormcd isometricall.v. the disc pressur
EXERCISES lower than that produced during a sit-up, bUl the
During strengthening exercises for the erector ercise is just as effective for strengthening the
spinae and abdominal muscles, the loads on the dominal rnuscles (Fig. IO~22l. It can he conclu
spine can be high. Although such exercises must be that no single :.Ilxlominal exercise C<.m optimall.v t
effective for strengthening the trunk muscles con~ ~dl tnmk flexors while minimizing intervertebral j
cerned, they should be performed in such a wa:\' that loading. Instead, a \'aried program must he
the loads on the spine are adjusted to suit the con- scribed, tailored to the training objectives of the
dition of the individual. dividual (;hler & McGill, 1997).
The erector spinae muscles are intensely activated \Vhen designing a back strengthening cxer
by arching the back in the prone position (Fig. progr:'llll, the most import:.lnt consider:.ltion is
IO-20A) (Pauly, 1966). Loading the spine in extreme conclusion drmvn bv the Paris Task Fo
positions such as this one produces high stresses on (Abenh:.lim et al., 2(00). The guidelines set forth
spine structures, in particular the spinous process clude recommendations that exercise is benefi
(Adams et aI., 1988). Although intradiscal pressure for subacute and chronic low Inlck pain, No par
in a prone position with upper bod)' support on the ular group or t~'pe of exercises has bcen shown t
elbows is halF that in standing (Wilke et aI., 1999), it most efTccti\·c.
A
A, Arching the back in the prone position greatly activates the erector spinae muscles but
also produces high stresses on the lumbar discs, which are loaded in an extreme position.
B, Decreasing the arch of the back by placing a pillow under the abdomen allows the discs
to better resist stresses because the vertebrae are aligned with each other. Isometric exer-
.> cise in this position is preferable.
,?
.',.
200
150
100
50
Performing a curl to the point where only the shoulder A reverse curl, isometrically performed, provides efficient
blades dear the table minimizes the lumbar motion and training of the abdominal muscles and produces moderat
hence the load on the lumbar spine is less than when a stresses on the lumbar discs. The relative loads on the thir
full sit-up is performed. A greater moment is produced if lumbar disc during a full sit-up and an isometric curl are
the arms are raised above the head or the hands are compared with the load during upright standing, depicted
clasped behind the neck, as the center of gravity of the as 100%. Adapted with permission from Nachemson, A. (1975
upper body then shifts farther away from the center of Towards a better understanding of back pain: ~ review of the
motion in the spine. mechanics of the lumbar disc. Rheumatol Rehabil, 14. 129.
Spine
160
80 Respiratory flow
Abdominal Positive n:--~ Inlraabdominal
cavity 60 values = Inspiralion pressure
Negalive
: -mmHg-
40 values=expiralion
20 r \r- !
Ibs
mmHg
A B
A, Schematic illustration of the effect of intra-abdominal pres- values delineate expiration and positive values delineat
sure. An increased pressure will create an extension moment ration). Note that the subject inspires before the lift an
on the lumbar spine. B, Intra-abdominal pressure (lAP) (mea- the breath throughout the lift. lAP increases and peaks
sured by a nasogastric microtip transducer) and respiratory gether with the lifting force. helping to stabilize and un
flow (measured through a Pneumotach) during stoop lift of the lumbar spine. (ourtesy of Markus Pieuek, MD and Mar
120 lbs. (approximately 60 kg). Solid line, lAP; dotted line, Hagins PI: MA. Program of Ergonomics and Biomechanics, N
force exerted in lbs; dashed line, respiratory flow (negative York. UniversiC'j and Hospital for Joint Diseases, New York, Ny
Cresswell el aI., 1994a; Cresswell eL aI., 1992; Loss of spine stabilit~. . can be achieved throug
Hodges cl aI., 1999). As the transversus abdominis repetitive loading. This can be achieved throug
is ho.-izontally oriented. it creates compression and repetitive continuous motions that fatigue th
an incre,lSC in lAP withollt an accompanying flexor trunk muscles. l\tlusclc endurance is mechanicall
moment. A recent experimental study gave the.firsl defined as the point at which fatigue of the mus
direct evidence ror a trunk extensor moment pro- cles is observable. usually through a change i
duced by eleva Led lAP (Hodges el aI., 2000), movement pauern. Parnianpour ct al. (1988) use
It has been demonstrated that the lAP con- an isoinenial triaxial device to study force outpu
tributes LO the mechanical stability of the spine and movement patterns when subjects performe
through a co-activation between the antagonistic a flexion and extension rnovemcnt of the trunk un
lrunk lIexor and extensor muscles (Cholewicki et aI., til exhaustion. The results showed that with fa
1997, 1999a,b; Gardner-Morse & Stokes, 1998). As tigue, coupled motion increased in the coronal an
the abdominal musculature contracts, JAP increases transverse planes during the Oexion and extensio
and converts the abdornen into a rigid cylinder that movement. In addition, torque. angular excursion
greatly increases stability as compared with the and angular velocity of the motion decreased. Th
muhisegmenlcd spinal column (ivlcGiII & Norman. reduction in the functional capacity of the f1exion
1987; Morris et al.. 1961). extcnsion muscles was compensated for by sec
lAP increases during both stalic and dynamic ondary Illuscle groups and led to an increascd cou
conditions such as lifting and lowering, running Hncl pIc motion pattern that is morc injury prone
jumping, and unexpected trunk perturbations Figure 10-24, A & B shows the increase in axial ro
(Cresswell el aI., 1992; Cresswell et aI., 1994b; Cress- tation (torque and position) during flexion and ex
well & Thorslcnsson, 1994; Harman et aI., 1988). tension of the trunk until exhaustion.
Current research suggests that the transversus ab~ In an animal study, Solol11onow ct al. (1999) in
clominis muscle, together with the diaphragm, plays duced laxity of the spine in the ligaments, discs
an important role in stabilizing the spine in prepa- and joint capsule by' cyclic repetitive loading of fc
ralion for limb movement, regardless of the direc- line in vivo lumbar spines. The cyclic loading re
tion in which n1QVement is anticipated. Transversus sulted in desensitization of the mechanoreceptor
abdominis and diaphragmatic activity appear to oc- with a significant decrease or complete elilnina
cur independently, prior to activity of the primary tion of reflexive stabilizing contractions of th
limb mover or the other abdominal muscles multifidus muscle. This may lead to increased in
(Hodges eL al.. 1997, 1999). stability of the spine and a lack of protective mus
cular activity even before muscular fatigue is ob
sen/cd. A IO-minute rest period restored the mus
Trunk Muscle Co-Contraction cular activity to approximately 250/0.
To understand the phenomenon or co-contraction
during trunk loading, Krajcarski et al. (1999) stud-
External Stabilization
ied the in vivo muscular response to perturbations
at two rates causing a rapid flexion moment. The Restrict.ion of motion at any level of the spine ma
results of maximum trunk flexion angles and re- increase motion at another level. The usc of bac
sulting extensor moments were compared. The re- belts as a means of preventing low back injury re
sults showed that with higher levels, co-contraction, mains controversial. Originally it was believed t
spine compression. and trunk muscle stiffness in- assist in increasing lAP as a way of unloading th
crease. During unexpected loading, a 70% in- spine during lifting; however, inconclusive ev
crease in muscle activity has been noted as com- dence exists as to the biomechanical effectivenes
pared with anticipated loading, which may lead of these devices (Perkins & Bloswick, 1995). Th
to injury (Marras et al.. 1987). Further investiga- National "Institute for Occupational Safety an
tion into the loading response has revealed that Health has advised against the use of back belts L
an inverse relationship (i.e .. the shorter the warn- prevent low back injuries (NIOSH, 1994). As wel
ing time, the greater the peak trunk muscle re- an orthotic worn lo restrict lhoracic and lumba
sponse) exists between peak muscle response and motion may result in compensatory motion at th
warning time prior to loading (Lavender ct a\., lumbosacral level (Lumsden & Morris, 1968
1989). Norton & Brown, 1957; Tuong et aI., 1998).
, 78.3
E
!i~i I~i~
!!
T
~
-·32.4
-127.1
58.6, -'::======::;:======::;====================~
40.9
2.3
- 15.4 +--.,--
'''''1-'--,'--'1-r'-'
, 'I'-'I--''--'--Ir-,TI--...,--,-
- 1+-i-.....-r-1T,- ,I-"--""I-,rl
-
0.1 9.3 18.4 27.5 36.6 45.7 54.7
A
ROlation Torque and Position vs. Time
4.3,.-------------------------------,
2.3
,
E
z,
1.1
"~
!!
....0
-0.6
-2.1
19.1
w
, 13.3
"co~
'i'" 7.0
c
.Q
.~
0
Q. 0.7
- 5. 1 -!--,----,-.-,.--...,--,-.,..--,----,-.-,.--...,--,-.,..--,----,-'-.-,.--...,--,,-.,..--,----,--I
0.1 9.3 18.4 27.5 36.6 45.7 54.7
B
Dynamic (isoinertial) flexion-extension trunk testing until Data for lateral flexion was similar to axial rotation a
exhaustion for one subject. Torque and position data is de- not shown here. Adapted with permission .from Parnianp
picted for two planes, flexion-extension (A) and axial rota- M .. Nordin. M.. Kahclnovitz, N.. er al. (1988). The rriaxial
tion (B). Note that flexion-extension torque production is coupling 0; torque generarion of trunk muscles during iso
diminishing as is the amount of performed extension of ric exertions and the effect of fatiguing isoinercial movem
the trunk (A). Rotational torque and movement amplitude, on the motor outpur and movemeor pc1tterns. Spine. 13(9
increased accessory motion, and torque is shown in B. 982-992
Investigation into the effect of back bells on on the spine to bc minimized during lifting, the d
muscle activity has revealed no significant EMG tance bL'lween the trunk and thc object lifted shou
activity differences in the back extensors during be as short as possible.
Iifling with or withoul a back bell (Ciriello & 10 lAP and co-contraction of trunk musculatu
Snook. 1995; Lee & Chen. 1999), while McGill el al. increases the slability of the spinal column.
(1990) showed slightly increased EMG aClivily in
the abdominal (except for the intel'l1al oblique 1/1' Trunk muscle fatigue may expose the spine
l11uscles) and erector spinae muscles. Thomas et '.11. increased vulnerability as a result of loss of' mot
(1999) have verified a slight increase in EMG ac- control and thereby increased stress on the su
tivity (2(10) in the erector spinae during symmetric rounding ligaments, disc, and joint capsules.
lifting wilh a back belt. Back bells have not been ,12 vValking is an excellent exercise thai poses
shown to significantly increase Iifling capacity low load on the lurnbal' spine.
(Reyna el aI., 1995).
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lion of trunk respon$c 10 asymmL'tric trunk lllOlion. Spill/!. thl..' 11l1lloosacr;.\1 spine. 1 BOIIt' }oill1 S/lrg. 39:\. Ill.
17. 318 . Dncngrcn, R. And~rsson. G.B.l., & 1'\achcmson. A.L. (1
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Trunk loading and ('xpectation. Erf,:ollolllics. 30, 351. myoelectric b<'H:k muscle acti\'it~,. and intra-abdominn
McGill, S.~vl. & Norman, R.\V. (1987). Reasscssm~nt of the trag;:\slric) pr~SSllre. Spille, 6. 98.
role of inlra·abdominal prcsstlrt.' in spinal compression. Osval<k'r. A.L.. Ncumann, P., Lo\"sund. P.. et a1. (1990)
Ergollomics. 30, 1565. maII..' strength of the lumb.\r spine ill fle.xion-.1I1 in
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fret of an 'Ibdominal b~1t on trunk muscle acti\'ity and Panjabi. ,\13\-1., Gael, V.I-\. .. ..\: Tabtn, 1-\.. (1982). Ph~'si
intra·abdominal prl.'sslln..' Juring squal lifts. Er~ol/olllic.s. strains in the lumbar spinal ligamC'1l1s. An in vilro b
33, In. chanical slUdy. Spi1/i', 7. 192.
McGill, S.~1.. Yingling, V.R .. &. Pl..'ach, J.P. (1999). Tlm..'I..'- Parnianpour. M., Nordin, \1.. K<thnnol"iti'.. N., l.'t al. (
dimcnsion:d kin~rnatics and trunk muscle my()d~ctric ac· The tri<.lxia! clHlpling or torque gcneration of trunk
ti\'it~' in the ddcrly spinc-<l dawb,lse compared to young cles during isometric e.'\cnions and the effect of f:tl
people. CJiIl Biolllcclu/llics. 1'+. 389. isoincrtial mo\,emenlS on till.' motor output and 1ll0\
,\'111es, M. & Sull ivan. W. E. ( 1961 ). L:lti:nd bi.'llding .11 Ihe hlln· p~IIt('rns. SpiJlt', 13(9). 982-991.
bar and lumbosacral joints. .·\11111 U~C, /39. 38i. Partridge. M.J. 6.: Walters, C.E. (1959). ~articip.llion
~liller. l.A.A., Hadersp\.'ck. K.:\., 6.: Schuhz, A.B. (1983). Pus- abdominal IlHlsdes in \'arious mOVt'lllc-lltS of Ih ..~ tru
tl'rior (.'lelllenl loads in lumbar motion segmcnts. Spille. S, IlWIl. An L'!cl::trol11yographic study. Phys Tll!'r Rei', 39
331.
Paul.\', J.E. (1966). :\n dcclromyographic '\llaly~is of cl:nain SIlI(ImOIlO\\" \\., ZIHIlI. B.-II.. Bar:llia. R.\'., 1.'1 itl. (19
nlO\'('Il1(:nls <lilt! ex('rcises. I. SOllle c!('cp muscles of Lhl' llh.'l'h:lnic. tlf incrl'a:-I.:d expUSlIl"(,.· to hlilihar inju
back. All(/( Ret:. /55. 223. h.l.· l'~"l'lic loadillg: Pan I. lo;.;s of rdl,:.\i\·(,.· 1Il1l:,(,:
Perkins, ~I.S. & Bloswid. D.S. (1995). Th,· usc of h'ICk belts liz;llioll. Spillt'. 2·H23). 2-l26-243-l.
f 10 increase inlr~wbdominal pressure as a means of pn:- Sldkn. T., B;II·alllki. II.C .. Ruhin, R.. d :11. (19t.1~J_
venting lo\\' back injuries: A survey of lhe lih:r.lIun:. 1m J inlradisl'al pr(,.'~:-.ur(,.· Ilh:a::-urcd in I hI.' :I11t(,.·riol" itllt
OCCIlP EUl'imll rlt.:lllih, I, 326. bler:!l anllul;,r rcgi(l/IS during :i='.\"Inml.'lricll I(I;l
Pope, M.H., Andersson, G.B.J., Brolll.lIl, 1-1., L't .d. (1986). Biol/f(·clu/!/ic.\. 13, 495.
Electromyogr:q1hit studies of the ]lImb'H' trunk muscula. Sllln:ssoll, B" Sl'h·ik. Go, & L"dCIl, A. (1'J89). i\!on
tun: during thl: dcvelopmcnt of a.xi.1I torques. J (Julio!) thl.' s:lcroili:ll' joints. ,\ rt)I.'rllgt·ll sLerl'oplHllOg
Res, cJ, 288-297. :lIwlysis. Spi!lc, 1-1, 162.
Ranu, B.S. (1990). Measuremctlt of pr(.'SSllrcs in the nucleus Thomas, ./.5., Lavelltk'r, S.:\ .. Corcos, D.M., 1.'1 :t1. (1
and within the annulus of the hurn'lll spinal disc due 10 l.:X' fl'ct 01' lifting bl.'l!:- Ol1 ll'unk Illusck :1l"lil':Lli()[l
trcme loadilll.!. Pmc Illst Jleclt Ef/J,!, (llJ. 204, 14l. sudlk'111.\" appli<:d In.td. /l1t'WIII Faclo!"s. ·iI. 6iO.
Rcichm;t1Hl, S.~ (1971). Motion or thc lumbar anicular luong, N.H., {),lll:-l,.·r(,.·:HI. J.. \latlr~tis, G.. 1.'1 ~d. (199S
processes in fh:xiull-cxtcnsion and lateral flexion of the dillll..'llsional I.·\·alu.ltion of lumhar urthosis d
spine. ~1c[(t .\!orp!lo/ Nt'crl SCfllld 8, 261. :-pinal bL'h;l\"i\11". J Uclwbil Il.·... Del'. 35. 3-1.
Reichmann, S., Bl.'rglllnd, E.,..\: Lundgr(,.·n, K. CJ972). Das B(,.·. lrb'lIl, J.P,G. & :\kMllllin, J.r. (1985). Swdlillg prl
wegungszcntrum in der LendenwirbclsAule bei Flc.xio[l thl' inleJ"l.·crtd.u·al di!'L'; Infllh:llc(,.' 01 pmIL'oglyc;1I1
lind Extension. Z A/llIl EIII\\·ickltlll;;';;;':I!.\·(.·h. /38,283. I:q;l'n COlllt:'IlI:-. Bifl,.h.,o!o.t:..\·, 22. 1-45.
Reid, J.G. &. Costigan, P.A. (1987). Trunk llluscle balance and \',111 Dici:n. l,tI., llUCt"l.I.'lllan:-, M.L\!.. &. TUllssai
muscular force. Spill/!, /2, 783. (1999J. SH,op or squal: ,.\ rl.'\·it'\\· of bilJlll(,.·<:hallil:a
Reyna, J.R. Jr., Leggdl, S.I-I., Kenney, ~., "I .d. (1995). The ef. on lifling 1I.:(hniqu(,.'. CliJl Bifl/lft'c}wuic:•. /4. 6$5.
feCi of Ilimbar bells on isolated IlImb,lr musl'!e. Slrength \bn~..\1. & DUlllHS. G.:\. (199S). \kdl;lIlh,:al hdl;l\'i
and dynamic (;"padt)'. Spilll.', 20, 68. fl.~lllak s:l(roilial.· joinl [llld inflllL'nCt' of t!l(,., :l1l11
Rolandcr, S.D. (1966). ~'lotion of lhe lumb'lf spine wilh spe- poskrinr s:II.::roilia<: Iigamcnts under sagittal In
cial reference to the stabilizing effect of posterior fusion. Hiw!lccltullio. /3, 193.
An experiment"l study 011 autopsy specimens . .'\elll Ortho}l \\'hi!l.', :\..-\. (1969). An:d.\"sis of thL' Illl'I'!l,lnit:- 01'
8colld, .)11]1]11. 90, 1-144.
spint:' ill Illan. An expl.·rillll.'llt,t1 stud.\' (II' :lllIOPS
Sato, K., Kikuchi, S" & '{onez;Jwi1, 1'. (1999). In vivo intradis. mens . .·le/ll ()rt/wp ,"jcl/ud, SIIp/i! il7, 1-105.
cal pressure llle'lsuremCllt in healthy individuals and in Whilt:, A.A. l\:. P:lnjahi. :\I.N. (19701. Cliniud HiulIlt'cI
p<iticnts with ongoing back probll.'ll1S. Spille, 24, 2468. Iht'Spilit'. I'hil:ldl.'lphia: J.B. Lippincott.
Schuhz, A., ~l ~\1. (1982). Loads on lhe lumbar spine. Valida. ""ilkl.', "1.1., Ned. Po, C:lillli. :\1.. <'I al. (19991. ;\I.'W
lion of a biolllcchanicaJ analysis by mC<lsurenH.'IllS of in. ml.·asur(,.·IIK·nts of pr(,.'ssurl.'S in Ihl.' inl<.'l'\·(,,·rlChra
Ir~ldisc.d prc:sslIn:s <1I1d myol.'!l.·ctric sign ... k J BOIlt' Joil/! dail~' life. Spill.·, 24. 755.
Surg. 64.·\,713. Wilder. D.G., POpl.· ..\1.1-1 .. &. Fr.\"Ino~·L'r. J. W. (1980). T
Shir4lzi-t\dl. ,.\. (1994). Biomt'ch4lnics of lhe lumbar spine in tional lopogr,tphy of the s;Jcroiliac joint. Sp;/It'. 5,
sagittalJlatcral moments. Spi/h:, /9, 2407.
Biomechanics of th
Cervical Spin
Ronald Mosko
Introduction
Component Anatomy and Biomechanics
Anatomy
Osseous Structures
Intervertebral Discs
Mechanical Pmperties
Vertebrae
Intervertebral Discs
Ligaments
Muscle
Neural Elements
Kinematics
Range of Motion
Surface JOint Motion
Coupled Motion of the Cervical Spine
Atlantoaxial Segment
Subaxial Spine
Abnormal Kinematics
Spinal Stability
Occipitoatlantoaxial Complex
$ubaxial Cervical Spine
Applied Biomechanics
Decompression
Arthrodesis
Cervical Spine Fixation
Biomechanics of Cervical Trauma
Airbag Injuries
Whiplash Syndrome
Summary
I· References
:1(
il1Lh"'d,~.,%>. mLdi.
arc five t.'·pical cervical vertebrae, C3-C7, which arc
Introduction sirnilar in structure and function.
The spine has four curves when viewed in the
Knowledge of spinal biomechanics advanced expo-
sagiual plane. The celvical and lumbar regions arc
nentially during the second half of the twentieth
convex anteriorly (lordotic), while the thoracic and
centlll)'. A two-column model of the spine was de-
sacra) regions are convex posteriorly (k)iphotic).
scribcd by Sir Frank HoldswOIth (1963) and, latel; a
The lordotic curves develop after birth as the in-
lhree-column model by Denis (1983), further refin-
fant's spine straightens out, which facilitates devel-
ing the principle or spinal stability. The computer
opment of a bipedal posture. Although there is a
age has produced powerful methods For modern
hiomcchanical modeling, the promise being the
ability to assess the slnbility of n construct prior to
implantation. Today. the application of cendcal bio-
mechanical knowledge spans many inclustl'ies and
supports improved medical diagnoses and treaL-
ment that is more effective. Future technological Cl (atlas)
and electronic advances will continue to build on
basic biomechanical principles, many of \\:hich will C2 (axis)
be outlined in this chnpter.
Facet
joint
ANATOMY
A
The exquisite design of the cervical spine uniquely
contributes to the structure of the human body and
profoundly enhances its function. The cervical
spine supports the skull and acts as a shock ab-
sorber for the brain. It also facilitates the transfer
of weights and bending moments of the hend. It
protects the brainstem, spinal cord, and various Uncovertebral
joint
neurovascular SU'UClures as they transit the neck
nnd when they enter and exit the skull. The verte- Intervertebral
bral column also provides a multitude of muscle disc
and ligamentous attachments for complex move- Tracheal
ment and stability. The neuromuscular control af- air shadOw
forded by the muscle ntlnChmenls combined with
the numerous articulations of the cervical spine al- C7
lows for a wide range of physiological motion that
maximizes the range of motion of the head and
neck and serves to integrate the head with the rest
of the body and the environment. B
The spine consists of 33 vertebrae divided into
five regions: cervical (7) (Fig. II-I), thoracic (12),
lumbar (5), sncml (5 fused segments), nnd coccvgeal
(approximately 4). The two most cranial vertebrae, A, lateral roentgenogram of the cervical spine. Note the
Cl (atlas) and C2 (axis). [Ire atypical. with a unique lordosis. The facet joints are aligned obliquely only to the
structural role in the articulation between the head frontal or <oronal plane; hence, their excellent visualiza-
and the cervical spine. The atlanta-occipital joint, tion in the lateral view. a, Anteroposterior view of the <er·
vical spine.
bel ween CI and the oecipital bone of the skull, is
also a functional part of [he cervical spine. There
287
•> QJ- ._
harmonious progression of these curves from one to sagittal range of motion of the cervical spine.
another, which may help distribute stresses and Cl-C2 articulation is the joint primaril.\-' respon
strains, injuries occur more commonly at the jllnc~ for rotation in the cel'Vical spine.
tional areas because of differences in the relative The atlas, or C 1, is a bon.\-' ring consisting o
stiffness of each anatomical segment of the spine. anterior ;:\lld posterior arch that is attached to
The physical structure of the anatomical elements two !;:\terallnasses of the atlas (Fig. 11~2). Th
modulates from the cervical to the sacral region in pcrior surfaces or the latent! rnasses, which
relation to the segmental function. crani<:dly <:md inward, form an <:\rticulation with
The lordosis in the cervical spine, like that in the caudally and clutward-facing occipital cond.\-'l
lumbar spine, is maintained predoI1linantl:v b.v the skull (Fig. 11-3). E.xtension ()f the occipit
slightl)' wedge-shaped intervertebral discs that arc vical joint is limited by' the bon.\-' <:uwt()!ll.v; fle
larger anteriorly' than posteriorly. In contradistinc- is lirnited prirnaril.\-' by ligarneluous structures
tion, thoracic kyphosis is maintained largely.' by the tectorial mernbrane, and the longitudinal fibe
vertebral bodies themselves; because the posterior the crucifonll ligarnent as well as by the post
portion of the thoracic vertebral body is larger than ligaments (Figs. 11 ~4 and 11 ~5). The anterio
the anterior portion, there is a relative kyphosis of berek' on the <:llTh of C I serves <:lS <:In attachm
the thoracic spine. for the longus colli muscle, a flexor of the n
The conceptual biomechanical building block of The posterior arch of the atlas is a modified lar
the spinal colunln is the Functional spinal unit or that is grooved on its superior surface for the
motion segment. It consists of two adjacent verte- sage or the vertebral arteries as the.v enter
brae and the intervening intervertebral discs and lig~ the fClrarnen magnum after piercing tile post
aments between the vertebrae. These ligaments arc ntlanto~(lccipital nlelllbl"ane.
the anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments; Simi!;:\r to the occipitocel'Vical junction, the
the intertransverse, interspinous, and supraspinous 11() intervertdJral disc betwecn Cl and C2. Stab
ligaments; and the facet capsular ligaments. As a re~ at this levcl is thus predicated on intact ossco
suit of the different functional demands of the vari- l1lentclus structurcs. The articulation between
ous parts of the spinal column, segmental variation and C2 is primaril.\-' specialized for rotation.
is expressed by! changes in the size and shape of the bod.\-' of C2 projects superiorly to fOlTn the odon
vertebrae, the anatomy of the discoligamentous process, or dens (Fig. 11 ~6). The projection o
structures, and the alignment and structure of the bod.\-' or C2 and the dens has a characteristic ob
facet joints. appearance on lateral cervical radiographs an
Biological structures behave differently than do
common engineering materials. Collagenous tissues Superior articular Facet for dens.
exhibit both viscoelastic and anisotropic behavior. facet on anterior arch
Viscoelastic properties are rate~dependent (time-
dependent) behaviors under loading that are seen in Orig
both bone and soft tissues; mechanical strength in- tran
creases \vith increased rates of loading. Anisotropy liga
is the alteration in mechanical properties that is
seen \vhen bone is loaded along different axes.
Anisotropic behavior occurs as a result of the dis-
similar longitudinal and transverse microstructure.
Groove
Osseous Structures vertebral artery
1cm
The occipul-CI-C2 complex comprises the upper
cervical spine and is responsible for approxilnately on posterior arch
40% of cenrical flexion and 60% of cervical rotation. I
The occipital condyles articulate with the slightly DmI'---- " "__" ~
concave lateral masses of the atlas. The primary
Illotion permitted by this articulation is flexion and
extension, accounting for a large portion of the 1 Bony architecture of the atlas. Bar 1 C111.
Occipital
condyle ,r--__ Occiput·C1
joint
Transverse Dens
process
Cl-C2
Lateral mass facel joint
of Cl
Lateral mass
ofC2
The open-mouth radiograph demonstrates the occiput-(l and the atlantoaxial articula-
tions. Note the symmetric spacing between the lateral masses of (1 and the dens. Asym-
.
metry or widening of these spaces may occur after rotatory disturbances or fractures of
the (1 ring .
--------------------------
Anterior Posterior
Superficial layer of
tectorial membrane
Apical
ligament Tectoria! membrane
I 01 dens
! Ant:~~~
I of alias ",,","u
I ~-
-~
Dens of axis -t;~ffB~ll
Transverse
ligament ~~~~y.. . @0
Anterior ~~
)'., -.:,::(-'\ ~..
I atlantoaxial
I ligament
Flexion Extension
I interv~~:bral
fibrocartilage
Ilongitudinal
Anlerior Tracings of lateral flexion and extension radiographs
1 ing the occiput, el, (2. and (3. The substantial relati
ligament Posterior
longitudinal motion between the occiput, (1. and (2 can be seen
Body of C3 ligament Large arrows indicate the direction of motion_ Small
rows indicate that approximation of the posterior ele
ments limit occipitocervical extension. In contradistin
maximum flexion is controlled by tautness of the Iiga
Median sagittal section through the occipital bone and the ments. Reprinred with permission {rom MoskoviclJ, R. & J
first three cervical vertebrae showing the articulations and D.A (1999). Upper (eNica/spine instrlJmellt<11ion, Spine:
surrounding ligaments. of tIle Art Reviews. 13(2), 233-253.
disc, The cCryiC~IJ \'crtebral hod,\" is o\'ul-slJaped
Dens
is widl.:l" mediolaLerally Lhan <:Illtcropostcriorl:",
(odontoid transverse pnlcL'ssCS or the cervical spin\,.' arl' uni
process) in thaI Lhe,Y all contain a lr~Hlsn:rse foramen for
Spinal canal passage of thc vertebral a ncr:', Tl\\"~ transv
processes or the suba:xial c(~r\'ical \'('ncbr~\e h
two projections, lhe alllerior and p(Jstcl'ior tu
Superior Spinous cit's. which serve as allilChl11\,.'nt points for ante
facet process and poslcriOl- lTluscles, respectively, The large a
rior tubercle of C6, rt'fcrrcd to as the carotid tu
cle, can be an important surgicallandmal'k, The
peric>!' surract;.' 01' the lrans\,\,.'l'se proc~ss provid
groove for the exiling nerve root.
Foramen
lransversarium Inferior facet Each pedicle connecLs the vl".·ncbral bod~! to a
lcm eral mass, that portion of bone containing lh~ s
rior and inferior facets, The facct joints n.::gulatc
mO\'l".'ll1entsor the spine and pla~- a c.:ritical rol
spinal slabilit~" Those 01' the cervical spine are orie
The axis vertebra, or (2. The superior facet articulation at approxirnatd~' 45'~ to the coronal pbne and arc
permits multiplanar motion while the inferior facet is cated in the sagittal plane (Figs, 11-8 and 11-9),
aligned to articulate with a more typical cervical facet, orientation allows grc(l(('r anlounts of flexion t
which is more constrained. There is a smooth surface on
does latl".'ral bending or rotation in the cl.;.'lyical sp
the front of the dens for articulation with the anterior
The facet joims resist most of lhe shear forces and
ring of (1. Bar>:: 1 em.
proximalL'!:' 16l.:!r; of lhe compressi\"c forces acting
• the spine (Adams & I-lutton, 1980). The laminae
arise from the lalcral masses, Tht' IaLeral rnHSS\,.'S h
important surgical implications in tht: subaxial ce
often a helpful anatomical landmark. The dens ar- cal spine because they conwin a relativel:' l
ticulates with and is restrained within a socket amount 01" bone and are easil~' accessible for the pl
formed by the transverse ligament of CI and the an-
terior arch of C1. The transverse ligaments run from
the anterior arch of C I. behind the dens, and pre-
vent anterior translation of Clan C2. The other lig-
aments at the CI-C2 articulation are the alar, apical,
and accessory alar ligaments. The alar ligaments,
which are symmetrically placed on both sides of the
dens, attach the dens to the occiput to prevent ex- Groove
Inferio
cessive rotation. The left alar ligament prevents facet
for spinal
right rotation and vice versa, To some extent, the nerve Super
facet
alar ligaments also act to limit motion during side
bending (Dvorak & Panjabi, 1987). The apical liga- Pos
ment also connects the dens to the occiput. tube
Unlike the 1\\'0 most cranial vertebrae, the Anteri
luberc
anatomy of the third through the sixth cervical ver-
tebrae is similar (Fig. I 1-7). These fOUl" cervical ver-
Uncinate
tebrae consist of a body, two pedicles, two lateral process
lcm
masses, two laminae. and a spinous process, The
seventh cervical vertebra is slightly different in that
it has a transitional form, It is called the vertebra
prominens and has a larger spinolls process that is Superior view of a typical cervical vertebra, representa
not bifid like those of C3-C6. of (3-(6 ((7. the vertebra prominens. diHers slightly in
that it has a prominent nonbifid spinous process),
The anterior components of a subaxial cervical
motion segment are the vertebral bodies and the
C4
CS
C6
C7
Orientation of the facets of a typical cervical vertebra in
three planes. The facets are oriented at a 45" angle to the
transverse plane and the frontal plane, and are at right
angles to the sagittal plane. Y indicates the craniocaudal
axis. z the anteroposterior axis. and x the mediolateral
axis. Adapted '.t'lieh permission from White, A.A. 111 & Panjabi,
M.M. (1990). Cfinical Biomechanics oi the Spine. Pili/adelphia: Lateral photograph of a fourth and seventh cervical ver
1. B. Lippiflcort bra. The facet joint alignment is fairly close to 45° from
Intervertebral Discs
The intervertebral discs are highly specialized st11.1C-
tures that contribute up to one-third of the height of
the vertebral column and fmm specialized joints be-
tween the cartilaginous end plates of the adjacent
vertebral bodies. Activities such as running and
jumping apply short-duration, high-amplitude loads 1cm
to the intervertebral discs, whereas normal physical
activity and upright stance resuh in the application
of long-duration, low-magnitude loads to the disc.
Discs are able to withstand greater than normal loads Anterior view of a sixth cervical vertebra. The shorr arro
when compressive forces arc rapidly applied based indicate the uncinate processes and the Ic;mg arrow ind
on the biomechanical principles of viscoelasticity. cates the pathway of the sixth cervical nerve root. The
facet joints are located posteriorly. Bar = 1 em.
This propeny protects the disc /i'om catastrophic
failure until extremely high loads are applied.
~~~~~~~~?-I)
The nucleus puiposlis is centrally locmed within
( ,./ pulposus
the disc and consists of almost 90% water in young Nucleus
individuals. The water content is highest at birth
and decreases to approximately 700/0 as the disc de-
generates with age. The rest of the nucleus pulposus
consists of protcoglycan and collagen, which is ex-
clusively type II collagen. Type II collagen fibrils are A
thought to be able to absorb compressive forces bet-
ter than type I collagen fibrils.
Prolcoglycans consist of a protein core auached
to polysaccharide (glycosaminoglycan) chains. The An
pol.vsaccharicles are either keratin sulfate or chon-
I Disc - ' fibe
The annulus fibrosus is the OtHer portion of the Acf,;pred '.-Vlil! permission l,om W;uw, AA. 111 c~ Pan,iabl. M
disc. Its water content is slighl1y less than that of the (l990} Clinical B!Drn~'dl,Hll(<' of the Sp:rl(' Pili/dcle/ph/a: I
nucleus, being only approximately 78£10 \vater in Lippincor[
younger individuals. \-\lith age, the water content !
falls to approsimalely 70%, like that of the nucleus •
pulposus in older persons. The annulus consists of
collagen that is arranged in approximately 90 con-
centric lamellar bands. The collagen fibers in these Cortical bone is stilll.'!" than cancellolls bone
shccts nll1 at approximately 30 0 to the disc or 1200 can withstand greater stresses before failure. \V
to each other in the adjacent bands. This unique ori- the strain in "h'o excl.;cds 2t:'(; of the originallen
entation confers strength to the annulus while per- conic::d bone l"1"<.tclLtrcs, but c<.tllcdlous bone
milling some nesibility (Fig. I I-II). The composi- withSland somewhat greater strains before fra
tion of the collagen in the annulus is approximately ing. The gr('.. ltl.~r abilit~· to withstand strain i
60% type II collagen and approsimately 40% type I cause of" the stl"uctUrt: of cancellous bon ... : its p
collagen. As the disc ages, the collagen undergoes it,v varies from 30 t() 9CY>" compared with con
irreducible cross-linking and the relative amount of bone with valuL's or 5 to 30%; (C~\rtcr & H
type 1 collagen increases, replacing type [[ collagen 1977). Vertebral corn pression strength incre
in the disc. from lhe upper cervical lo th(' lower lumbar k\
Bone strength decreases with age as a resu
[he de\'c1oplllcnt of osteoporosis. The mineral
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES tenl (If' vertebr~\e decreases with increasing age
relatively con::'1ant rale (Hansson & RODS,
Vertebrae
Hansson et 411., 1980).;\ 25 cj{; «(..crease in osseou
The mechanical properties of the bone and soft tis- suc results in a 1110re lhan a 500'0 tkcrcasc in
sues diffe!: Strength and stiffness and the relation of strength of the \"Crlchrac (Bell. 1967). BeC'lllSC
stress to strain are the key IT'lCchanical properties. cortical shell of a venchra is responsible for on1
Stress-strain curves are used to determine the rela- proximatcl.v 1(Y;',; 01" its strength during com
tive loading behavior of bone. Stress is the load per 'sion, good quality c~lIlcellotis bone is criticall~
unit area of a perpendicularly applied load. Strain is !Jorlant (McBroom e:t aI., 1985).
[he change in length per unit of original length, usu- \Vht,:.~n bone is loatk.'d in "h'o, contraction o
ally expressed as a percenlage. musclt:s attached [0 the bone can alt0r [he s
:lj
,
I
.ZiZY>_ .~" ). -~-"'>-- - ~." .
distribution in the bone. Bending moments are ap- in a neutral position or somewhat extended, and th
plied to the vertebral bodies during motions. During pre-stresses the disc to some degree and provid
lie.""", tensile stresses are applied to the posterior some intrinsic support to the spine (Nachemson
and compression to the anterior cortex of the Evans, 1968; Rolandcl~ 1966). The elastic properti
body. To perform lifting tasks, the back also assist in limiting the in\varcl buckling of the
are required to develop considerable forces ligaments during extension, which could potential
IS"hltltz et aI., 1982). Stresses in a typical cClvical compress the neural clements.
change from tensile to cornpressive in a re-
gion approximately 0.5 to I cn1 anterior to the pos-
~ longitudinal ligament (Pintar et al., 1995). As
Muscle
is weaker and fails earlier in tension than in
compression, posterior paraspinal muscle contrac- Muscular strength and control is imperative
can decrease the tensile stress on bone by! pro- maintain head and neck balance. In the cervic
ducing a compressive stress that reduces or neutral- spine, muscle strength also has a role in reduci
izes the posterior cortical tensile stresses, allowing stresses on bones. Bending n10ments are applied
the vertebrae to sustain higher loads than would the vertebral bodies during various motions. Duri
othenvise be possible. However, bone will often fail flexion, tensile stresses are applied to the posteri
prior to damage occurring to the intervertebral disc cortex and compression to the anterior cortex of t
under compressive loading. Finite element model- vertebral body. Substantial loads on the eel-vie
ing of the cervical spine indicates that the increase spine have been calculated during neck flexion, pa
in end plate stresses may be the initiating factor for ticularly! in the lower cenrical motion segments.
failure of this component under compressive loads Harms-Ringdahl (1986) calculated the bendi
('loganandan et al., 1996a). moments generated around the axes of motion
the atlanta-occipital joint and the C7-TI moti
segment in seven subjects with the neck in five po
Intervertebral Discs tions: full tlexion, slight flexion, neutraL head u
right with the chin tucked in, and full extensio
Intenlertebral discs exhibit viscoelastic properties
The load on the junction between the occipital bo
(creep and relaxation) and hysteresis (Kazarian,
and C I was lowest during extreme extension (ran
1975). Creep occurs more slowly in healthy discs
ing from an extension moment of 0.4 Nm to a fle
than in degenerated or herniated discs, suggesting
ion moment of 0.3 Nm). It \vas highest during e
that degenerated discs are less viscoelastic in nature
treme flexion (0.9 to 1.8 Nm), but this was only
(Kazarian, 1972).
slight increase over that produced when the ne
was in the neutral position. The load on the C7-
motion segment was low with the neck in the ne
Ligaments
tral position but bccame even lower when the he
Clinical stability of the spine depends primarily on \vas held upright with the chin tucked in (rangi
the soft tissue components, especially in the cervi- from an extension m0111cnt of 0.8 Nm to a flexi
cal spine. The spinal ligaments are functional moment of 0.9 Nm). The load increased somewh
rnainly in distraction along the line of their fibers. during extreme extension (ranging from 1.1 to 2
Ligament strength and limited extensibility help Nm) and substantially during slight flexion (reac
maintain stability, especially around the craniocer- ing 3.0 to 6.2 Nm). The greatest loads \vere p
vic'll junction. The alar ligaments have an in vitro duced during extreme extension, with momen
strength of 200 N, and the transverse ligaments ranging from 3.7 to 6.5 Nm.
have an in vitro strength of 350 N (Dvorak et aI., In the same study, surface electrode electromyo
1988a). The strength of the ligaments is related to raphy was used to record activity over the erec
both the anatomical demands and the flexibility re~ spinae muscles of the cervical spine with the neck
quired, \vhich is a classic example of form follow- the same five positions described above. Intere
ing function. ingl}', the values obtained showed very low levels
The ligaments all have high collagen content ex- muscle activity for all positions, even during
cept for the ligamentum flavurn, which is exceptional treme flexion in which the flexion moment on t
in having a large percentage of elastin. The ligamen- C7-Tl motion segment increased n10re than thr
tum flavum is under tension even when the spine is fold over the neutral position. The fact that the e1
tromyographic levels over the neck extensors were
low in this and other studies (Founlain et aI., 1966;
Takebe et aI., 1974) suggests that the nexing mo-
ment is balanced by passive connective tissue SlILIC-
tures, such as the joint capsules and ligaments. This
phenomenon is seen in many other joints in which
passive support is provided by the ligaments.
The values for the moments computed by
Harms-Ringdahl (I986), howcvcr, are appmxi-
mately 10 % of the maximal values measured by
lvloroney and Schullz (1985) in 14 malc subjccts
who resisted maximal and submaximal loads
against the head while in an upright siuing posi-
tion. The mean maximal voluntary moments were
10 Nm during axial rotation or the cervical spine,
12 to 14 Nm during flexion and lateral bending, and
30 1m during extension. Calculation of the maxi-
mum (compressive) reaction forces on the C4-C5
motion segment ranged from 500 to 700 N during
flexion, rotation, and lateral bending. and rose La
1,100 N during extension. AnteroposLerior and lal-
eral shear forces reached 260 Nand lION, respec- lateral cervical radiograph of a 68-year·old 1Noma
tively. Calculated moments and forces generally presented with severe torticollis. She denied any h
correlated well with mean~ll1easured m:voelectric injury and did not have evidence of a suuctural ve
activities at eight sites around the perimeter of the abnormality, infection. tumor, or inflammatory dis
neck al the C4 level. Pseudosubluxations (arrows) are evident subaxiall
Muscles playa cr-iLical role in basic postural consequence of the marked kyphosis. Her neck wa
twisted only because she had a severe cervical flex
homeostasis, as can be observed in both historical
formity. and she was unable to see forward excep
and present-day clinical settings. In unique obser-
turning her head to one side. She was neurologica
vational studies in lhe 1950s of severclv affecled po- tact. It was possible to extend her neck to a relativ
liomyelitis patients, improvements in respiratory tral position using gentle traction. Following post
assistance for those with respiratory paralysis led sion from (2 to (7, she returned to a normal inde
to higher survival rates and a large number of pa- life. Muscle biopsy was consistent with senile myo
tients who sustained complete paralysis of the cer- Reprinred with permiSSion from tvioskovlCh. R. (1997).
vical musculature. Patients with completely nail mSiabihw (rheumarold. d\·varfism, degeneraCtV£!. Oihers
cervical spines were unable to support their heads Bridwell &- RL DeW,11d fEds), The Te;(lbook of Spln,ll S
unless adequate support was provided and actually (D.o. 969- i009). Phdacie!pfJJd. Lippincorr-R,wfdl Publishe
remained in bed despilc the good function of their
cxtrcmities (Perry & Nickel, 1959). Similarly, severc
cervical kyphosis occasionally is seen in elderly pa-
tients \vho do not have an obvious stntetural ctiol~
ogy when investigated radiologically. Some of these edge base is growing. To date, certain bas
patients were found to have marked cenrical exten- meters have been established. The cervica
sor muscle weakness that has been attributed to se- undergoes significant changes in length
nile cervical myopathy (Simmons & Bradley, 1988) f1cxion and extension (Breig el "I" 1966
(Fig. 11-12). 1960). Thus, while there is some longitudin
ticity to the spinal corel. it tolerates axial
tion poorl~". It is the translator~' forces llw
cally result in neurological in.illr~·. A comp
Neural Elements
tolerance betwecn 2.75 and 3.44 kN is cs
Biomechanics of the neural elements have noL for the adult c~rvical spine before significa
been as well studied as the biomechanics of the os- rological injury occurs (i'Vlyers &. \Vink
teoligamentous vertebral column, but our know!- 1995).
9i
Spinal cord injuries can also result from extreme
or sudden flexion-c:\tcnsion movernCl1ts, especially N " C1
in the face of a $hallow spinal canal. I-lead Oexion ••
alone has been shown to result in significant in- 3.
: ; ...t..-.
10 12 14 16 18 20 mm
used well-validated parametric statistical methods N C7
to determine that the mean sagittal diameter of the
81
spinal canal for C3-C7 was close to 14 mm (14.07 ±
1.63 mm; N ~ 272) (Figs. 11-13 and 11-14). The ot.
4'
_
10 12 14 16 18 20 mm
mean ratio of the sagittal canal diameter to the ver-
tebral body diameter (canal to body [cob] ralio) was
86.68 ± 13.70. Thirly-one percent of subaxial verte-
brae would be diagnosed as having spinal stenosis if Histograms of the C1-(7 sagittal canal diameters. Apart
a c-b ratio of less than 80% was considered abnor- from the (1 plot, the same scale is used on all of the hori-
mal. Another study also found a high false-positive zontal axes so that the distributions of the diameters can
error rate for the e-b ratio, with 49% of 80 asympto- be compared, Reprinted with permission (rom Moskovich, R..
et at. (996). Does rhe cervical canal [0 body rario predict spina
matic football players having a c-b ratio of less than
stenosis? Bull Hasp Joint Dis, 55, 61-71.
80O,b at one or morc cervical levels (Herzog et aI.,
1991). Yet another group evaluated the reliability of
the c-b ratio using plain lateral radiographs and CT
scans (Blackley el al., 1999). Results confirmed lhat especially in children (Dickman el aI., 1991; Osen
a poor con-elation exists between the true diameter bach & Menezes, 1989: Pang & Pollack, 1989). Th
of the canal and the ratio of its sagittal diameter to etiology of such injuries is unknown, but one mech
that of the vertebral body. The variab.ility in anatom- anism may be longitudinal traction. The unusuall
ical morphology means that the use of ratios h'om elastic biomechanics of the pediatric bony spine a
anatomical measurements within the cervical spine lows deformation of the l11usculoskeletal structure
is not reliable in delermining the true diameter of beyond physiological extremes, perm·itting direc
the cervical canal. cord trauma followed by spontaneous reduction o
Spinal cord injul)' without radiographic abnor- the bony spine (Kriss & Kriss, 1996). The isolate
malities (SCIWORA) have also been described, spinal cord resists tension poorly; axial tensil
rotation or translation of a body ~l!ong one a.\
consistently' assclciated with a simultaneous
tion or translation ~dong another axis, the mot
are coupled. Coupled motions are normally'
pressed as displacements in the X, Y, or Z d
tions and rotations about the three orthog
axes. Further analysis involving whole spine
more complex, and while it has y'iclcled interes
results, motion segment analysis remains im
tant for basic understanding.
Posterior
longitudinal
ligament
Superior facet
l\v.-o-od{L Anterio
Capsular ligament,
Axial computerized tomographic scan of a sixth cervical . / longitud
vertebra, which was not part of the study detailed in the Spinous process ligame
text. The anteroposterior diameter of the spinal canal
measured 13.96 mm in this specimen. "'"
Interspinous II
Interverte
• and,
supraspinous J
disc
ligaments // I I p .
// . ostenor
forces to failure For three adult spinal cord speci- L' fl Inferior facet J longitudinal Intertransv
Igamentum avum I ligament
mens arc reported to be 278 N ± 90 (Yoganandan et ligamen
I
aI., 1996b). Lower forces may result in direct neural A Superior facet I
injury or vascular disruption. Interlransv
I
Capsular ligament ligamen
thogonal planes, for a total of six degrees of free- cal spifJ(l. (lin Orthop. \09,85··-96
c1
and their movement is recorded by two video cameras.
I Reprinted with permission {rom Raynor. R.• Moskovich. R.• Zide/,
l__
l1Y
I P. et a/. (1987). Alteration in primary and coupled neck motio1J5
a_f_,e_'_fa_,_e_,e_,_,o_n_'Y_._N_,e_"_,o_S_"'_9_e_ry_,_2_1(_5_),_6_8_'_-_68_7_. _
RANGE OF MOTION
Measurements of cervical range or motion are based
on radiographic studies or postmortem investiga- +Fz ~
0i---le.
tions. Inclinometers and various optoelectronic and
electromagnctic dcvices L1sed clinically for noninva-
sive evaluation of cervical spinc motion are not as
accurate; in particular, coupled motion is poorly
quantified (Roozmon et aI., 1993). The established
range of active axial rotation to one side at CI-C2 is
27 to 49° (mean = 39°); passive rotation is 29 to 46°
~Fx
(mean = 41°) (Dvorak et aI., 1987; Dvorak et aI.,
1988b; Penning & Wilmink, 1987). These measure-
ments account for approximately 50 r1'o of the lotal
cervical rotation. A vertebral body showing the three primary Cartesian
Another stereoradiographic study of neck motion axes, x, y. and z. Along each axis a positive force, ~ F. is de
in adult men found a mcan of 105° axial rotation be- noted by the direction of the arrow. The curved arrows in-
tween the occiput and the C7 vertebra. Seventy per- dicate the direction of a positive torque. +..... Reprinted will
cent of the total axial rotation OCCUlTed between the permission from Raynor, R.• Moskovich. R., Zidel, P., el af.
occiput and the C2 vertcbra. Eaeh motion segment (/987). Alteration in primary and coupled neck motions aller
facete<:tomy. Neurosurgery. 21 (5). 681-687.
between the C2 and C7 vertcbrae avcraged fTom 4 to
8° rotation (Mimura et aI., 1989). Less well appreci-
i
l-",~~=~,...,.-.,-,~~-=-=-=--~;==;r.----,.--------:=,,~,
'.""'" .-.&f "" .. ",-"_",,,,,""£1 - .~"""'"- .-~- ~.~. •__ ' -,
permitting one, with equal ease, to gaze at an air~
plane overhead, glance over one's sho111dcI~ or look
for an object under a table. An analysis of the com~
bined motion of the cervical spine Llsing an eleclro-
goniometer produced a remarkably large range of
motion (Feipel et aI" 1999): 122' ;;; 18' of nexion and
extension, 144°:!: 20 0 of axial rotation, and 88 0 ::': 16°
of lateral nexion, All primal)' motions were reduced
with age. Sex had no influence on cervical motion C5
range. \
The active range of cervical spine motion re-
quired to perform daily functional tasks was studied
in healthv adults (Bennett et aI" 2000), A cervical
spine range of motion device was fastened to the Analysis of surface motion of the facet joints of the
subject's head with a Velcro strap and a magnet was motion segment during flexion-extension. The sche
placed on the patient's shoulders to calibrate the in- drawing represents superimposed roentgenograms
strument for measurement of cervical rotation and motion segment in the neutral position and in sligh
motion, Of the 13 daily functional tasks performed, ion. The upper vertebra ((4) is considered to be the
tying shoes (flexion-extension 66.7°), backing up a ing body and the subjacent vertebra ((5) is the bas
car (rotation 67.6°), washing hair in the shower bra. Two points have been identified and marked o
(flexion-extension 42.9°), and crossing the street (1'0· moving body in the neutral position (sofid outline o
and the same two points have been marked on the
tat ion head left 31.7° and rotation he4:KI riglll 54.3°)
roentgenogram with the motion segment slightly f
required the greatest active range of motion of the
(dashed outline of e4). li"es connecting the twO se
cervical spine. Of interest, several tasks were not
points have been drawn and their perpendicular bi
found to produce the degrees of lnotion expected, have been added. The intersection of the perpendi
and these included reading a newspaper (19.9° sectors identifies the instant center of motion (larg
Ocxion-cxtcnsion), writing at a table (26.2° flexion- ! dot) for the degree of flexion under study. The per
extension), and reaching 1'01' objects overhead (4.3° II ular bisector (arrowed fine) of a line drawn from th
flcxion·extension). Side·bending was not found to ter of motion to the contact point of the facet join
be a significant movement in completion of the faces indicates tangential motion. or gliding.
tasks but was coupled \vith rotation in one of the .-,-~~~~~--~-~~-
tasks (looking left and right to cross a street).
Abnormal Kinematics
Left lateral Neutral Righi lateral
flexion flexion Abnonnal kinematics gCl1crall.\" refers to l'.'\c
motion within rUl1etional spinal units; howeve
norrnal kinClnatics Ina.. . · also refer to at.\vica
terns of motion such as abnormal coupling or
Coupled motion during lateral bending is depicted
doxicalmotion. Par~\do.\icallllotionis seen whe
schematically. When the head and neck are flexed to the
left, the spinous processes shift to the right, indicating ro-
overall pattern of motion of one ~lSPCCI of the
tation. The converse is also illustrated. Adapted with permis- is in one direction while the local pattern is th
sion from White, AA 1// (~Panjabi, MM (1990). Clinical Bio- posite. For instancc, parado'\ical llc'\iol1 is
mechanics of the Spine. Philadelphia: 1.8. Lippincott. when llc'\iol1 occurs at a single functional s
unit, although the SpillL' as a whole is (''\te
A B
A, This diagram illustrates some of the other coupled mo- results in motion of the spinous processes to the right
tions, which occur in response to a torque (liZ) about the Z- left. B, The subject is bending to her right, demonstrat
axis (lateral bending). lateral translation (Rx) and vertical the large range of normal cervical motion possible (ap
motion (Ry) occur, as well as horizontal rotation (l!lY), which mately 50°).
Coupling of flexion-extension with transverse translation of (1-(2 articulation during flexion-extension; no translati
the cervical spine is visible roentgenographically. A, Ouring evident in this example (black arrow). B, During extensio
flexion the vertebral body shihs forward (small white ar- the reverse occurs, and the spinous processes limit motio
row); the facets glide up and over one another with moder- they touch at full extension (arrow). The size of the inte
I ate subluxation at full flexion (large white arrow). Up to 2.5 tebral foramina increases with flexion and decreases wit
I mm of transverse translation may normally occur at the extension.
•
These types of abnormal motions describc a pattern logical loads to maintain its pattern of displacem
of mOVCIl'lCllt known as instability. so that there is no initial or additional ncurolog
dcficit, no major defornlity,' and no incapacita
pain (1990). Using this definition, physiolog
Spinal Stability
loads are those incurred during normal activity,
The concept of spinal stability is an intriguing and pain is not felt to be incapacitating if it can be c
sometimes confusing notion. Medical practitioners trolled by non-narcotic drugs.
are frcqucnlly asked to look at a sel'ies of radi- Stability is detcrmined by many factors. There
ographs and make a dctermination whether the different anatomical considerntions in different
spinc is stnblc. Exnclly what is stability, how is it de- gions or the spine. Certainly, ligamcntous anato
termincd, "'ld what happens if it is not present? The plays a large part in the stability or the spine, but
term spinal stability has acquired diffcrent mcan~ muscular and bony clements of the ~pine also
ings, depending on the setting in which it has been important roles.
used. White and Panjabi describe the term clinically Instability can be analyzed by considering kinem
as the loss of the ability of the spine undcr physio- instability and structural or component instabi
Kinematic instability focuses on either the quantity of _ Conceptual Types of Instabilit
motion (too much or too little) or the qualit..., of motion
present (alterations in the nOimal pattenl), or both.
Component instability addresses the clinical biome- Kinematic Instability
chanical role of the various anatomical components of Motion increased
the functional spinalunil. In this type of instability, los..o:; lm.tantaneous ax(,>s of rotation altered
or alteration of various am.llomical portions detennines CDlipiing characteristics changed
the presence or instability (Box II-I). Parddo;O:I(d\ mOllon present
SAC
I
I
~
I L.-
space available for the spinal cord (SAC), which is denoted proprioception and correct functioning of the
I, by the dotted lines. Anterior atlantoaxial subluxation erector spinae muscles. Experimental section o
causes a reduction in the SAC. Normal measurements for the ligaments in sequence from either anterior to
the ADI are less than 3 mm in adults or 4 mm in children. posterior or posterior to anterior suggests L1lat i
Reprinted V'lirh permission from Moskovich, R. (1994). Atlanro-
a functional spinal unit has all or its anterior ele
axial instability Spine: Stare of the Art Reviews. 8(3), 531-549.
ments plus one additional structure or all or it
posterior elements plus one anterior structure in
Flexion lateral radiograph of a patient with rheumatoid
arthritis. The dens (0) has been eroded and the transverse
ligament is incompetent, resulting in atlantoaxial subluxa-
tion. The markedly widened atlanto·dens interval is indi-
cated by the arrowed line.
/'i,'
hl~~
iPi
ItM'~'"'~"~~M" .' A~_.~' ,~;;;Sk0. •.,••. ·W·,·_<· ,,,-- ',<>'< '. "..... .''''''~'
Dens
1
"3
•
I
I
I
Element
of Clinical Instability in the
Middle and Lower Cervical Spine
Adapted with permission itQm Wittenberg, R.H.. Moeller. J., P. White, AA Ill. (1990). Compressive strenglh
of autogenous (lnd alfogenolls bone grafts for thOf.lcolurnb.lf and cervical spine fusion. Spine. 15(0),
1073-1077.
older patients (Wittenberg et aI., 1990). The biological Posterior arthrodeses of the ccndcal spine
incOIvonuion or allograft appears to be satisfactory commonl:v performed after trauma but may also
and its USe obviates the need to harvest autologous L1sed to treat degenerative, inflammatory, or n
bone from the iliac crest, sparing patients additional plastic conditions. Unlike anterior fixation devi
surgical trauma and potential complications. which arc solel y lIsed in the subaxial cervical sp
l
Calcium phosphate (bone) ceramics form a strong posterior fixation devices can extend up to the
bond with host bone because of a zone of apatite mi- ciput (Fig. 11 ~32). Posterior fi.'\ntion has commo
crocrystals deposited perpendicular to the hydroxy- consisted of various wiring methods, which
lapatite ceramic surface (Jarcho, 1981). Synthetic used as a tcnsion band posteriorly (Sutterlin et
hydroxylapatite blocks used for interbody cervical 1988). Within the past decade. however, techniq
arthrodesis in goalS produced similar fusion rates utilizing screws in both thc atlantoaxial and sub
and biomechanical stifFness when compared with ial spine have become rnorc popular.
autogenous bone (Pintar et aI., 1994). 11 is interest- Techniques for aLiantoaxial fixation have evol
ing to note that the goat holds its head creCl, and from onlay bone grafting alone to cver~more sop
thus loads the cervical spine similarly to human ticated methods of internal fixalion. Interlam
bipeds. Goat models for cervical spinebiologicallbio- clamp fixation is clinically reliable and
mechanical testing are, therefore. populal: (iVIoskovich & Crockard, 1992). Screw fixation te
A can inc thoracic anterior al1hrodcsis model niques may confer increased translational and a
yielded contrary results when tested biomcchanically: rotational stability, but with greater surgical ri
autogenolls iliac crest grafts were stiffer in all motions A biomechanical evaluation of four commonly u
than \\lcre ceramic graft substitutes (Emery et aI.. techniques for posterior atlantoaxial fixation
1996). aturally grown coral is also a useful bone graft performed (Grob et aI., 1992\ Cadaver CI-C2 f,
substitute once it has been processed. Jt is available tional spinal units were tested in nexion~cxtensi
con1rncl'cially in t\\-'o different porosities (200 ~m and lateral bending, and rotation, while intact as we
500 lJ.m pore size). The grafls of lower porosity had a after a complete ligamel1lous injul)/. The fixa
compl"Cssive strength comparable \vith biconical iliac techniques used wcrc:
crest grafts, although they were much more briule.
They can therefore be considered appropriate for clini- I. Sublaminar wire with one median graft
cal lise with rcspect to their compressive strength (Gallie type)
(Table 11-1). An increasing variety of prosthctic intcr- 2. \Vire fixation with two bilateral grafts
body cages ~\re becoming available (Shono ct aL, 1993); (Brooks lype)
long-tellll clinical results arc eagerly awaited. Addi- 3. Transarticular screw fixation (Mager!)
tional anteJior (Fig. 11 ~31) or posterior intcI11al ft:-.:atio!l 4. Two bilateral posterior Halifax clamps (Fig
using plates and screws for added support ma.\' be lIsed. 11-33)
str<:ltcd similar 01' irnproved fusion rates com
with stand-alolle bone grafts.
Anolher group <:lssl."s;ed lilt, biollH.:L·hallical s
it~· 01" sen.'n different cervical n:construction
ods using 24 c(lif cClyieal spinl' segments (KotC
al.. 1994). Thl'~' studied Ihn:\:.' posk'rior-nnl,\'
niques. anlcrior-onl.\' u...· lyical platL·s. antcrior
graft alone. and a combined <:lIlterior plate wilh
(erior triple wiring. The results dcmollstnlled
for onL'-lc\"L'1 instrlbilit\', the stiffncss \"alues
consllliciion with an a;1terior procedure alOlle
si!.!nificanth- smaller than those of all the othL'
st;ucts tcst~'d. Intcrl'slin!!lv, stiffness w<:\s n.:sto
prc-in,iul-y le\'cb in specin'1L'nS \\'itlt lwo-lc\'L'! i
patterns reconstrucled using an~' of the three
riot" 1l'lL,thocls. TilL' findings do not SlIpport the
C':\clusi\'L' ank'rior methods in either posteri
, ;" .. ,
' ,~
if ! Whiplash Syndrome
;: ;::',:'i::'/.::,';):
::'»::)/:,:'':-''P,}\ 32-year·old man was injured in a car accident. The trau- from Fr(1nkel, VH. (1972). Whiplash injuries to the neck. In
::~9>:~;:_~i~;~ matic event happened after being struck from behind. [n C. Hirsh & Y Zotterman (Eds.), Cervical Pain (pp. 97~111).
/~~{~:d{t:ih.iS case. the inertia of the head and the flexible spine re- New York: Pergamon Press.
"?g;'sulted in marked hyperextension movement of the head. The
.¥a~celeration of the car seat pushed the torso of the occupant
$Jo~va{d with the result that the unsupported head fell back-
'ft~~ard, resulting in an extension strain to the neck.
:,~?;~
;7'''':;
lr -;.
j-
The palient presented with severe neck and shoulder pain
accompanied by sleep disturbance. The right sternocleido-
mastoid muscle was approximately twice as large as the left
t, sternocleidomastoid muscle. After muscle testing against re-
>.: ' f.. sjstance, the pain increased (Fig. cs 11-2-1).
..t. ~> 'To decelerate the posterior rotating head, a moment and
g>:a.force must be developed by active and passive stabilizers,
i.-?int surfaces, and the intervertebral disc. The moment and
force give rise to tension, compression, and shear stresses
.',: .find strains in various parts oi the neck Cdusing, damage.
fl., During the collision, rhe muscle tension increases with ihe
, velocity of lengthening. A tension inappropriate for the
length tension curve occurs and partial rupture of the sterno-
4
cleidomastoid muscle is produced. Reprinted with permission Case Study Figure 11-2-1.
'.- -..
I
I
I
I'IDIIDI B
~.
• 1~_H.a_nd_-_d_r.aw_n.c.e.I .,
(A) Before and (B).tr.a.c.ed_f'.o.m_t_w_o_f.r_am_e_'_o_f_a.C.in.e.-.m_o_V_ie_o.f.D.r_.I.rV.i_n9_T_u_e_lI_d.,.iV.in.9_h.i'.c.a.r-
aher bein9 rammed from behind by another car driven by hi, re,ident_
,;
.. ...
,.-
biomechanical responses for the various conditions plied, which protects the disc from catastrophic
observed in normal driving (Viano & Gargan. 1996). lIrL' ulltil e . . . trl"lllcl~· high loads are applied.
Risk of injury was assumed to be proportional to 5 Vi".'I·lL"bl·al bod~' cUlllpr~ssioll str~ngth incre
neck extension. A low headrest position carries a from upper ct.'n:ical 10 IO\\'L'r lumbar lev-cis.
relative injl1r~' risk of 3.4 in rear-end crashes. com-
pared with 1.0 for the favorable condition. If all ad- 6 TIlL' mean sagillal diametL'r of the malt.- a
justable headrests were placed in the up position, spinal canal for C3-C7 is close LO 14 Illm; the sp
the relative risk would be lowered to 2.4, a 28.30/0 re- cord diameter is about 10 111 Ill.
duction in whiplash injury risk. 7 LigamclltuJ11 flavlIJ11 is undt..'1' tension
Significantly more complex acceleration injuries when the spine is in a Ill:1Itral position or somew
ascribed to high G-force activities are now occurring. cxtended. prestressing the disc and pro\'iding s
There is a report in the Htel·ature of cervical injury in intrinsic support 10 tht..' spine.
pilots of F- t 6 fighter planes, citing a I-year preva-
lence of neck injury of 56.6% and a career prevalence
S iVlllscles pla~' a critical role in b~lsic post
homeostasis. Patients with paral~'zL'd ct..'lyical m
of neck injury of 85.4% (Albano & Stanford. 1998).
cles arc unable to support thdr heads.
Maintenance of neurological homeostasis and
protection of the spinal cord. nerves. and vessels 9 The spinal cord has some longilUdinal c1a
and support and protection of the skull are the ulti- it.'· blll it tole-ratL's axial translation pond.". It is
mate tasks of the cervical spine. An appreciation of translatolY forces {hat t.\'picall,\· rcsult in neurol
the principles presented should afford a greater un- cal injul·.\',
derstanding to physicians and allied health profes-
10 Instant c('ntl.'!' anal.\'sis indicates that tange
sionals involved in the treatment of cervical spine
lnotion (gliding) wkcs placl.· bel\\,(.'c·]1 lltt::.' facet jo
pathology. 'vVith increasing technological advances
as lItc cervical spine is flexed alld extended. The
in our society, \ve remain vulnerable not only to
or the intelTcrtebr~il !"()ramina inc.TeDscs with fle
common types of cervical trauma but also to idio-
and deCl'l:ascs \\'ith extension,
syncratic methods of injury' related to these new
technologies. Acceleration injuries have been OCCUI'- 11 Kinematic instability' refl'rs to the quantit
l'ing for decades but cervical spine injuries caused motion (too much or too little) or till.' quality of
by airbags have only recently been described, and tion present (alterations in lile normal pattern
aliI' involvement in increasingly greater speeds and both. Component instahilil.\' addrcsses the clin
higher risk activities places LIS in increasing jeop- biomechanic~ll role of till.' \'ariolls anatomic st
ardy, As our body' of knowledge expands, we con- tures of the functional spinal unit.
tinue to discover new methods of injury. It is critical 12 An." motion s~~glllent in which all of the a
to pursue rational treatments for these disorders rior ek'llkllts or all the posterior ekments m·e
based on sound biomechanical principles, stn>yed or are unabk' to function should be con
ered unstable.
5 11111111 a Iy 13 A significant incn:asc in annulus stresses
scgrnclltal mobility' may' OCCUI' when bilateral f
1 A functional spinal unit or motion segment resection exceeds 50(*;.
consists of t\\'o adjacent vcnebrae and the interven- 14 Appropriate use or internal fi:G1lion helps L
ing intervertebral discs and ligaments between the (:reasc the fusion rate and maintain structural a
vertebrae. ment.
_2 Whcn eithcr rotation or translation of a body 15 Front seat occupants are adcqLH.llcl~' prote
along one axis is consistently associated with a si- ~lgain.s{ frontal impact if scat belts arc worn in
multaneous rotation or translation along another airbag equipped ,·chick. Passenger-side air
axis. the motions arc coupled. pose a lethal threat to children riding in the f
3,; Intervertebral disks cxhibit viscoelastic proper- scat 01" an automobile.
ties (creep and relaxation) and hysteresis. 16 \'Vhiplash s.\"ndrome is a complex set of s~
(4;' Discs arc able to withstand greater than nor- tOI11S thal may present aher an (\("ccleration hy
l1l~r loads when compressive forces arc rapidly ap- extension injury.
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~IIH.I children: A pOlcntinlly I!.'lhal (ombin:ltioll. 1 I'l·dillir for m\.'i.t:'url·IlH.'llt alld dl'sl"l'iptioll of lhrl:('-diml·ll::.iolla
On/lOp, /9, 60-64. dl..'g:rl'I.'-of-frl'l'dolll motioll 01':1 body joint \d[h :1Il app
~'lil1lllnl,M., tvtoriya, I-I.. Watanabe, T., ct al. (1989). Threl.'· lion totltl' hum,1l1 ~Jlinl:. 1 WIlIJh'dltJlJics. 1-1. -i-l7--i60
dimension,11 motion anal~-'sis of lhe cer\'ic:d Spillt: with P:llIjahi, M.M,. SUlllllll'r:-, 0.1.. Pdkt'r, R.R .. l't al. (19
spl:cial n.:fcrcnct: to lhe axial rotation. Spille, 14, Thr('l..'-d;l1ll'lISion:,lloitd-displ:'I.'l,.'l1ll'lll CIll"\"('S dui..' LO fo
113;-1139. (111 till' l,.'l'l"\·il'al spilll' . .f On/lOp Uf.", -I, IS~-161.
Paniabi, ,\1.,\-1., \Vhile, A.A. III. & Johnson, R.,\1. (1973). Cer- Simmons, E.H. & Bradlev, D.D. (1988). Nturo-myorat
\:ical spine mechanics ,IS a I"unction 01" transection of corn- flexion deformities (/ the cervical spine. Spille,
pOneJllS. 1 HiOlllt'c!/(lIIics, 8, 327-336. 756-762.
Penning, L. & Wilmink, J.T. (1987). Rotation of the cCl'vical Steel. H.ll. (1968). Anatomical and mechanical conside
spine. A study in normal people. Spille 12, 732-738. tions of atlanto-axial articulation. In Proceedings of
Perry, J. & Nickel. V.L. (1939). Total cervical-spine fusion for American Orthopaedic Association. J BOlle Joil/I SlIrg, 5
neck par,t1ysls. 1 BOIIt, loilll SIIJ'g, .Jl:\, 37-60. 1481-1482.
Pintar, FA., \himan, D.J., Hollowell. J.P., L't 'II. (1994). Fu- Sturzenegger, .\1., DiStel"ano, G.. Radano\', B.P., et a!' (199
sion rak and biorHechanical stillness of hydroxylapatite Presenting symptoms and signs after whiplash injury: T
versus autogenous bone grafts for antnior discectorny. An influence of accident lllechanisms. NCllrology, .J.J, 688-6
in vivo animal study. Spille, 19, 2324-2328. Sutterlin, C.E., McAfee, P.e., \Vardell, K.E., ct al. (1988)
Pintar, F.A., Yoganandan, N., Pesigan, ~'1., L'l a!' (1995). Cervi- biomechanical evaluation 01" celYlcal spinal stabilizat
cal vertebra! strain llleasuremellts under axial and eccen- methods in a bovine model. Static and cyclical loadi
tric loading. 1 Bioll/cch Ellg, /17, 474--478. Spillt', 13, 793-802.
RapolT, A.J., O'Brien, T.J., Ghanayem, A.J., L'l al. (1999). An- Takebe, K" Vitti, :v1., & Basrnajian, J.\!. (1974). The functi
terior cervical graft and plate load sharing. J Spillill Dis, of semispinalis capitis and spli:nitls capitis muscles:
12,45-49. electromyographic stud.v. Allat Rec, f79, 477-480.
Raynor, R.B., Moskovich, R., Zidel. P., et a!' (1987). Alteration Viano, D.e. &. Gargan, il,'l.F. (1996). Headrest position dur
in primary and coupled neck motions after fncell.'ctomy. normal driving: Implication to neck injury risk in r
NellnlslIl'.i.iery, 2l, 681-687. crashes. Accidellt Allal fln'I', 28, 663-674.
Ri:ill. J. (1960). Effects of flexion-exti:lIsion movement of thi: Yoo. I..M .. Kumar"san. S .. Yoganandan. N.. 01 at. (1997).
head and spine on the spinal cord and nerve roots . .I ,VCII- nite elemi:nt anal~'sis of ci:rvical facctectomy. Spille,
ml ,VClII'OSlIr.i.i Psychi(/IJ', 23, 214-221. 964·-969.
Ripa, D.R., Kow,dl, \I.G., "'!eyer, P.R. Jr., et al. (1991). Series Wallis, B.J., Lord, S.M., Barnsky, L., et al. (1998J. The p
of ninety-t\\·o traumatic cervical spine injuries stabilized chological profiles of patiellts with whiplash-associa
with anterior ASIF pl,lte fusion technique. Spille, 16(3), headache. Cephalalgia, IS, 101-105.
46-55. WertH.', S. (1937), Studies in spontaneous alIas dislocati
Rolander, S.D. (1966). \-lotion of the lumbar spine with spe- Acta Ort/lOp Sewld, 23 Suppl.
cial refi:rence to thi: stabilizing (.'ffect of posterior fusion. White, A.A. Ill, Johnson, R.~L Panjabi, :\1.M., et al. (197
An experimental study on autopsy specimcns. /lcw Orthop Biornechanical analvsis of clinical stabilitv in the cerv
Snllld,90, 1-144. spill(:. Clill Orl/top, l(N, 85-96. .
Roozmon, P., Gracovetsky, S.A., Gouw, G.J., ct a!' (1993). Ex- White, A.A. III & Panjabi. M.\1. (1990). Clillical Bio/llechal
amining motion in the cervical spini:. I: Imaging systems oj' tlze Spille. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott.
and measurement ti:chniqui:s. 1 Bio/lled Ellg, 15,5-12. Wittenberg, R.l-I., i\loeller, J.. &. \Vhite, A.A. III. (1990). C
Saito, '1'., 't'amamuro, '1'., Shikata, J., et a!' (1991). Analysis pressive strength 01" autogenous and alJogenolls b
and prevention of spinal column deformit.;.' following cer- grafts 1"01' thoracolumbar and cervical spine fusion. Spi
vical laminectomy. I. Pathogenetic analysis of post- 15(101. 1073-1077.
lamini:ctomy deformitii:s. Spilll.', 16, 494-502. Yang, K.H., Latour. B.K., & King, A.1. (1992). Computer s
Schneider, R.e., Chi:rry, G., & Pantek, H. (1954). The syn- ulation of occupant neck rtsponse to airbag deploymen
drome of acute ci:ntral cervical spinal cord injury with I"rontal impacts. J J3io/llech Ellg, 11.J, 327-331.
special reference to the mechanism involved in hyperex- )'oganandan, N., Kumaresan, S.c., Voo, L., ct a!' (1996a).
tension injuries of the cervical spinto J /":I.'ZlroslIJ'j;, 11, nite dement modeling of dll: C4-C6 cervical spine u
546-577. lIed Ellg Phys, 18,569-574.
Schultz, A., Anderson, G., ()rtengri:n, R., et al. (1982). Loads Yoganandan, N., Pintar, EA., \Lliman, D.J., ct al. (1996
on the lumbar spine: Validation of a biol1ledwnical anal\'- I-Iuman head-neck biomechanics under axial tension. l
sis by measurements 01" intl'adiscal pressure and myoell'c- Ellg Pltys, 18,289-294.
tric signals. J BOllI.' .Ioillt SlIrg, 6",.1, 713-720. )'00, J.U., Zou, D.. Edwards, W.T., et al. (1992). Effect of
Shono, Y., ivlcAI"ee, P.C., Cunningham, B.\V" et at. (1993), A vic,d spine motion on the netlroforaminal dimensions
biomeclwnical analysis of decompression and reconstruc- human c('['vical spine. Spinc, 17{ 1131-1136.
tion methods in the cervical spine. Emphasis on a carbon-
fiber-compositc cagt. } BOllI.' .loilZI S/lrg, 7504, 1674-1684.
"~~--------------~...",,.,...,..,..-----~~..... ....-. . - ._
ik
~
~:
YJ,j
Biomechanics
i>'
Introduction
Kinematics and Anatomy
Range of Motion of the Shoulder Complex
Sternoclavicular Joint
Acromioclavicular Joint
Clavicle
Glenohumeral Joint and Related Structures
Glenoid labrum
Joint Capsule
Glenohumeral and Coracohumeral ligaments
Additional Constraints to Glenohumeral Stability
Scapulothoracic Articulation
Spinal Contribution to Shoulder Motion
Kinetics
Muscular Anatomy
Integrated Muscular Activity of the Shoulder Complex
Forward Elevation
External Rotation
Internal Rotation
EXiension
Scapulotr,oracic Motion
loads at the Glenohumeral Joint
The Biomechanics of Pitching
Summary
References
It ----._------------------------~--------~._-._-~-------_._-
""" :;;;Cor
Introduction anatomy of the various aspeclS or the shoulder com
plex and shows how their structure allows ror eff
shoulder links the LIpper extremity to the trunk cient biotllcchanical function.
acts in conjunction with the elbow to position
hand in space for crfkient function. [t consists
of the glenohumeral. acromioclavicular, stcrnoclav·
iculat: and scapulolhoracic articulations and the Kinematics and Anatomy
musculature structures that act on them La produce
the most dynamic and mobile joint in the bodv (Fig, To produce the intricate motions necessary for no
12-J). An absence of bony constraints allo\I.'5 a wide n1al functioning of the shoulder complex, the fou
range of motion at the expense of stability, which is pro- aniculations with their associated components ac
for instead by the various ligamentous and mus- togcther in a way that produces mobility greate
stl1.!cturcs. than that afforded by anyone individual aniClda
The biomechanics of the shoulder arc complex, tion, The ability of the shoulder complex to positio
and a complete discllssion necessitates an analysis the humerus and the remainder of the LIpper cx
of the four aforementioned articulations that make trcmit~· in space is further augmented by movemen
up the shoulc!eI- complex. This chapter describes the of the spine. A discussion follows of the t\'pcs an
ranges of motion for the shoulder complex as
whole, with subsequent sections discussing th
manner in which motion is achieved at each of th
articulat ions,
Acromioclavicular
~
iOin1 Stern1i~:~tCular
Acromion o f .
@ -~ /.
7'
/'
RANGE OF MOTION OF THE SHOULDER
COMPLEX
Shoulder range of motion is traditionally measure
in terms of flexion and extension (elevation o
scapula \ Clavicle
\ \ Sternum movcrncnt of the humenls away from the side of th
Scapula
, '\ thorax in the sagittal plane), abduction (elevation i
_ r the coronal plane), and intemal·external rotalio
I
,)" I ($
(axial rotation of the humerus with the arm held i
an aclducted position) (Fig, 12-2), Although durin
I \ t?r functional activit.ies these pure motions are rarel
~,\ seen, we can better understand the complex mo
i"-(l-- Humerus
,,
,
,
\
tions of the shoulder by anal~/zing the separate com
ponents needed to achieve anyone position,
Although forward elevation of 180° is theOl'et
cally possible, the average value in men is 167° an
in women it is 171°. Extension or posterior eleva
lion averages 60· (Boone & Azen. 1979). These va
I Scapulothoraclc
ues are Iimiled by capsular torsion. Abduction i
~0L-n _ the coronal plane is limited by bony impingemen
of the greater tubcr()~ity on the acromion, Forwar
I Schematic depiction of the bony structures of the shoulder elevation in thc plane or the scapula, thereFore,
i and their four articulations. The circular insets show front considered to be more Functional because in th
, views of the three synovial joints-sternoclavicular, plane the inferior portion of the capsule is no
I
I acromioclavicular, and glenohumeral-and a lateral view
of the scapulothoracie joint, a bone-
twisted and the musculature of the shoulder is op
timally aligned for elevation of the arlll (Fig. 12-3
,I muscle-bone articulation. Adapted with permis5ion from De Although shoulder range of motion !10nl1all~' d
Palma, A.F. (1983). Biomechallin of the shoulder. In Surgery of
J.I the Shoulder (3rd 00.. pp.6S-85J. P!I;/adelp!l;d: J.8. Upp;ncorr
creases as part of the aging process, physical activ
ity can counteract lhis process (Murray ct al
1985).
31
"~ ~'~"~T" "'-_" "_' O' ' ' ' ' =' ' 'r. ....=" "~" ,.,. .,." ,- , ,_: " ' ' '-:' ' '-:' ' ~- ,' ' '., ,~, "'.=.". .- -". . . ,.-. .,.-"_"', ."'_,"', _J"'.;./"', ~. -7"+-r;" ':, :-o"'- :;'?"'~ _P ~"'"'
._--Ii!_'., _,.. •.=.. .. T":::;"': ..
!:::xternal and Internal
Forward flexion Extension AbduClion rolation
~ it
I ,
, lf
I
,,
:,,,
I
,
I
,
I
I
I
f
I
--c:+
cs. ..- _........"..'...........-=>1
,,
I I ,, Humerus
:, \\ at the
side
":
'1,1
A B c D
A, Forward flexion. The humerus is in the sagittal plane. B, the humerus at the side, Internal rotation is shown with
Extension. The humerus is in the sagittal plane. C, Abduction. arm behind the back, which is a functionally important
The humerus is in the frontal plane. D, Rotation around the of this motion.
long axis of the humerus. External and internal rotation with
STERNOCLAVICULAR JOINT first rib. This is a truc s\TH)vial joint that has a
dle-like shape and contains a fibrocartilaginou
The sternoclavicular joint consists 01" the enlarged
ticular disc or meniscus that divides it into
medial end of the clavicle and the most superolat-
Cotlllxlrtmcnts.
eral aspect of the manubrium, linking the upper ex-
Although the joint itself has little intrinsic st
tremity directly to the thorax. In addition, a small
ity, the articular disc in conjunction with ante
facet is present inFeriorly that articulates with the
posterior. C()stoclavicular, and intL't"clavicular
ments maintains joint apposition (Fig. 12-4).
Scapular plane elevation anterior and posterior sternocla\'icular ligam
resist anterior ;:md posterior translatiolls (as we
superior displacement), while the costoclm'i
Long axis Long axis
lig;:Hllenl, which rUIlS betwcen the undersurfac
c3~~
the medial end 01" the chlviclc and the first rib
sists upward as Wi..'l1 as posterior displacemen
the clavicle (\'ia its anterior'portion) and is tho
to be the major constraint in limiting stcrnoclav
br motion. The interclavicular ligament conn
the superollledial aspect or the clavicles ,:Hld as
in restr;:lining the joint superiorl:v. '1'he post
portion 01" the interclavicular ligament also. as
with anterior restraint of' the sternoclavicular j
Speciflcall)-', the interclavicular ligament tigh
Elevation in the scapular plane, which is midway between with arm depression and is lax when the ann is
forward flexion and abduction. The humerus is in the vated (i\'lorrey & An, 1990). The disc prevents
plane of the scapula.
dial disphlcelnent or
the clavicle, which m<l!' o
when C<\IT)-'ing objects at the side, ;:IS well as infe
Sternoclavicular Joint ally directed coroid and the anterolaterally d
rected trapezoid ligaments, which arc distin
Ant. sternoclavicular Articular structures that serve different biomechanic
Jig. disc
functions. The smaller coroid ligament acts
limit superior-inferior displacement of the clav
cle. The quadrilaterally shaped trapezoid is t
larger and stronger of the two ligaments and
found lateral to the coroid; it resists axial com
pression or motion about a horizontal axis. T
Post.
Protraction-retraction
l:7==
.......
ACROMIOCLAVICULAR JOINT B
The acromioclavicular joint (Fig. 12·6) lies between
the lateral end of the clavicle and the acromion of Rotation
the scapula (the lateral and anterior extension of the
scapular spine) and is subject to the high loads
transmitted from the chest musculature to the up-
per extremity. It too is a synovial joint, but has a pla-
nar configuration. A wedge-shaped articular disc,
whose function is poorly understood, is found c
\vithin the joint originating from the superior as-
pect. Both sides of the articular surface are covered
with fibrocartilage and the joint itself slopes infero-
Motion at the sternoclavicular joint. A, Top view showin
medially, causing the lateral end of the clavicle to
the clavicular protraction and retraction (anteroposterio
slightly override the acromion. gliding) in the transverse plane around a longitudinal ax
A weak fibrous capsule encloses the joint and is (solid dot) through the costoclavicular ligament, not
reinforced superiorly' by' the acromioclavicular lig- shown. Motion takes place between the sternum and th
ament. The acromioclavicular ligament acts pri- meniscus. B. Anterior view showing clavicular elevation
marily to restrain both axial rotation and posterior and depression (superoinferior gliding) in the frontal pla
translation of the clavicle. The majority of the around a sagittal axis (solid dot) through the costoclavic
joint's vertical stability is provided by the coraco- lar ligament. not shown. Motion occurs between the cla
clavicular ligaments that suspend the scapula cle and the meniscus. C, Anterior view depicting the clav
from the clavicle (Fukuda et aI., 1986). The cora- ular rotation around the longitudinal axis ofthe clavicle
CLAVICLE
Glenoid Labrum
The long head of the biceps goes in the bicipital groove
between the greater and lesser tuberosities. The transverse The glenoid labru111 (Fig. 12-10) is a fibrocarti
humeral ligament helps stabilize the biceps tendon in the nous rim that acts to deepen the glenoid, provi
groove. Reprinted with permission from Neer, C. (1990). Shoul- 50°;(; of the overall depth of the glenohumeral j
der Reconstruction (p. 29), Philadelphia: WB. Saunders Co. (\Varner, 1993). It has a triangular configura
\'.'hen viewed in cross-section and has firm att
Coracoacromial ligament
Glenoid --',--'\l;--i.
labrum
Coracoid
Glenoid --+--~: process
cavity Coracohumeral
ligamenl
Tendon of long head of
biceps brachii
Long head of
tTiceps brachll
A
A, The glenoid labrum is attached to the underlying bony when vie'Ned in cross·section and serves to effectively
glenoid and is confluent at its area with the long head of the deepen the glenoid, increasing the stability of the glen
biceps tendon. B. The labrum has a triangular configuration hllmeral joint.
A B
AS
c D
A, Schematic drawing of the shoulder capsule illustrating the humeral ligament complex remain lax, C, The anterior b
location and extent of the inferior glenohumeral ligament is the primary restraint resisting inferior translation of t
complex (IGHLC). A, anterior; P, posterior; B, biceps tendon; shoulder at 45<> abduction and neutral rotation, In this
SGHL, superior glenohumeral ligament; MGHL, middle glenoo tion, the superior glenohumeral ligament, the middle g
humeral ligament; AS, anterior band; Ap, axillary pouch; PS, humeral ligament, and posterior band are lax, D, At 90°
posterior band; Pc, posterior capsule. Reprinted with pertnis· duction, the anterior and posterior bands of the inferio
sian from O'Brien, SJ, Neves, M.e, Amoczky, S.P, et at. (1990) glenohumeral ligament cradle the humeral head to pre
The anatomy and histology of the inferior glenohumeral ligament inferior translation, The posterior band is more significa
complex of the shoulder. Am J Sports Med. 18, 579-584. B. The external rotation, whereas the anterior band plays a gr
superior glenohumeral ligament is the primary restraint to role in internal rotation. Reprinted wirh permission from W
inferior translation in the adducted shoulder at neutral rota- IP, Deng, X.H.. Warren, R,F., et al. (1992). Staric capsuloliga
tion. In this position, the middle glen?humeral ligament and taus restraints ro superior-inferior translations of rhe glenohu
the anterior and posterior bands of the inferior gleno· joint. Am J Sports Med, 20, 675-678.
Experimental Techniques:
Ligament Cutting Studies
Shoulder Instability
Ligament cutting studies have been instrumental in fur- A 21-yea:"0Id ma.n fell while skiing onto his right upper
thering our knowledge regarding the contribution of a . extremity, cauSing forceful abduction and external ro"
given anatomical structure to overall glenohumeral sta- tation. He noted acute pain in the arm and was unable to
bility (Curl & \JVarren, 1996). In this technique, cadav- IYlQveit Physical examination revealed loss of the normal
eric specimens are biomechanically tested before and contour of the shoulder and painful range of motion. Ra"
dlogr~phs showed an anterior dislocation with posterior
after selectively cutting sequential structures. A force is
then applied in a given arm position, and the transla- superi.()rhumeral head impaction fracture. The patient un-
tion that occurs is measured. From this information, the gerwent closed reduction. Postreduction radiographs con"
relative contribution that a given structure provides to firlYledreduction of the humeral head with a small bony
overall stability can be determined. When a particular ayulsion fracture of the anterior-inferior glenoid rim,
pattern of shoulder instability is then identified, the whichrepresents a detachment of the anterior labrum in
physician can infer which anatomical structures may be the area of the superior band of the glenohumeral liga-
deficient or disrupted so that a rational plan of physical ment insertion (Case Study Figure 12" 1" 1).
therapy or surgical repair can be implemented. Structural alteration of bony geometry, ligaments, and
labrum resulted in shoulder instability. The detachment of
• the anterior labrum and the superior band of the liga-
ment insertion affected primarily the resistance to anterior
Additional Constraints to Glenohumeral translation of the humeral head, resulting in anterior dis-
Stability location. !n addition, a concomitant capsule lesion af-
fected the intra"articular negative pressure necessary to
Sy'l1ovial fluid acts via cohesion and adhesion to
pull the humeral head inward. After conservative man-
further stabilize the glenohumeral joint. Synovial
agement. the patient did well for 6 months until he sus"
fluid adheres to the articular cartila~e ovcrh;in cr the
tained a recurrent dislocation. The patient subsequently
glenoid and proximal humerus, c;using the b two
surfaces to slide along one another: Th~ synovial
opted for operative treatment that included repair of the
SCAPULOTHORACIC ARTICULATION
The scapula is a Flat, triangular bone that lies on
Case Study Figure 12-1"1.
the posterolateral aspect of the thorax between the
second and seventh ribs. It is angled 30° anterior to
the coronal plane of the thOl;X and is rotated
slightly toward the midline at its superior end and
tilted anteriorly with respect to the sagittal plane
(Fig. 12-13) (Laumann. 1987). The spine of the
scapula gives rise laterally to the acromion process
that articulates with the distal clavicle at the
acromioclavicular joint. The coracoclavicular liga-
ments and muscular attachments help to suppon
the scapula and stabilize it against the thorax (Fig.
12-6). There is, however, no osseous connection
with the axial skeleton. This allows for a wide
range or scapular Illotion, including protraction,
I"etraction, elevation, depression, and rotation.
The scapulothoracic articulation involves gliding
of the scapula on lite posterior aspect of the thorax.
Interposed between the scapula and the thoracic
\vall lie the subscapularis (arising from the costal
surface of the body of the scapula) and the serratus SerraIus
anterior
anterior, which help to stabilize the scapula against
the chest wall and thus prevent "scapular winging"
(Fig. 12-14). These two muscles glide along one an-
other to provide greatly enhanced mobility of the Anterior view of the scapulothoracic articulation, a
shoulder complex as a whole, I11llscle·bone articlJlation between the scapula and
Elevation of the arm involves rnotion at both the During scupular motion, the subscaplJlaris muscle. Io
glenohumeral joint and the scapulothoracic articu- attaches broadly to the costa! surface of the scapula
on the serratus anterior muscle, which originates or
lation. Although the contribution from each varies
first eight ribs and inserts into the cost<ll surf..'!ce of
according to arm position and the specific task bc-
scapula along the length of its vertebral border.
lng performed. the average ratio of glenohumeral to
scapulothoracic moL ion is 2: I (Tibone el aI., 1994). .----------------
Elevation of the arm also induces complex rotatory
motion of the scapula, \vith anterior rotation during
the first 90° followed by posterior rotation with a to-
SPINAL CONTRIBUTION TO SHOULDER
tal arc of approximately 15° (Morrey & An, 1990).
MOTION
Acromion Allhaugh often O\'crlookcd, motion 01" the th
-.J 3 'r Scapular
0 and lurnlmr spine contributes to thL' :.\bilit:,· t
I I spine tion the upper c."tl'(.'l1lit~· in space, {ht.T('b~· l.'
~l I. ing the on.:r<.111 Illotion and functioll of the sh
cOlllpk.·x. f'kxiol1 01" tile spine away frolll an ,-
il~' altempting ttl reach an object o\'crhcacl t.'n
the range of motion <.lllainahlt: (Fig. 12·15), T
ponancc or spinal motion in O\·l..'rlH.':'ld act
Scapula such as throwing ~Illd r<.tcqul.'l sports h<.ts als
c1emonst rated.
Kinetics
Numerous llluscll..'s aCI nn the \'arious comp
Scapular orientation on the chest wall. Left. 30~ anterior, or the shoulder complex to provide both m
Right. 3" upward, Reprinted with permission from Warner JJP: and d\'namic $t~lbilit.\·. Dynamic stabilizati
The gross anatomy of the joim surfaces, ligaments, labrum, and cllrs via sl.~\'cral possible lllcch:'lnisms (Mo
capsule. In: Matsen. F.A., FtJ, F.H., Hawkins, R.I (Eds.) The Shoul- An, 1990), including p~lssi\'(' musch.' lensi
der: A Balance of Mobility and Stability. Rosemont, IL: American via a b:,uTic:r effect of the contracted Illuscle
Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, J 993.
prl..'ssi,·L' forces broughl ahout h~' llHISCU!:'U
traction, .ioint lllotion that induces lighten
activated differently for specific activities. The
toid originates from the lateral third of the clav
acromion, and scapular spine and inserts on the
terolateral aspect of the humerus. The anterior h
acts as a strong flexor and internal rotator of
humerus, the middle head as an abductor, and
posterior head as an extensor and external rot
The pectoralis major lies over the anterior c
wall and has two heads, a clavicular head orig
ing from the side of the clavicle and a sternoco
head originating from the sternum, manubri
and the upper costal cartilages. The two heads
verge at the sternoclavicular joint. The pecto
major inserts at the intertubercular groove of
humerus between the tuberosities and act
adduct and internally rotate the humerus. Se
darily, the clavicular head acts as a flexor or fon
elevator of the humerus while the sternocostal
extends the humerus. The pectoralis minor lies
to the pectoralis major, functioning as an impor
scapular stabilize!: The pennate subclavius mu
lies inferior to the clavicle and Illay assist in cl
"fmm'------
ular motions. It has a tendinous origin from the
teromedial aspect of the first rib and insert
I
tion the upper extremity. Reprinted with permission from
Pectoralis major
Rockwood, C. & Matsen, F (1990), The Shoulder (p. 2' 9).
Clavicular
Philadelphia: WB. Saunders Co.
Deltoid Sternal
Posterior
Middle
Anterior
the passive or ligamentous constraints, or via a
redirection of the joint force toward the center of
the glenoid.
To understand rnusclc function and force trans-
mission. one must consider a given muscle's orien-
tation, size, and activity. Given the multiple articu-
lations present in the shoulder complex, an:y given
muscle may" span several different joints, and de-
pending on the position of the upper extremity', its
relationship with regard to anyone articulation
may change, altering its effect on that joint and the
resultant forces or motions produced. Serra
ante
Anterior sheath Pectoralis
MUSCULAR ANATOMY of rectus minor
Deltoid
Anterior
~-'\-- InfraspInatus
Middle
'-=--+- Rhomboideus
major
Posterior
Teres minor
Teres major
Latissimus
dorsi
Posterior view shoWing the superficial muscles (left shoulder) and underlying muscles
(right shoulder).
ium serves to elevate. retract, and rotate the tivity but does not directly indicate forces gene
scapula. The latissimus dorsi covers the inferior ated. A complete understanding of the latter
portion of the back, inserting on the intertubercular quires knowledge of lhe moment arm (measur
groove of the humerus. It acts to extend. adduct, as the distance between the instantaneous ccnt
and internally rotale the humerus. of rotation of thc joint and the distance of mu
Below these muscles.lie the levator scapulae supe- cular pull) and the physiological cross~section
riorly, which elevale and inferiorly rotate the scapula, the involvcd muscle ('measured as the muscul
and the rhomboid muscles below, \vhich retract and volume divided by its length). In the should
rotate the scapula. Both of these muscle groups nctLO complex, each motion is associated with mov
assist the serratus anterior (which lies laterally on the ment at multiple articulations and the constan
chest and intercostal muscles inserting onto the me~ changing relationships of the muscular origi
dial border of the anterior surface of the scapula) in and insertions.
keeping the scapula fixed to the trunk. Given the paucity of osseous stabilil~' at t
glenohumeral joint, force generated by one mu
cle: (the primary agonist) requires the activati
INTEGRATED MUSCULAR ACTIVITY
of an antagonistic muscle 50 that a dislocati
OF THE SHOULDER COMPLEX
force does not result (Simon, 1994).. The antag
Electromyography allows for the quantification of nist usually accomplishes this via an eccentl
.' .;:. muscular activity during dynamic conditions. contraction whereby the mU5cfe is lengthen
This permits insight into the level of muscular ac- while actively contracting or via the production
a neutralizing force of equal magnitude but in the Forward Elevation
opposite direction. The relationship between two
such muscles is also referred 1O as a force couple TIll' most b~\~,dc motion (If thl.· shoukkr compk.
(Fig. 12-19). Around the glenohumeral joint. there \·oln.'s ck\'~lIioll of tIlL' arm ill the scapular p
is a force couple in the coronal plane (between the This motion has hel'n studiL'd in depth via both
deltoid and the infedor portion of the rotator ll'omyograph}' and stcrcopllOlogrammctl-.v.
curf) and in the transverse plane between the sub- muscles of the shoulder girdk han: subsequ
scapularis muscle anteriorly and the posterior ro- heen grouped according: to relatin.' illlponancL"
tator Cliff Illusculature (the infraspinatus and regard to this rnotion. TIll' first grouping inc
teres minor). the dcILoid <Spccificall~.. lhe anterior and m
Relative Illotion is produced by an imbalance be- heads). lrapeziulll (inf..:rior ponion), supraspin
t\veen the agonist and antagonist that produces and serratus ~lJ)leri()r (Simon, 10(4), The se
torque. The degree of torque and the resultant an- grouping consists uf' the Iniddlc portion o
gular velocity produced is determined by the rela- trapeziulll. the infraspinatus. and thl..' long he
tive activation of two such muscles or muscle the biceps. r\ third group consists or Ilw pos
groups. Resultant muscular forces arc determined head or the ddlOid. thl.' c1~l\·iclilar Ill,:'~ld of tht.~
via an understanding of the cross-sectional area of toralis major, and lht.' slIpi.:rior ponion or the tr
the activated muscles involved and their orientation iUIll. The fourth and final group includes I hi.' st
at the time of activation. head or the pectoralis rnajor. the latissirnlls d
and t Itt.' long !It.'ad or the t ricL'ps.
Thl.' inter-rt..'!i.lriol1ship bL'l\\·ct.'1l the mus
rorces in\·oh'l.'d in shoulder dl.'\'~llion W<lS firsl
ied b,\' Inman, who round that the deltoid
sllpr~ISpiJlatus \ulrk s}·nergisticall.,· ,,·hile th
mainder of till".' rotator cufllllusculalllrc provi
hUllleral dcpn:ssing forct.' 10 counter sllbluxati
lhl.:.' humeral !lead (Illll1~\I1. Saunders. & Ab
19-1-1). Thus. the vertic'l1h· orien'ed pull o[ th
(oid is offset h~' a net inferior rorce crcat(:d b~' th
A B fraspinatlls, suhscapularis, anc! teres millOI'.
EIt.:.'ctrom.,'ographic studies have shown tlwt
lhe supraspilwluS and deltoid ~\rc acti\'L' throug
the nlllgt..' of ann clev"ltioll. ThL' supraspinatus.
The deltoid and the oblique rotator cuff muscles (infraspina-
ever, is felt to h~l\'c a larger role in initiating a
tus. subscapularis. and teres minor) combine 10 produce ele-
tion. As the arm is progrcs~i\'d}" dL'\'~\ted from
vation of the upper extremity by means of <1 force couple
side, the 1ll0!llCI\t arm of till".' deltoid improvl.
(two forces equal in magnitude but opposite in direction).
suiting in a larger force in I\.'lation to thc supras
With the arm at the side (A), the directional force of the del-
tus (Fig. 12-20), The p<.:rccllwge 01" shearing or
toid is upward and outward with respect to the humerus
cal force created by the deltoid likewise ck'crt
while the force of the oblique rOlator cuff muscles is down-
with increasing arnollllts or ahduction. The an
ward and inward, These two rotational forces can be re-
pull or the supraspinalUs'is more l'OIlSI~lJll a
solved into their respective vertical and horizontal compo-
pro:dmalcl.,· 7,=,°, acting not onl.\· to elcvate or a
nents. The horizontal force of the deltoid acting below the
the arm but also to compress the hurneral
(enter of rotation of the glenohumeral joint is opposite in
within the glenoid. Thl.' remaining roW tor cull
direction to the horizontal force of the oblique rotalOrs.
cles pull at approxil1latd~' -15°, which is din;(:ll"
which is applied above the center of rolation. These forces
{'edod}; (slightl,'· highcr in the ter('s minor at 55
acting in opposite directions on either side of the center of
sulting in forces lh~lt l.·quall}' compress ;:111(1 de
rotation produce a powerful force couple. as illustrated by
the humeral head to maintain glcnohulllcral s
the arm signal (B), The vertical forces offset each other,
ity (Fig. 12-21).
thereby stabilizing the humeral head on the glenoid and al-
Sl~\('ctive anesthetic block or tht' n:dllary
lowing elevation to take place. Adapted with permission
(and resulting dcILoid paralysb) dcnlOnsll·atl.'
from Lucas, 0.8. (1973). Biomechanics of the shoulder joint.
forward elevation is possihle alb~it signinc
Arch 5urg. 107.425.
weakencd. Lik.:,\·isc. a supr~lscaplilar nerve
Supraspinatus Subscapularis
ff,o':::;7'1:_u..p",ra::-s-,-p_in_a-tIU.S \
-~------
I As the arm is abducted to 90", the direction of pull of the
deltoid approximates that of the supraspinatus. There-
fore, patients with a large tear of the rotator cuff often
can actively maintain the arm abducted to 90° but may
not be capable of actively abducting to 90", Reprinted with
permission from Simon, S.R. (Ed). (/994) Orthopaedic Basic
Science (p. 527). Rosemont, IL: AAOS. Supraspinatus --I-:~~~~~~~
I
9
External Rotation
The primary external rotator of the humerus is the The angle of pull of the subscapularis (top) is approximately
infraspinatus. with significant contributions made 45°. The angle of pull of the infraspinatus (bottom) is also
by the posterior head of the deltoid and the teres mi- approximately 45°, and the teres minor (bottom) is approxi-
nOI: With any given amount of shoulder abduction, mately 55°. These vectors result in nearly equal glenohu-
electromyography reveals the prime external rotator meral joint compression and humeral head depression. The
to be the infraspinatus. The subscapularis is simi- supraspinatus (center) is essentially horizontal in its orienta-
larly active but serves an antagonistic role as the tion, resulting in compression of the glenohumeral joint.
main stabilizer preventing anterior displacement of
•
----_._.__ ._----_._~~----~-_._._-----~- ----._-
Subacromial Impingement Syndrome and Rotator Cuff Tear
·.
A 53-year-old right-hand-dominant woman who presents
right shoulder pain of 6 months' duration, The patient
still exert Its effects by Wc1Y of the "spans" of the bridge.
Thus. patients may have a "functional" rotator Cliff tear in
noted increasing pain at night and with overhead activities of \-vhich they are s!ill able to periorm overhead activities. Ii the
daily living such as putting on a shirt and brushing her hair. tearing force presem at the t\:'IO suppons is great enough.
The pain is unresponsive to pain killers. Physical examination howe'/er, worsening of the tear will occur.
revealed diffuse tenderness over the shoulder and deltoid
with.painful forward elevation above 60:3 and internal fOla-
tion limited to her ipsilateral greater trochanter. She had a
positive Neer sign (painful forward ele'l<ltion between 60 and
120°) and a positive Hawkins sign (pain with passive abduc-
tion and. internal rotation). A subacromial impingement test
was positive with near complete relief of pain and restoration
of fOl\lvard elevation to 1500 but persistent \;veakness on re-
sisted shoulder abduction. A diagnosis of subacromial im-
pingement syndrome is made. The patient was initially man-
aged with conservative treatment. At 5 weeks follow-up. the
patient had persistent pain and an MRI of her shoulder re-
vealed a full thickness tear or the supraspinatus tendon. The
patient opted for operative management (Case Study Fig, 12-1-1).
Biomechanically, rotator cuff tears have been likened to a
suspens.ion bridge, whereby the free margin of the tear corre·
sponds to the cable and the residual atlachrnents correspond
to the supports at each end of the cable's span. This coniigu-
ration allows the muscle that has been torn at its insertion to
Forward elevation or abduction 0-120 o of the arm requires synchronous rotation of the
scapula. Reprinted "'lith permission {rom Simon, S.R. (Ed). (1994). Orthopaedic Basic Science (p.
- - - - - - -
Rotation of the scapula is produced by the synergistic contractions of the lower portion
of the serratus anterior and the lower trapezius, with the upper trapezius, levator scapu-
lae, and upper serratus anterior. Reprinred with permission from Simon, 5.R. (Ed). (1994).
Orthopaedic Basic Science (p. 527-535). Rosemont. IL: AAOS
the joint reactive force equivalent to 10.2 times the musculature in the late cocking phase aCling b
weight of the arm (Inman, Saunders, & Abbott, rotate the humerus and prevent anterior su
1944). More recent investigations of these same tion of the glenohumeral joint (Eames &
forces utilizing the assumption that the muscular 1978). Specifically, the supraspinatus acts in t
force is proportional to its area multiplied by its ac~ cocking phase to draw the hUllleral head low
tivity as determined by electromyography have glenoid, the infraspinatus and teres minor p
yielded similar values. with a maximal joint reactive humeral head posteriorly, and the subscap
force of 89% of body weight seen at 90 0 of elevation bOlh prevents excessive external rotation
in the scapular plane (Poppen, & Walke.; 1978). humerus ancl contracts eccentrically to
stress on the anterior shoulder (Tibone et 'II.,
The importance of scapular (and thus glenoi
THE BIOMECHANICS OF PITCHING
bilization has also been recognized, and the se
Pitching has been divided into five stages: wind up, anterior has been shown to nre actively in t
earl.y cocking. late cocking, acceleration, and fol- cocking phase; this provides a stable platfo
low-through (Tibone et 'II., 1994). The deltoid has humeral motion. Thus. coordinated. sequenti
been found to be responsible for elevation and ab- vation of the shoulder musculature is needed
duction of the humerus in the carly phases. fol- vent anterior subluxation of the glenohumera
lowed by increased activation of the ratmar cuff and the overuse tendinitis that can ensue.
~~,;;~
-/j
,0;"0" .Calculation of Reaction Forces
Estimates of the reaGlon force on the glenohumeral o is approximately one-half body weight. Because 0 and J
joint are obtained with the use of simplifying assump- are almost paraUel but oppOSite. they form a force couple and
:, lions (Poppen & Walker, 1978). are of equal magnitude; thus, the joint reaction force is also
;;; Case A. In this example, the arm is in 90° of abduction, approximately one-half body weigll!.
;~(:and it is assumed that only the deltoid muscle is active. The Case B. Similar calculations can be made to determine the
Ii force produced through the tendon of the deltoid muscle (0) value for 0 when a weight equal to 0,025 times body weight
:,~,acts at a distance of 3 em from the center of rotation of the is held in the hand with the arm in 90" of abduction.
,,'joint (indicated by the hollow circle). The force produced by
~M = 0
~, the weight of the arm is estimated to be 0.05 times body
(30 ern x .05 BW) + (60 em " .025 BW) -
\.veight (BvV) and acts at a distance of 30 cm from the center
(D x 3 em) ~ 0
of rotalion. The reaClion force on the glenohumeral joint 0)
may be calculated with the use of the equilibrium equation D = (30 em " .05 BW) + (60 em " .025 BW)
that states that for a body to be in moment equilibrium, the 30m
5;Jm of the moments must equal zero. In this example, the D = 1 BW
moments acting clockwise are considered to be positive and
counterclockwise moments are considered to be negative. Once again. 0 and J are essentially equal and opposite.
'::
forming a force couple. Thus. the joint reaction force is ap-
~M = 0
proximately equal to body weight.
(30 em x .05BW) - (D " 3 em) = 0
D = 30 em x .05 BW
3cm
D = 0.5 BW
3cm
3cm
I
I
Force 0 ......... ----i""X'-
Force J ·········~)~~=----=t;;;;_;;:;---r
I
II I ,.ossw
! I, ,
30cm
;•
): ! 30cm
.~,----::------->
60 em
:/;' ~
L
• O>-~ '" "'"!'.,-_-.!'.!','!'.A__"'zg!,!,,,.,,!,!,,"""'_.","_!,,,~".B'" "'_........"_...,;"t.~".,,__,,,",_"_,·c"-, ___·,"'.", "_--",,---~. ·"",~c_,,,:-,-,,,,~,~,,_,,,,;;o..,,,,,,~,?,,_,,~,,,_--- __- __,,,,,,"7.2'}"'...!,,",,J.7!!J~'!;?3?WC'--"; _ ..!_".xa"'..", ;. ""'.."'""_,
Biomechanic
of the Elbow
Laith M. Jazrawl~ Andrew 5. Rokito, Maureen Gallagher Bird
Joseph D. Zuckerm
Introduction
Anatomy
Kinematics
Carrying Angle
Elbow Stability
Kinetics
Electromyography
Elbow Joint Forces
Artieular Surface Forces
Calculation of Joint Reaction Forces at the Elbow
Summary
References
. ,
•
f ,,-
~,
Introduction j
IX
~/ The elbow is a complex joint that functions as a ful-
!
·i
I
~•. ",.'
~
crUIll for the forearm lever system that is responsi-
. hie for positioning the hand in space. A detailed lin- I
t -Hi;:Xderstnnding of the biomechanics of elbow function \
Wi,
t,
J,;': ,is essential for the clinician to e1Tcctivcly treat
'pathological conditions affecting the elbow joint.
I
~"'"
~:'.•,.,· .;;'.A
~ Wi
/'l ato III V
,•.... '.' .,/
rf
i,
trochlea and capitellum of the distal hUl11cnls arc
internally rotated 3 to 8' (Fig. 13-IC) and in 94 to 98'
of valgus with respect to the longitudinal axis of the
c
i
~ The distal humerus is divided into medial and lat-
.,. eml columns that terlllinate distally with the
, trochlea connecting the two columns (Fig. 13-3). The
~. medial column diverges [Tom the humeral shaft at a 4'
~ 45° angle and ends approximatel,Y 1 cm proximal to
I
::
the distal end of the trochlea. The dislal one third of
the medial column is composed of cancellous bone,
$ is ovoid in shape, and represents the medial epi-
ii; condyle. The lateral column of the distal humerus
( diverges at a 20° angle from the humerus at the same
~.
~.. level as the medial column and ends \'.lith the capitel-
< IUlll. The trochlea is in the shape of a spool and is
I. comprised of medial and lateral lips with an inter-
l vening sulcus. This sulcus articulates with the semi- I
~ lunar notch of the proximal ulna. The articular sur-
I face of the trochlea is covered by hyaline cartilage in
~ an arc of 330°. The capitellum, comprising al0105t a A B
r: perfect hemisphere. is covered by hyaline cartilage
t
~
forming an arc of approximately 180°.
Tbe mticular surface of the ulna is rotated 30' poste·
I Jiorly with respect to ilS long ax.is. This matches the 30° Angular orientation of the proximal ulna in the anteropos-
terior (A) and lateral (8) planes.
t anteIior angulation of the distal humerus. which helps
r pl"Ovide stability to the elbow joint in full extension
rt 341
t
~.,.
•
~._,',".~~.•."".....,,,,,..,~"".<~_..,.<.'o"O,..,_o""~'__,k"'.•~_,,__,,~,"_-."""",="~_".,,,,. . ._~.",-\~,,_ .,,,.c,,,.>_~-.----,--="_,,,, "'p"'......"'Q'.. . .----_~-"', ~r:'-'~.~77~3." :i-',\"" - .'"f:r
Lateral Medial \,,:Clllll"~ll·tl1n,,·s 01 tip to 30 which i ... C(Jfl:-.istl'lH w
column column Ilh: iUlll'tiollal r~lllgl.· \alul.".... dl"SlTilk·d aho\·I.·. r
i(Jll 1.·(llitractllrl."~ ~rl'~lkr than 3(r~ ~U\· a:-'Mll'
,,·ith 1.·(lJrlplailll:" {If ... iglliiicant In...:" or r1Hllion.
Olecranon i... ~l clInsidl'rahk ~1l1<..1 rapid loss Ill' thl" ahiiit
fossa
I\"~ldl in spal·l· \\ ilb Ik','\ion coniraclllrl~'" " ..."
Coronoid
lh:lll 30" (Fi~. 13-':» U\n 8.: :\1 0 tTL".\'. 10Y 1).
fossa
Till.' :l\is 01' I"OI:llil!l'l 1'(11' Ik·,\ioll-I.'\1L'llsiull has b
s!\(l\\'[) h.\' Sl'\'l'l'~d illn..,'slig:I[OI"S lo Iw ~lt till· 1.·l. nle
l
';
lP.!",,:;;.A !JC~~ .• "'"",":_ ",1'>-':-'" __ >~~,_: _" C
, r.
o 30 45 60 90 degrees
Function = Volume
V" 4/3 "r"
Diagram depicts the dramatic loss of effective reach area with flexion contractu res of the
elbow greater than 30"
~ .dl-------------------------------------
~
internal axial rotation of the ulna has been shown to flexion-extension occurs abollt a tight locus
occur during early nexion and external axial rotation points measuring 2 to 3 mm in its broadest dime
during terminal tlexion. demonstrating that the el- sian and is in the center of the trochlea and capite
bow cannOl be truly represented as a simple hinge lum on the lateral view. It is approximated by a li
joint. -In conclusion. evidence suggests that the el- passing through the center of the lateral epicondy
bow has a changing center of rotation during flex- and trochlea and then through the anteroinferi
ion-extension and functions in a more complex man- aspect of the medial epicondyle (Fig. 13-6) (Morr
ner than would a simple uniaxial hinge. & Chao. 1976). These facLors should be Laken in
Despite variation in findings among investiga- account during joint replacement procedures of t
tors. Mon·ey. Tanaka. and An (199\) have slaled thal elbow as well as when placing hinged exlemaI fix
the deviation of the center of joint I'olation is mini- tors across the elbow joint (Figgie. rnglis. & i\flo
mal and the reported variation is probably the 1986).
result of limitations in experimental design. There- Pronntion and supination take plac;e primarily
fore. the ulnohullleral joint could be assumed to the humeroradial and proximal radioulnar join
move as a uniaxial articulation except at the ex- with the forearm rotating about a longitudinal ax
tremes of nexion-extension. The axis of rotation of passing through the center of lhe capitellum an
y rotalion. Ray el al. (1951) demonstrated some var
valgus movemenl of the distal ulna with rotation
an axis extending from the radial head through
index finger (Fig. 13-7).
---
Palmer et al. (1982) have demonslrated proxi- in adults and greater in females than in males
mal radial migration with forearm pronalion. This eraging 10 and 13° of valgus, respectively, w
finding has been supported by observations at el- wiele distribution in both (Atkinson & Elft
bow arthroscopy. In addition. as a result of the 1945; Mall, 1905). Steindler (1955) report
ovoid shape of the radial head. its axis is displaced gradual increase in the carrying angle with
laterally in pronation by 2 mm to allow space for but found no statistical difference between
medial rotation of the radial tuberosity (Ka- and women in this rate of increase or the c<'lI
1982). angle. Controversy exists regarding the chan
the carrying angle as the e1bo\v is Flexed. An
(1984) have noted that this controversy a
'ng Angle from the various references systems employ
determine the carrying angle. They noted
:'1 The valgus position of the elbow in full extension when the cCiITying angle is defined as eithe
is commonly referred to as the c<'\ITying angle, angle ronned bet\veen the long axis of the
The carrying angle is defined as the angle between merus and ulna on a plane containing
the anatomical axis of the ulna and the humerus humerus or vice versa, the carrying angle cha
measured in the anteroposterior plane in exten- minimally with flexion. H the carrying angle
sion or simply the orientation of the ulna with re- fined as the abduction-adduction angle of
spect to the humerus. 01' vice versa, in full exten- ulna relative (0 the humerus Llsing Eulerian
sion (Fig. 13-8). The angle is less in children than gles to describe arm motion, the carrying a
decreases with joint flexion changing to var
extreme flexion (Fig. 13-9).
I
Elbo'vv Stability
I
I
I
Valgus Forces at the elbow are resisted prim
I by the anterior band of the medial collateral
I
I ment (MCL) complex. The MCL complex con
I
I
of an anterior bundle, a posterior bundle, an
I , transverse ligament (Fig. 13-10). The anterior
\I I' dle tightens in extension while the posterior
I '
dle tightens in flexion. This occurs because
I I
I
Mel complex docs not originate al the cent
I the axis of elbow rotation (Fig. 13-11). The
I'
I rior band of the Mel complex originates frol
I inferior surface of the medial epicondyle o
" distal humerus and inserts along the medial
'I
I I of the olecranon. vVith an intact anterior band
I I
, I radial head does not offer significant addit
,
I I
I
resistance to valgus stress'. However, with a t
acted or disrupted anterior band, the radial
I I
,
,:.-...',
becomes the primary restraint to valgus s
emphasizing its function as a secondary stab
in elbows with an intact MCL (Palmer, Glisso
Werner, 1982). Despite studies by Mon'ey (Mo
An, & Stormont, 1988; Morrey, Tanaka, &
The carrying angle of the elbow, formed by the intercep· 1991) ""demonstrating the secondary valgus
tion of the long axes of the humerus and the ulna with bilizing effect of the radial head, several inves
the elbow fully extended and the forearm supinated. Val- tors have noted increased valgus laxity after I
gus angulation normally ranges from 10 to 15°,
head excision (Coleman, Blair, & Shurr,
• Gerard, Schernburg, & Nerot, 1984; John
A B
'I
,IJ
I
r Abduction/adduction
r
Humerus I
r
X4
Z1
Pronalionlsupinalion
X4
c
A. Carrying angle measured as the angle between the long the plane containing the humerus. C. Eulerian angle
axis of the ulna and the long axis of projection of the surement of ulnar motion in reference to the humer
humerus on the plane containing the ulna. B. Carrying angle duction-adduction rotates about the axis orthogona
measured as the angle formed between the long axis of the the Z and X4 axes; flexion-extension rotates about th
humerus and the long axis of the projection of the ulna on axis; forearm axial rotation takes place about the X4
•
valgus stress is the MCL complex (I\ltorrey &
1983). In extcnsion, the elbow articulation prov
most of the resistance to varus stress, followed
the alllcrior capsule. In flexion. the elbow artiC
tion remains the primary restraint to varus st
Anterior bundle
followed by the anterior capsule and the lateral
lateral ligament (LCL) complex, respectively,
Posterior the LCL complex contributing only 9% (Table 1
bundle Elbow extension is limited primarily by the ante
capsule and anterior bundle of the MCL comp
Transverse
Excision of the olecranon fossa fat pad has
ligamem
shown to provide 5° of additional extension (\Va
1977). Furthermore, Morrey et al. (1991)
demonstrated an almost linear decrease in u
humeral joint stability with scrial removal of 1
Medial coHateralligament complex containing anterior 100% of the olecranon.
and posterior bundles as well as a transverse component. The LCL complex consists of the radial colla
ligament that originates fTom the lateral epicon
and inserts on the annular ligament, the latera
nar collateral ligament that originates from the
eral epicondyle and passes superficial to the ann
1962; Morrey, Chao, & Hui, 1979). However, this ligament inserting onto the supinator crest of
does not seem to be clinicall.\' disabling ulna. and the accessory LCL complex (Fig. 13
(Hotchkiss, 1997). The origin of the LCL con1plex lies at the cent
Selective ligament transection studies have the axis of elbow rotation, explaining its consis
shown that in extension, resistance to valgus stress length throughout the flexion~extension arc
is shared equally by the MCL complex. capsule. and 13-13). Although Mon'ey and An (1983)
joint articulation. In flexion, the primary resistor to demonstrated only a minimal contribution of
LCL complex to varus stability. others have sh
the LCL complex to be an important stabilize
2
Anterior
1 ~
0 Percent Contribution of Restraining
~
Force During Displacement (Rotational
2
P-MCl or Distractional)
1 Stabilizing
Position Element D~straction Varus Val
0
o -
20 .:0 00 60 100 120 140 Extension MCl 12 3
Elbow joint flexion LCL 10 14
angle (degrees)
Capsule 70 32 3
":'rticulation 55
Flexion MeL 78 5
Origin of the anterior and posterior bundles of the medial
collateral ligament (MCL) complex. As the MCL does not LCL 10 9
originate on the axis of elbow rotation. there are changes Capsule 8 13
in its length as a function of elbow flexion. The anterior Articulation 75 3
bundle. which is closer to the axis of rotation, is the most
isometric. MeL. medial collater.11Iigamen, complex; LCL. lateral collateral
ligament complex
o 1 2 3
Reduced Posterolateral Perched Dislocaled
rotatory
instability
Radial
collateral
ligament
.
Clinical stages of posterolateral rotatory instability o
The lateral collateral ligament complex.
elbow.
----------------
the humeroulnar joint with forced varus and exter- dcrscl1, 1989). The latl.'raluilwr coll~t[eral is th
nal rotation (Daria et aI., 1990; Dllrig et aI., 1979; llwr\ restraint to posl~r()latt..'r:.d l'OWlOr\ insta
Josefsson, Johnell, & Wenderberg, 1987; O'Driscoll. or the dl)()\\', followcd by lite radial collatera
Morrey, & An, 1990a; Osborne & Cotterhill, 1966) . ment "nd capsule. O'Driscoll et al. (1990b)
O'Driscoll and colleaglles( 1990a) described the noted a small but significant effect or the inh
entity of posterolateral rotatory instability of the e1. negative intra-anicular pn.:.'ssurc of lhe elbow
bow in which the ulna supinates on the humerus to \'arus and rotation strcsses (C:'lse Stud.\' 13-
and the radial head dislocates in a posterolateral di- Slruclures Iimiling passh·.. .· lkxion includ
rection (Fig. 13-14). It has been shown that the el- capsule, lriceps, coronoid process, :.lnd radial
bow can dislocate postcrolatcrally or posteriorly Struclures limiting dbow exlt.'nsion include th
with an intact Mel c0l11plex. This can occur with cranon process and Ihe anterior band or the
combined valgus and e:\lernal rotation loads across complex. Passin:.' resistance 10 pronaLion-supin
the elbow joint (Sojbjerg, Helmig, & Jaersgaard-An- is provided in large pan b~" (he ::lIltagonisl m
gruup on slrdch, not b)' th . ., ligal1lclHous struc
(Braune &. Flugd. 1842). Olll.. .'I's have shown
thL' quadrate ligament proddes l'l.'s(railll to fo
rotation (Spinner & Kaplan, 1970).
e c
Longitudinal stabilil~' 01" the f'orL'arm is pro
b~' both the interosseous 11lL'mbranc and the
1n:,:::::1
a0
Z
0 20':0 60 80100 120 1.$0
''-:,'',-,','':',''1''''
Elbow Fracture Dislocation Instability of the joint occurs in posterolateral dislocation
The ulna supinates onto the humerus, the radial head dislo
A 16-year old male gymnast falls onto an outstretched arm,
in the posterolateral direction, and the lateral ulnar collater
x~ producing abnormal loads in the elbow complex. The axial
ligament is injured, as is the radial collateral ligament and c
loading during the fall onto the outstretched position caused a
sule. All these abnormalities lead to an increase in stress wi
fracture on the radial head, altering the articular congruity of
the joint and a loss of stability and congruency necessary fo
the radjocapitel!um joint and the stability of the elbow (Fig.
normal joint kinematics.
(513·1-1 ).
I
Case Study Figure 13-1-1. Figure A: Antera-posterior X-rays that confirms postero-Iateral elbow dislocation, Figure B: lateral radiography tha
fracture on the radial head and capitellum, Figures C. D: Posterior and lateral vie,v, Post-operative x-rays. Congruence of the joint has been achieved.
radial migration increased to 4.4 mm, Radial head humerus and thL' prnximallaleral aspect of the
resection when combined with TFCC transaction and insens into till: ~nl(:rior aspect of the supin
caused 2,2 l1un of proximal radial migration, The proximal radius,
combination of radial head resection, interosseous Muscles in\"C)ln:d in pronation itH.:ltld~ the p
membrane transaction. and TFCC transaction led to {or qu()dratus and pronator teres, Thl,.' pro
the greatest increase in proximal radius migration quadratus originates from the \-'olar asp~ct o
of 16.8 mm. distal ulna and inserts onw the dislal and later
pect or the supinated r~\dius, The pronator te
more proximall.\' located, arising from the m
Kinetics l'picond~'lc or the hLlm~l'us and inserting ont
lal~ral aspect of the midshal't 01" the supinme
The primary nexor of the elbow is the brachialis. dius, The pronator quadratus is the primary p
which arises from the anterior aspect of the tor of the forearm reg~rdless of its position.
humenJs and inserts on the anterior aspect of the pronator teres is a SCCOJ1c!4l1Y pronator when
proximal ulna (Fig. 13-\5). The biceps arises via a pronation is required or during resish.'d pron
long head tendon fTom the supraglenoid tubercle (Basmajian, 1969).
and a short head tcndon from the coracoid process In a sludy examining ('Ibn\\' strength in no
of the scapula and inserts on the bicipital tuberosity' indi\'iduals, supination strength \\'as shown to
of the radius, It is active in flexion when the forearm to 30%:: greater than pronalion strength (Ask
is supinated or in the neutral position. The brachio- al.. 1986), COllsish.'nt with muscle cross-sect
radialis, which originates fTom the lateral two thirds area and moment arms, flexion strength w~s
of the distal humerus and insens on the distal as- gre~ltcr than extension str('ngth, LastI~·, males
pect of the radius near the radial styloid, is active consistcntl~' 40'j(i slronger than females in e
during rapid flexion movements of the elbow and strenglh testing.
when weight is lifted during a slow flexion move-
ment (Basmajian & Lalif, (957). The brachial is, bi-
ceps, brachioradialis, and extensor carpi radialis are Electromyography
Lhe major nexors of the elbow, the brachialis pos-
sessing the greatest work capacity (An et aI., (981), Elcctrom~'ogl'aph~' has been helpful in definin
The primary eXLensor of the elbow, the triceps, contributions or elbo\\' musculature during a
is composed of three separate heads, The long ties of dail~' li\'ing and spcciflcall~' defined
head originates from the infraglenoid tubercle and TilL' biceps brachii is only l1linimall~' acth'L' d
the medial and lateral heads originate from the elbow Ilt'xion wh~n the forearm is pronated
posleriol' aspecL of the humenls (Fig. 13-\5). The mujian '" LaLif, 1957: Funk el 'II., 1987: Mal
three heads coalesce to form one tendon that in- BouisseL, 1977: SL~\'~ns ~L aI., 1973). Brachial
serts onto the olecranon process of the ulna, The th'it.v, howen.'r, is nOI affected b\ forearm rot
medial head is the primary extensor and the lat- during flexion (Funk t't aI., 1987: St('\'L~ns e
eral and long heads act in reserve (Basmajian, 1973), The brachioradialis also is aClive during
1969), The anconeus muscle. which arises from ion, This activit~" is enhanced wilen lh<.: forca
the posterolateral aspect of the distal humerus and in a neutral or pronaled position (Basmaji
inserts onto the posterolateral aspect of the proxi- Travill, 1961: DeSousa, DeMoraes, & DeMo
mal ulna, is also active in extension, This muscle 196\: Funk el aI., 1987: Sle\"ens el al.. (973).
is active in initiating and rnaintaining extension, tromyographic dala demonstrates that (he m
While the lriceps, anconeus, and Ilexol' carpi ul- head 01" the triceps "!lei anconeus is activc duri
naris are active in extension, the triceps has the bo\\' extension, with the lateral ~lIld long hea
largest work capacity of all the elbow extensors the triceps sCI'ving as secondaJ'~' extensors, M
(An et al., 198\). (1993) concluded the following from the
,
I'; Muscles involved in supination of the forearm in- tromyographic data: (I) the biceps is gencrall~
clude the supinator. biceps, and lateral epicondylar aClive in full pronation or Ihe forearm, s(;.'conel
'-~
extensors of the wrist and fingers. The primal)' mus- its role as a supinator: (2) lhe brachialis is a
cle involved in supination is the biceps brachii. The throughollt flexion and i~ belic\'ed to be the w
supinalor arises fTom the IaLent! epicondyle of the horse of flexion; (3) electrical activity or lhe tr
MUSCLES OF RIGHT UPPER EXTREMITY
Anterior View Posterior View
Supraspinatus
Lev. scapulae
Rhomboid
'" Infraspinatus
Subscapularis ---'f-+ min.
Teres minor
Lat. dorsi - - \ - H
Infraspinalus
'I-\-Ir-t- Trieeps
Teres maj. ---t'~J (long head)
Rhomboid
Pectoralis maj. ----'R maj. '--'--'HHf- Teres minor
Coracobrachialis
Brachioradialis
I A B
~'-----------------------
. Origin and insertions of muscles of the upper extremity. A. Anterior view. B. Posterior view.
increases with increased elbo\\' flexion as a result of
the stretch reflex; and (4) the anconeus is active in
all positions and is considered to be a dynamic joint Lateral Epicondylitis (Tennis Elbow)
stabilize!: 57-year~old female, avid tennis player, developed
i ,
Case A. No object is held in the hand. B is calculated with the 13cm
equilibrium equation for moments. Clockwise moments are
30 em
considered to be positive. whereas counterclockwise moments
Cal(Ul~ltjon Box Figure 13-1-1.
are considered to be negative.
~M = O.
Case B. ;\n object of 1 k9 is hele! In the hand, producing a
113 em x WI ~ 130 cm x P) - (5 em x B) = 0
forcQ of 10 N Wi
If W = 20 Nand P = o.
13cm x 20N ~ivl = 0
B= 5 em Ji W == 20 Nand P =:: 10 N.
B is calculated to be 52 N. (13 cm ;. -; 20N) - (30 eln x JON) - (5 cm x B) = 0
J. the reaction force on the trochlear fossa of the ulna. 260 t'Jcm _. 300 Non
8=
can now be calculated by means of the equilibrium equa- 5 ern
tion for forces. Gravitational forces are negative; forces in B 15 found to be 112 N.
the opposite direction are positive. The joint reaction force can om\' be calculated.
~F =0 ~f =0
B-J-W-P=O B-vV-P-J'='O
J = 52 N - 20 N - ON. J=8-VIJ-P
J is found to be 32 N. J = 1 12 N - 20 N - lON,
!.·
T and J are calculated with the equilibrium equa- force is shorter than that for the flexor l'orec-3
tions. The joint reaction force for the elbow in ex- as opposed to 5 em. Thus, a greater l1111scl~ I
tension is 107 N. compared with 32 N in Ilexion. (87 N as opposed lo 52 N) is required for the f
,. This more than threefold increase can be explained arm Lo be 111ainlained in the extend~d position.
by the fact that the lever arm for the elbow extensor as a r~sllit the joint reaction force is greater.
?-
-
I Joint Reaction Force: Elbow Extension
i The joint reaClion force during elbow extension can be
calculated by means of the same method:
3cm
;....;.-- 13 em ~
Force T :
,
!
I ~rvl = 0 ,--+------'~~
(13 em x WI - (3 em x TI = 0
If W = 20 N
13 ern x 20 t'J
T= - - - - - - - -
3cm Force W
T is found to be 87 N.
:SF = 0
J-T-W=O
J= T+ W
J = 87 N + 20 N.
Foree J
J is found to be 107 N. Thus, in this example, the joint
reaction force during elbow extension is 75 N greater than
during elbow flexion. Calculation Box Figure 13·2·1.
Swnnuuy
A clear understanding of elbow mechanics and 5 The can}'ing angle of the elbow is defined
function is critical to gain a broader understanding the angle betwcen the anatomical axis of the u
of problems affecting the elbow joint. This knowl- and humerus in the anteroposterior plane and
edge will provide the basis for management of el- rull elbow extension. [t averages between 10 and
bow disorders. of valgus.
6 The primary stabilizer to valgus stress at the
1 The elbow joint complex consists of three ar- bow is the anterior band of the MeL complex, w
ticulations: the humeroulnal: humeroradial. and the radial head acting as a secondul'Y stabilizel:
proximal radioulnac It allows two types of motion, primary restraint to varus stress is the elbow arti
nexion~extension and pronation~supination.
lation. The lateral ulnar collateral ligament is
,;:,:Z> The functional range of elbow motion is 30 to main stabilizer to posterolateral rotatory instabi
(30° of flexion-extension and 50 to 50 0 of pronation- of the elbow.
supination, with most activities of daily living ac- ,'i>The primary flexor or'the elbow is the b
complished within this range. There is a significant cl~ifdi$ while th~ prin"lury extender is the trice
and rapid loss of the ability to reach in space with The anconeus is acti\·e in initiating and mainta
fl~xion contractul'es of the elbow greater than 30°.
ing Oexion ancl is considered to act as a dyna
'3 The axis of rotation for Oexion-extension occurs joint stabilizel: The main source of supination
about a tight locus of points measuring 2 to 3 mIll in the biceps brachii. The pronator quadratus is
its broadest dimcnsion and is located in the center of primary pronator of the forearm regardless of p
the trochlea and capitellum in the lateral vie\\'. tion of the forearm or degree of elbow flexion.
'4...- The elbow has a changing center of rotation S· Force generated in the dbow has been sho
during fle:don·exlcnsion and cannot be trul.v repre- to be up to three times bod.v weight ,"vhen perfo
sented as a simple hinge joinl. ing nctivities of daily living.
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p'I!lIO'lllalOllly aEld kinl:mati<.'s of postcrolaH:ral inst<l!lility m:.tic proximal tr,lIIslation of the radius following
(pivot-shifl) of I hI.' ".'Ibo\\'. Orlhop Trem .... 1-1. 306. IH:ad resectioll. Clill Ortlwli. 317. 106-113.
Osborne. G. & Cotterill. P. (1966). Rl:l:urrelH disloc'llion or Spinner, M, &. Kaplan. E.B. (19iOJ. The quadrati.' Iigam
the dbo\\'. 1 Bom: 10i1/1 SlIrg ilr. 488. 340-3-16. lhe elbo\\': Its relationship to the st.lhility of the pr
Palmer. A.K .. Glisson, R.R .. & \Vernl.·r. EW. (1982). Uln,II·\·<tri- radioulnar joint. ..kla Orlho!' Scaml. '+1. 632.
ane\.' dl.'ll.·rmin'ltion. J /-Iuud Sur;.;, 7, 376. StC'indler. A. (1955). In KiIH'si(Jlo~\' of the f-1ll/tllll/ Bod\'
P"arson. J.R .. McGinley. D.R., & Blllzcl, L.M. (1963). ,\ dy- Norlllal awl Pathological COlI~i;ticJIIs. Springfield: 'C
namic analysis or the upper extrl.'rnity: PI.lllar motions. C. Thomas.
fl1l1lUl11 F{l(;wrs, 5. 59. Stevens, A., Stijns. H.. PI.·ybrouck. '1'., ~:t :\1. (1973). A
R.i:l\', R.D., Johnson, R.J., &. Jameson. R.i\l. (1951). ROl<ltion of cll"ctrom)'ographical sludy of the arm muscles at g
'the fOre;ll'lll. :\n e.xpel'inH.'lltal study of pronation and iSOIlH.'lric loading. [b:troll/yogl' Clill NI:/lroph.\'sio
supin'ltioll. J BOlle: 10illl Stir!::. 33:1. 993-996. 465.
Rc.lI·don. J.P., Larrcrty, ~'L, K'inwric, E.. ct 'II. (1991), SInH;- Stormonl. TJ., An, K.N .. ~'Iorr('.\·. B.F.. d nl. (1985).
turc:s innucncing :-axial st:-ability 10 Ihe forearm: The role of joint (Onta<:1 study: r\ t:omp~II'ison of techniqllt.'s.
the radial he-tid. interosseous membrane. and distal rndio, 1I1('('h. /8(5). 319.
ulnnr joint. O,.,hop Trails. /5.436-437. Tullos. B.S.. Erwin. W.. Woods. G. W.. el 'II. (19i2). U
Sojhjl..'rg, J.O .. Helmig. P.. &. Jaersgat:lrd-:\ndcrscll, P. (19R9). lesions of the throwing ann. Clill Orl/WI'. 88. 169.
Disloc'ltion of Ihe dbow: An experimcntal slud)' of till: lig- r.s.
W.llki:.... (1977). In HUllum 1oillt:i alit! TJu.'ir ..Irtific:
.unenWlIs injuries. Orthopedics. /2, 461--163. placelllel/l, Springfield. IL: Clwrles C. Thomas. I'ubl
Biomechanics
of the Wrist and
Hand
Ann E. Barr, Jane Bear-Lehman
adapted from Steven Stuchin, Fadi 1. Bejjani
Introduction
Anatomy of the Wrist and Hand
Wrist Articulations
Hand Articulations
Arches of the Hand
Nerve and Blood Supply of the Wrist and Hand
(ontrol of the Wrist and Hand
Passive (ontro! Mechanisms
Bony Mechanisms
ligamenious Mechanisms
Wrist Ligaments
Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex
Hand Ligaments
Digital flexor Tendon Sheath Pulley System
Digital (ollateralligaments
Volar Plate
Tendinous Mechanisms
Digital Extensor Assembly System
Active Control Mechanisms
Muscular Mechanisms of the Wrist
Muscular Mechanisms of the Hand
Kinematics
Wrist Range of Motion
Flexion and Extension
Radial and Ulnar Deviation
Forearm Pronation and Supination
Digital Range of Motion
Fingers
Thumb
Functional Wrist Motion
Interaction of Wrist and Hand Motion
Patterns of Prehensile Hand Function
Summary
References
Introduction it and the ligamentous strUCllires that connect th
carpal bones to each other ancl to the bonv clement
'-" The wrist. or carpus. is the collection of bones and 01" the hand and forearm. '"
soh tissue structures that connects the hand to the The eight carpal bones are divided into the prox
iforearm. Thisjoint complex is capable of a substan- imal and distal rows. The bones of the distal I"O
:~tial arc of motion that augments hand and finger from radial to ulnar are the trapezium. trapezoid
/'function, .'vet it possesses a considerable degree~of
;~:':,
capitate, and hamate. The distal carpal row forms
~";:";"stab.ility. The wrist functions kinematically by al- relatively immobile transverse unit that articulate
),lJowing for changes in the location and orientation \vith the metacarpals to form the carpometacarpa
(}"of the hand relative to the forearm and kinetically joints. All four bones in the distal row fit tightl
"""",/;-by transmitting loads from the hand to the rOrear~1 against each other and are held together by stout in
jt~~;~14;'a~ld vice vcrsa~ terosseous ligaments. The more mobile proxima
/"/!<"" Although the function of all joints of the upper row consists of the scaphoid, lunate. and trique
;;~;{ extremity is to position the hand in space so that it trum. This row articulates with the distal radius t
can perform the activities of daily living. the wrist form the radiocarpal joint (scaphoid fossa of radius
appears to be the key to hand function. Stabilitv of 46 % ; lunate fossa of radius. 43 % ; ulnar soft tissu
the wrist is essential for proper functioning of the structures, 11%) (Simon et aI., 1994). The scaphoi
digital Oexor and extensor muscles. and wrist posi- spans both rows anatomically and functionally an
tion affects the ability of the fingers to flex and ex- articulates exclusively with the radius. The lunat
tend maximally and to grasp effectively during pre- articulates in part with the ulnar soft tissue struc
hension. tures. The eighth carpal bone, the pisiform. is
The hand is a highly complex and multifaceted sesamoid bone that mechanically enhances th
mobile organ. It is valued and judged for its perfor- wrist's most powerful motor, the Oexor carpi ulnaris
mance and appearance in delicate prehensile tasks and forms its own small joint with the triquctrun1
to powerful grasp patterns. It is remarkably mobile Between the proximal and distal rows of carpa
and adaptable as it conforms to the shape of objects bones is the midcarpal joint, and between adjacen
to be grasped or studied, emphasizes or gestures an bones of these rows are the intercarpal joints (Fig
",;. idea to be expressed. or shows an aCl of love or af- 14-1). The palmar surface or the Cal"!'us as a whol
fection (Tubiana. 1984), is concave, constituting the Door and walls of th
The hand is the final link in the mechanical chain carpal tunnel (Fig. 14-2).
of levers that begins at the shoulder. The mobility The distal radius, lunate, and triquetrum articu
and stabilitv of the shoulder, the elbow. and the late with the distal ulna through a ligamentous an
wrist, all operating in different planes. allows the cartilaginous structure. the ulnocarpal or triangula
hand to move within a large volume of space and to fibrocartilage complex (TFCC), The components o
reach all parts of the body with relative ease. The this complex are illustrated in Figure .14-3, and it
unique aITangement and mobilit.y of the 19 bones functional role will be discllssed in detail along wit
and 14 joints of the hand provide the structural ligamentous [-unction.
foundation for the hand's extraordinary f"tlllclional
adaptability.
HAND ARTICULATIONS
The Hoger and thumb are the elementary compo
AnatOlny of the Wrist nents of the hand (Fig. 14-4). Because each digita
and Hand unit extends into the middle of the hand, the term
digit ray is used (0 indicate the entire chain, com
WRIST ARTICULATIONS posed of one metacarpal and three phalanges (tw
in the thumb). The digital rays are numbered from
The wrist joint complex consists of the multiple ar- the radial \0 the ulnar side: [ (thumb). II (index fin
ticulations of the eight carpal bones with the distal ger). III (middle finger). IV (ring finger), and V (Iit
radius, the stn.lC(UreS within the ulnocarpal space, tie finger). Each finger ray articulates proximall
I,
the metacarpals, and each other (Fig. 14-1). The soft with a particular carpal bone in a carpometacarpa
tissue structures surrounding the carpal bones in- (CMC) joint. The next joint in each ray-the meta
elude the tendons that cross the carpus or attach to carpophalangeal (MCP) joint-links the metaca::
I __
,~,,,,,iI'.-~~~~'l""·"""'_.,-":.3!!!_""'''''"''''''?~~'''~'l:''''''''~--'''''''''-''''''''::'_''~'''''- ~'''~''''',e'''',_,'''__.='''''''_--- --- ' '7",'""··;,,c "~".>? '1,. 'J. '-,;",~f,M
V
,
~
I)
J
H
Mod. e Mod.
TZ
TP
P
S
L
Sigmoid notch
Styloid of radius
process
Ulnar styloid
Radius
Ulna
Schematic drawings of the wrist joint complex showing the triquetrum; P, pisiform; L, lunate; S. scaphoid. The a
eight carpal bones and their articulations with the distal indicate the line of the midcarpal joint. Ad~lpred with
radius, the metacarpal bones of the hand, and each other. mission from Ta/eisnik, J. (J 985). The Wrist. New York: C
Palmar view (left) and dorsal view (right) of the right hand. Livingstone.
H, hamate; C, capitate; TZ, trapezoid; TP; trapezium; TO,
Oislal
TZ
Ulnar Radial
L
Proximal
Longitudinal view of the right hand from proximal to distal showing the palmar surface of
the bones. This concave surface constitutes the floor,· and walls of the carpal tunnel,
through which the median nerve and flexor tendons pass. The carpal tunnel is bordered
laterally by the prominent tubercle of the trapezium and medially by the hook of the ha-
mate. The motor branch of the ulnar nerve (not shown) winds around the base of the
hook before entering the deep palmar compartment. S, scaphoid; L, lunate; TQ, trio
quetrum; P, pisiform; H, hamate; C, capitate; Tp, trapezium; TZ, trapezoid. Adapted wit" per-
mission from Taleisnik. 1. (1985). The Wrist. New York: Churchill Livingstone.
Ulnar collateral
ligament
Radioulnar ligaments
Longitudinal section (frontal plane) of the right wrist and hand viewed from the palmar
side. The components of the triangular fibrocartilage complex are visible between the dis-
tal ulna and the lunate and triquetrum. 5, scaphoid; L, lunate; TQ, triquetrum (the pisiform
is not shown); H, hamate; C, capitate; TZ, trapezoid. Tp, trapezium. Adapted with permission
{rom Parmer, AX & Werner. F,W (1981). The {[ianguld! fibrocartilage complex of the wrisr-
andtomy and function. J Hand Surg, 6. 153.
III
Distal IV II
interphalangeal
joint V
Proximal ~ :"
II
III
inlerphalangeal , IV
joint _ _ Distal
V phalanx
Middle
phalanx
Distal--
phalanx
Proximal
phalanx
A B
Schematic drawing of the skeleton of the hand. The finger joints are labeled. B. Dorsal (posterior) view of the right
rays are numbered from the radial (medial) to the ulnar (Iilt- hand. The bones are labeled.
era!) side. A, Palmar (anterior) view of the right hand. The
bone to the proximal phalanx. Bt:tw('cn the pha· r.t,'·s around thL' s~l'(JJld and third finger", .dlo
langes of the fll1gcrs, a proximal (PIP) and a distal palm to IbttL'n or l.·up itself to acc(l1lllllodatc o
(DTP) interphalangeal joint arc round; the thumb of \·arious sil.L'S and sh..qk's (Strickland. 19~7)
has only one intcrphalangeal (lP) joint. The thenar Although (hL" extrinsi<.: flexor and ('.'\!t..'nsOI
eminence at the palmar side of the first mcwcarpal c!L·s arL' largc:l.\· rL'spollsihle for changing lhe
is formed by the intrinsic muscles of the thumb. Its of lhe '\'orking hand, 1I1L' intrinsic muscles
ulnar counterpart, the hypothenar eminence, is cre· hand an: prill1al"it~' responsible 1'01" Ilwifll<.dn
alec! by' muscles of the littlc finger and an overlying configuration or tile thr('(' archcs (refer to
rat pad. 14~1 ror a listing of the lnuscles or !he wrisl a
hand ~\s well ~\S the cOITesponding TnllsL"lC ac
A collapse in tilL' arch s~'st(,1ll resulting I"I"0r
ARCHES OF THE HAND
injur~', rhclimatic disease, or paral.\'sis of the
The bones of the hand are arranged in three arches sic muscles call contribute (0 SC\'erl' disabili
(Fig. 14·5), two transverse and one longitudinal dL:rorlllil~'.
(Flatt, 1974; Tubiana, 1984). The proximal trans·
verse arch, with the capitate as its keystone, lies at
NERVE AND BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE
,. ~: the level or the distal carpus and is relati\'e!y fl.xed.
WRIST AND HAND
The distal transverse arch, with the head or the third
metacarpal as its kcystone, passes through all of the ThL' cO\'L'ring of the h~lnd is important Ik'c<.Hls
metacarpal heads and is more mobile. The two ph~'sical qualities, sensory propcl·tiL's, and mi
transverse arches arc connected by thc rigid portion cubtiull (Tubiana, 190-1). The skin on the dors
of the longitudinal arch, composed of lhe four digi· tilL' back orthi..' ktlH.l differs and is distinct fr
tal rays and lIle proximal carpus. The second and skin that CO\"i.'I"S tll(' palmar stlrr~\CL', Dorsal
third metacarpal bones fonn the central pillar of mobile, Or!C!l rcg~\l'(k'd ~h \'('1"\ line, and highl
this arch (Flatl. 1974). The longitudinal arch is com- ihlL'. ~\llo\\'ing for a \\'ide arra~' or ~ll'tictllar
pleted by the individual digital rays, and the mobil· menls. In cuntrast. palnwr skin is thick, gla
ity of the thumb and fourth finger and fIfth fInger and inelastic. Palmar skin pla~'s a significant
hand pcrccptibilit.\· or the perception of
safety or (he uPlk'r limb through sensory prot
and in prodding. stlppon for the limb as in w
Distal I.k>aring.
transverse arch
Proximal
The wrist and tilL' hand are innl'lY~IlL'd for
transverse arch Longitudinal and SL'nsory function b~' tllrL'c pt:riphernlIlL'IY
arch
seelKling from tht.' brachial plcxus: radial. m
Muscle Action
Flexors
Flexor carpi ulnaris Flexion of wrist; ulnar deviation of hand
'- Flexor carpi radialis Flexion of wrist; radial deviation of hand
Palmaris longus Tension of the palmar fascia
Extensors
Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis Extension of wrist: radial deviation of hand
Extensor carpi ulnaris and brevis Extension of wrisl; ulnar deviation of hand
Pronacors-SUpifJdCOrS
Pronator teres Forearm pronation
Pronator qtJadratus Forearm pronation
Supinator Forearm supination
Brachioradialis Pronation or supination, depending on position of forearm
Muscle Action
Extrinsic Muscles
Flexors
Flexor digitorum 5uperficialis Flexion of PIP and MCP joints
Flexor digitorum profundus Flexion of DIP, PIp, and MCP joints
Flexor poJlicis longus Flexion of IP and MC P joints of thumb
Extensors
Extensor polticis longus Extension of IP and MC P joints of thumb; secondary adduction of the thumb
Extensor pollicis brevis Extension of Mep joint of thumb .:>
Abductor pollids longus Abduction of thumb
Extensor indicis proprius Extension of index finger
Extensor digitorum communis Extension of fingers
Extensor digiti quinti proprius Extension of V finger
Intrinsic Muscles
Jmerossei (a/I) Extension of PIP and DIP joints and flexion of MCP joints
Dorsal interossei Spread of index and ring fingers away from long finger
Palmar interossei Adduction of index, ring, and little fingers toward long fjnger
Lumbrica/s Extension of PIP and DID joints and flexion of MCP 2-5 finger
Thenar Muscles
Abductor poll ids brevis Abduction of thumb
Flexor pollicis brevis Flexion and rotation of thumb
Opponens pollids Rotation of first metacarpal toward palm
HYPolhenc1f muscles
Abductor digiti quinti Abduction of little finger (extension of PIP and DIP joints)
Flexor digiti quinti brevis Flexion of proximal phalanx of little finger and forward rotation of fifth metacarp
AdchJCtor pollieis Adduction of thumb
Modified from Strickland, l.W, (1987). Anatomy and kinesiology of the hand, In E.E. Fess & CA, Philips (Eds.),
Hanel Splinting: Principles and Methods (2nd ed., PI'. 3-41). St. LOLlis: C.v. Mosby.
with the environment or giving support to the
b.v direct and sustained \veight-bearing or co
onto a surface.
The hand as an organ of touch Ilas a myl-iad
ceptors of all kinds in its paltnar skin. Micros
study of the palmar skin shows that it pos
Med. Med.
...
I
I
------------------
A
1
ed., pp. 3--41). St. Louis: C. V Mosby.
IV
Proximal interphalangeal joint
Metacarpophalangeal joint
with rheumatoid arthritis, there could be a danger
of severe PIP subluxation.
To appreciate the magnitude of these subluxating
forces and how they increase with increased flexion,
consider two separate flexed positions of a PIP joint:
60° and then 90°. At 60°, the two limbs of the nexor
tendon form an angle of 120 0 (Calculation Box Fig.
14-1-1). At that point, the tension in the restraining
pulley must equal the tension in the tendon for the
system to be in equilibrium. At 90' of flexion, how-
ever, the pulley n1us1 sustain 40% more tension than
the tendon (Calculation Box Fig. 14-1-2) (Brand,
1985; Brand & Hollister, 1992).
10 N
lON
F
Force F
ION
10 N
Calculation Box Figure 14~1·1. lateral view, The PIP joint is flexed 60°, With the sys-
tem in equilibrium, the resultant force (R) in the pulley system is equal to the vector sum
of the two components of the tensile force (F) in the flexor tendon (i.e., 10 N). These
three forces are presented graphically in an equilateral triangle of forces.
\
\+-45' 14 N
I ... R
I ......
45'
_L
\ 90'~'t=!r--
F Force F
10 N
Force F
ION Force A
14 N
ION
OR
R2::=:F2+F2
R' ~ 100 N + 100 N
R' ~ J200 ~ 14.1 N
Calculation Box Figure 14-'-2. lateral view. The PIP joint is flexed 90°. A triangle of
forces shows that the resultant force R in the putley system equals 14 N. Therefore. R equals
1.4 F. The value for R is also found by use of the Pythagorean theorem, which states that in a
right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the sides.
Adapted with permission from Brand. P.W. (1985). Clinical Mechanics of the Hand (pp.
30-60). SI. Louis: c.v. Mosby.
the index finger at various degrees of joint flexion. rlexed, while the palmar porLions provide a restrai
When the MCP joint was nexed from 0 to 80', the ing force during tvlCP extension, This study su
dorsal ponion of the ligaments lengthened 3 to 4 ports the rationale for positioning the Mep joint
mOl, the middle portion elongated slightly, and the 50 to 70 of flexion to prevent extension contractu
Q
\/b/ar Plate
In addition to the role of the collateral and acce
sory collateral ligament, attention is brought to t
function of the palmar or volar plate (Fig. 14-1
The accessor)' collateral ligaments arc just palm
I
to the radial and ulnar collateral ligaments, whi
originate from the metacarpal and insert into t
~·tz
thick palmar fibrocartilaginous plate. This plate
the volar surface of the MCP is firmly attached
the base of the proximal phalanx and it is loose
attached to the volar surface of the neck of t
~
_.:'"-.
"n'1(lt03)
i··,-·
. Palmar
interossei
metacarpal. It serves to reinforce the joint capsu
anteriorly and to prevent impingement of the Hex
\ i· tendons during MCP flexion. This anatomical alig
-I
!s ment allows for the volar plate to slide proxima
c
like a moving visor during MCP flexion (Agur, 199
I '-------------- Strickland, 1987). The volar plate also limits hype
extension of the MCP joint. The volar plates a
! The intrinsic muscles of the hand. A, Palmar view of the connected by the transverse Jintermctacarpal lig
left hand. B, Dorsal view of the left hand showing the four
ments that then connect each plate to its neighb
dorsal interossei and the abductor digiti QuintL These mus-
(Strickland, 1987).
cles abduct the fingers (i.e., move them away from the
midline of the hand). C. Patmar view of the leh hand
showing the three palmar interossei. These muscles adduct Tendinous Mechanisms
the second. fourth, and fifth fingers. flex the Mep joint.
and extend the PIP joint. Adapted wilh permission {rom DIGITAL EXTENSOR ASSEMBLY SYSTEM
Strickland. J. W (1987), Anatomy and kinesiology of the n,lnd. In The lang"extensor tendons are l1at structures lh
fE. fess & c.A. Philips (Eds.), Hand Splinting. Principles and emerge from their synovial sheaths at the dors
Methods (2nd ed., pp. 3-41). Sr. Louis: C. V Mosby: and (ailler, siele of the carpus anel run over the M~P joint; th
R. (1982). HClnd Pain and Impairment (3rd edJ Philcldelphia: FA. are helel in this position by the sagittal banels. At t
Oc1Vis. dorsum of the proximal phalanx, thc~e extensor te
,i dons and parts or the interossei interweave so as
e
Second dorsal form :1 tendinous cOnlplL,,'\, the ('xh:nsor aS~L'l1lb
Transverse Junctura (also knO\\'11 as tilL' L'xkl\s(,r Ilh:chanisllll. whiLh e
interosseous muscle
inlermelacarpal tendinum
tl'l1ds 0\'(."1' hOlh I P joints (Fig. 14-141.
ligament
Triflln.:alion 01" (he long C:-':h,'nsor (cndon and r~
ning 01" inh.Tossl'Olis fihl'r:-. 1\.'SUIt in the formation
Ollt: IllL'dial and two la1l.:ral hands. The Illcdial bnn
(or cL'lltr~d slip) runs d()rs~dl,\' ovel' the trochka of t
pro.'\iJ1wl phalan.\ and insl'rts into the base or t
Extensor
digilorum
middle plwlaJl\, 'rIlL' two lalcml bands cours(' alon
communis ! r ' ~irst dorsal sidl..' the shouldL'l'S of tlH..' PI P joint. These bands pu
InteroSseOl.
tendon --+1-\-\l..\l , muscle
SllL' tlh.:ir \\'<1,\' distall.\' ~ll1d lllerge o\'er the doi'sUOl
the middle phalanx, running the tcnninal tendo
\\·hidl inserts into the dorsal tubercle or the disl
phalanx. This tcrminal lL'ndon is linkcd (0 the pro
v tV 111 II
imal phalanx b.\' m{.'~lJ1s or I IlL' obliquc rctinacular li
Dorsal
~IIllL'nts, Thcsi..' Iigamcnts origin<lk' from the prox
A
mal phalanx and run la1L'rall,\' around tilL' I'll' join
,iust palm;'lr 10 the CL'nt!.,.'!' or motion of this joint
tilL' L'\;ll...'IH.k-d posilion, to join Ihe tcrminal ti..'lld<JIl
IlI1Istr;'lling thl.,.' aL'!ioll (If thL' i..'.'\lL'nsor assL'mbl.\·
cnllplin~ PIP and DIP joinl motion, Landsl1lc
Med. Lat
~
" ----.
'.'
/~(Fjl~\J···f----Collateral ligamen
f.f!<:~.~~::~~ ~ccessory collateral
Palmar
/~. ~, ~."" ligament I.
B
~-palmarPtate
Proximal phalanx A
I .- Checkrein ligaments
1 PIP joinl Middle phalanx
A, Fibrous structures of the proximal transverse (MC?) arch j - \
~:'l.,
il
b_t~;~"""""""'=""-~""""""'-"--"''''''''''''''''~''=''=:-
,."",;.;;T ... ' " .6,. c.",~J2'':-'''_''_;'''''J>'-.> .. ~.'-= .. ",_,,,,,.' "J >~__ ""J-""'7.'-";'"-O'"~) '''''''''''''''==
!" - .'"'.' :_~'_' ;';' ><-. _>:_;C'~~,. ~~ -~r % .p~ • . _.
to-tip pinch, a mechanism used in precision han- longus were assessed e1ectrornyographically d
dling such as needlework and active tactile explo- wrist flexion (Kauer, 1979, 1980). In additi
ration. demonstrming their expected muscle actions,
Sarrafian and coworkers (I 970) used strain muscles were found to function as a dynamic
gauges to measure the tension in different parts of justable collateral system" that acts as a true c
the extensor mechanism during finger flexion and eral support, the extensor carpi ulnaris for the
furthel' elaborated on this phenomenon. They found side of the wrist and the extensor pollicis brevi
an increase in the central slip tension bevond 60· of abductor pollicis longus for the radial side. I
PIP flexion; at 90° of flexion there \vas total relax- way, active control mechanisms serve to fltlfi
ation of the lateral bands. void left by the lack of collateral ligamento
strictions while still affording considerable
tional variability for functional hand activities
ACTIVE CONTROL MECHANISMS Study 14-2).
Muscular Mechanisms of the Wrist
The wrist joint complex is surrounded at its pe-
~-·--_·_···----~-_·----
riphel)' by the 10 wrist tendons. whose muscles
and Lheir actions are listed in Table 14-1. The three
flexors and three extensors arc the motors of the de Quervain's Tenosynovitis
wrist, controlling radial and ulnar deviation as 50-year-old female school teacher complains of pai
well as wrist flexion and extension. Four addi-
tional muscles control pronation and supination
A on active radial abduction of the thumb afler per-
forming a prolonged, continuous paper CUlling task. The
of the forearm. Eight of the muscles originate pain extends proximally from the radial styloid along the
from the forearm, and two, the brachialis and ex- dorsoradial aspect of the wrist and increases with passiv
tensor carpi radialis longus, originate above the el- stretch of the abductor pollicis longus (Finkelstein's test).
bow. Except for the flexor carpi ulnaris tendon, After a careful examination, de Quervain's tenosynovitis
which attaches Lo the pisiform, all of the wrist confirmed.
muscle tendons traverse the carpal bones to insert In this case, overuse by performance of a repetitive,
on the metacarpals. forceful task involving abduction of the thumb while the
Each wrist tendon has a substantial amplitude of wrist is ulnar deviated contributed to the development o
excursion. The extensor carpi radialis brevis and the tenosynovitis. Another contributing factor is the
longus each have a maximal excursion of approxi- anatomical structure of Ihis first dorsal compartment of
mately 37 mm. The flexor carpi radialis excursion is the wrist. The restrictive volume of this compartment
approximately 40 mm, and that of the nexor carpi along with the multiaxial movements oi the thumb rend
ulnaris is approximately 33 mm. The pronator teres the tendons of the abductor pollicis longus and the exte
excursion is approximately 50 mm (Boyes, 1970). sor pollicis brevis susceptible to inflammation following
Impainncnt of the excursion of any of these tendons exposure to high frictional loads.
owing to adhesions after trauma or surgery can se-
riously limit wrist mOlion.
The anangemenl of digital and wrist extensor
and flexor systems around the wrist axis makes for
antagonist groupings of illataI' forces that afford
positional stability. The extensor digitorum C001-
munis and extensor indicis propius pair against the
flexor carpi radialis and flexor pollicis longus. The
extensor carpi ulnaris works against the extensor
poll ids brevis, and the abductor poll ids longus and
extensor carpi radialis longus pair against the
flexor carpi ulnaris and the flexor digitorum pollieis
.(Steindlet; 1955).
The contributions of the extensor carpi ulnaris,
Case Study Figure 14-2-1,
extensor pollicis brevis, ancl abductor pollicis
Muscular Mechanisms of the Hand matic model is undoubtedly an oversimplification
the complex carpal motions during wrist nlo
digital rays are controlled by the extrinsic and
ment, but it appears to adequately describe fu
intrinSIC muscles (Table 14-1). The extrinsic muscles
tional wrist movement (Brumbaugh et al., 19
in the arm and forearm. The intrinsic
Landsmeel~ 1961; MacConaill, 1941; Volz et
are entirely confined to the hand (Fig.
1980; von Bonin, 1929; Wright, 193511 936; Youm
1). Although the contribution of each system is
Yoon, 1979).
stinctlv different, the coordinated functioning of
The hand is an extremely mobile organ t
intrinsic and extrinsic muscle svstems is essential
can coordinate an infinite variety of moveme
for the satisfactory performance of the hand in a
in relation to each of its components. The ble
range of tasks.
ing of hand and \\Tist movements enables
The values most often cited for the strengths of
hand to mold itself to the shape of an object
the extrinsic muscles of the hand were reported by
ing palpated or grasped. The great mobility
Von Lanz and Wachsmuth (1970). Their values
the hand is the result of the articular contou
(Table 14-3) show that the strength of the finger flex-
the position of the bones in relation to one
ors is over t\vice that of the extensors.
other, and the actions of an intricate s.vstern
muscles.
Data from Von Lanz, T & Wachsmuth. IN. (1970), Functional anatomy. in J,H, Boyes (Ed.), Bunnell's
Surgery of the Hand (5th Ed.). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott.
Although small amounts of axial rotation arc 26
possible and may' exist in some individual wrists,
from a pracLical standpoint such rotation docs not
occur through the cm·pal complex (Volz. 1976;
Youm et al.. 1978). Axial rotation of the hand. ex-
pressed as pronation and supination, results in-
Flexion
stead from motion arising at the proxirnal and dis-
tal radioulnar and the radiohumeral joints (Volz ct
aI., 1980). Extension
-~,
1-
.'i.
LSi&. -_- , ~- .
motion proper, pIa)' an intricate role in hand and the ulnar head of up to 9° in the direction opp
function. Average range of motion of site that of the distal radius has been demo
pronation~supination is 150 (60-80° of prona-
0
strated during this motion (Ray et a1., 1951), a
tion and 60-85° of supination). In a biomechani- the ulnar head glides in the sigmoid notch 01'
study, YOUlll et a!' (1979) found the axis of radius from a dorsal distal position to a palm
pronation-supination to lie oblique to both the proximal position as the forearm moves from f
radius and the ulnar, passing through the center pronation into full supination (Bunnell, 19
of the humeral capitulum and the midpoint of Palmer & Wemer, 1984; Rose-Innes, 1990; Vese
the head of the ulna ..Modest lateral movement of 1967).
I
lImIEIe-- _
Roentgenograms of the right wrist and hand (dorsal view) triquetrum is proximal in relation to the hamate. In ulnar
showing the position of the carpal bones in radial deviation viation, the bones of the proximal row are extended. The
(A), in the neutral position (B), and in ulnar deviation (C). Ar- scaphoid appears elongated, the shape of the lunate appe
rows in the schematic drawings above roentgenograms A and trapezoidal, and the triquetrum is distal in relation to the
C indicate general movement of the bones of the proximal mate. Tp, trapezium; TZ, trapezoid; C. capitate; H, hamate;
row with wrist motion. In radial deviation, the bones of the TQ, triquetrum; L, lunate; 5, scaphoid. Roentgenogram co
proximal row are flexed toward the palm. The scaphoid ap- tesy of Alex Norman, M.D.; drawings adapted ~vith permissio
pears foreshortened, the lunate appears triangular, and the {rom Taleisnik, 1. (1985). The Wrist. New York: Churchill Livings
•
Capitate
Palmar intercarpal
(V) ligament
/scaPhoid
1 RadioJunate
ligament
Med, La!.
Ulnolunate
ligament
Diagrammatic representation of the changes in alignment of and ulnar deviation (palmar view of right hand), Ada{Jl':.
the double-V system formed by the ulnolunate and radiolu- ~'.!I!h permission !rornl(l!':'ISflI,::, J f/935) T1:;::· VIrlS! Nc\~' Yo
nate ligaments and the palmar intercarpal (V. or deltoid) lig- Churchill Llv;rlgswne
ament with the wrist in radial deviation, the neutral position.
•.
---------------------~~-~-~-~--~~
,\L"-'~L-- Carpometacarpal
joints
0".....-_;;_-===
Neutral Metacarpophalangeal joint
'." ;'.
Man.\· attempts h~l\'L' hl..'L'!1 nwdc to Chlssif\ dille
cnt patterns or prL'ht,:nsik~ hand function. !'\npi
(1956) idclllified two distinct rmtlcrns or prchcn
;-;ilt...' lIlo"elllent in thL' n(Jlnwl hand: pOWL"r grip an
pr~cbion grip. I-k (:mplwsizcd thai the fundalllen
tal requisile 10 prL"ilL"nsioll, :-;Iabilit,\', can bt,.." mel b
eilher posture.
Power grip. or POWL'1' grasp, is a rorerI'll l act pc
fnnncd with the finger lk'.'\cd at all three joints s
that the object is held bc!\\'een the finger and th
palm, with the thumb positio!1ed on the palnmJ' sid
or lile obje('l to fore\! it sccllrL'I~' into tlw IXllm (Fi
14~14.·l). It is lIsliall.\· performed wilh Ihe wrisl dev
aiL'd ulnarl~-' and dorsillL'xed sljghll~' to <lugml'1H th
lL'llsinll in the flexor (L'ndons.
When the wrist is flexed, the tip of the thumb is level with
the distal interphalangeal joint of the index finger. With
the wrist in extension, the pulps of the thumb and index
finger come passively into contact. Adapted with permission
from Tubiana, R. (1984). Architecture and functions of the
hand. In R. Tubiana, J. -M. Thomine, & E. Mackin (Eds). Exami-
nalion oi the Hand and Upper Limb (.oP. 1-97). PhIladelphia:
\IV B, Saunders.
A Tip pinch
i,
B Palmar pinch B c
~ -,~ l:<
"'''~~'. -)00..
Introduction
to the Biomechanics
of Fracture Fixation
Frederick 1. Kummer
Introduction
Fracture Stability and Healing
Fracture Healing
Surgical Factors
Fixation Devices and Methods
load
Summary
Suggested Reading
.~'.
Introduction FRACTURE HEALING
The study of fracture fixation biomechanics can be Currently, controversy exists about \vhether com
divided into two main areas: (l) criteria for achiev- pletely rigid fixation is the optimal condition fo
ing fracture stability and promotion of bone healing bone healing. Ivlicromotion has been shown to a
and (2) the characterization of techniques and de- healing. Healing results even in cases of gross mo
vices intended to mechanically stabilize a fracture. tion such as that seen in rib fractures. Rigid fixatio
An understanding of the biomechanical principles may lead to delayed healing, bone atrophy, and
involved in these areas will aid the engineer in im- lack of external stimuli necessary for the healin
plant design and enable the surgeon in selection of process.
the most effective technique and device to obtain Although gross motion between two or mo
successful results in patients. bone fragments usually leads to nonunion and
brocartilage tissue formation, there is a low level
displacement (microlllotion) that appears advant
geous to healing by providing a mechanical sign
Fracture Stability and that stimulates the biological repair processes. Th
Healing amount of local strain in the healing region (chang
in length divided by the original length) seems to d
The clinical goal of effective fracture treatment is termine the nature of the tissues formed (e.g., fibr
rapid healing, withollt significant deformity or li1l1b cartilage or bone). The optimal frequency, \vav
shortening, to restore the patient to a pre-fracture form, and total number of cycles of this signal cu
level of function. In the elderly. rapid mobilization is rently are being investigated. Several methods
essential to prevent deleterious consequences of bed promote healing by externally stimulating a fTactu
stay. The first goal of treatlnent is fracture stabiliza- with ultrasound or electromagnetic fields are
tion. This is determined by the location and type of clinical use (Case Study 15-1). Concern also exis
fnlcture, the muscle and body forces acting on it, and regarding the process of stress shielding that occu
the various passive soft tissue constraints such as lig- when the fixation device carries most or all of th
aments and fascia. Some simple fractures are inher- mechanical load and thus, by Wolffs law, promote
ently stable with low loading and thus require nlini- localized osseous resorption as a result of the resu
mal treatment, such as sling (clavicle), while others, tant unloading of the bone around the device. Th
such as midshaft comminuted femur fracture, require is often referred to as load bearing versus load sha
major surgical intervention and insertion of an inter- ing. Much of the initial osteopenia seen benea
nal fixation device for adequate fixation. Although an fracture plates, howevel~ is thought to be caused b
osteotomy (a surgically created fracture for correc- vascular disruption during their application.
tion of defonnity) allows close approximation of frac- Bone healing in the presence of a gap with lTIin
ture ends, typical fractures are often fragmented and mal movement passes through several stages of r
usually lack inherent stability. The interdigitation of pair \vith a concomitant increase in mechanic
the bone ends can facilitate stability, such as when a strength as mineralization increases: hematom
tapered bone end is inserted into the nledullar:v cavity! and inflammation, callus formation, replacement b
(creating a displacement deformity, however). woven bone, and fmally remodeling into lamellar
Traditional methods for the treatment of frac- trabecular bone. Callus can~form both periosteal
tures are externally applied and include traction, and endosteally and enlarges the diameter of th
cast, and braces. External forces or constraints ap- bone at the fracture site. Although callus is le
plied to the injured limb act to stabilize the fracture strong and stiff than nlature bone, this increased d
(by limiting ITIuscle or soft tissue forces leading to ameter can increase stiffness in bending and torsio
deformity) and maintain alignnlent of the limb. at the fracture site as a result of the increased m
Howevel~ in many cases, as a result of the nature of ments of inertia. Direct bone apposition by com
the fracture or the patient's condition, an internal or pression with rigid fixation, in which the initial r
external fixation device attached directly to the bone pair stages are eliminated or minimized, heals by
is required to achieve adequate fracture stabiliza- remodeling process and can take longer becau
tion. The designs and use of these fixation devices vascularity must be re-established.
rely on an understanding of bone healing and the The other impOl·tant factor for healing is ad
loads and forces to which the device is subjected. quate blood supply that necessitates the surgeo
39
Ultrasound Treatment for Fractu"e Healing
40-year-old female involved in mOlOr vehicle collision acoustIC rodiaHon at irequ€-nCles above the !lm!! of hu-
A
§ _
il
in December sustained a left tibiofihular lr<1Cwre treated man heanng. Its acoustIC raeJlCIllon, In the form of pres-
with external fixation. Case Study Fig. 15-1·1, In January, lo'.>\'- sure waves, provides rnICfOrnf.'chiH·\ICa! stress and force' to
intensity pulsed ultrasound (US) was mitiatecJ 10 promote frac- the bone ,me! surrounding tiSSUe>, ThiS rnedh1nI((ll stunu·
ture healing. Case Study Fig. 15-1-2, in March, 3 months lalion plays a major role in bone hedlll1g because bone:
postfracture and 2 months after mitiation of pulsed US appli- reacts to the amount and dir(;ction of force and remof.!·
cation, early healing is detected (arrow). Case Study Fig els to adapt to the applied suess "mel its elirf~c!i()n
15-1-3, in May, 5 months after injury and 1\ months follo\,..,mg ReprHlted V-11th permission from v\lolH, J (1986). Das
initiation of US, the bone healing is successful. Geseu der Transformarion <ft.'r Knochen [The law oj
Pulsed low-intensity ultrasound has been succEssfully bone remodeling]. P. Milquet & R. Fulong (Trans.). Berlin:
used for fracture repair (Frankel. 1998). Ultrasound is an Springer-Verlag. (Oflglllal ..vork published in 1892).
presel·ving the vascular supply' of the bone (e.g., pe- b~nding! and/or torsion) and magnitude of force
riosteum) and providing conditions for early rcvas- which the fixation will he 'subjected and whe
cularization by; careful opcrative techniquc (e.g.! these forces will be cyclic, requiring ~\dditi
sort tissue presenTation). Numerous studies 1lave strength of fixation 10 ~\ccnunt for possible dC\'ic
demonstrated a direct relationship between the tigue (Case S(ud~' 15-2). The second factor is
quantity and quality of microvascular structures in bone quality', which delermines the strength a\
the healing region and the rate of ronn~llion and re- able to supporl the fi:..;atioll dc\·jcc. Other factors
sultant mechanical properties of" lhe new bone. related to surgical and ~lIlatomical considerati
for example, the expOSllre (possible scarring and
cular compromisc), wIlL,thcl- the devicc will fit
SURGICAL FACTORS
quately within the soft tissuC's. and if nL'urovasc
Many factors determine the optimal fixation method structures are at risk. The nature of the origina
for a specific fracture appliGltion. First arc mechan- .iur:v and the amount of soft tissue d~IIll~lgC also
ical considerations, specif-lcally the types (tension, tern1illC treatment l~chl1iques.
)1
';
t"h.,_ '. ,
lillIiVIEf.1C-------·--··---·----- ··-·--r (number of patients, adequate follow-up) so that th
many vadables can be properly analyzed and
Fixation Plate Failure proper statistical significance determined.
.' n internal contemporary fixation plate inserted into
A the arm of a 25-year·old male who sustained a frac-
ture of the radius. The plate was fractured as a result of Fixation Devices
fatigue 20 years later. Repeated loading and unloading of
a material will cause it to fail, even if the loads are below
and iVlethods
-.: .the ultimate stress (Simon. 1994). Each loading cycle pro-
vVires, staples, pins, plates, and screws are the com
duces a minute amount of microdamage that accumulates
mon implant devices used to achieve fracture fixa
with repetitive loads until the material fails. Mechanical
tion. These are usually made of stainless stee
considerations as to the magnitude and repetition of the
(316L), sometimes of titanium alloy (Ti-6A l-4V), o
loads to which the fixation will be subjected should be
occasionally of cobalt-chromium alloy'. Each meta
considered, along-with the fatigue life of the material. This
has advantages and disadvantages such as strength
is recorded on a curve of stress versus number of cycles.
modulus (stiffness), corrosion resistance, and cas
T,hus, higher stresses produce failure in fewer cycles (load·
of imaging (MRf, CAT). Sometimes there is a "race
ing to the ultimate stress produces failure in one cycle>.
between healing of the bone and fraclure, usually b
while lower stresses are tolerated for an extended period.
faligue, of the device. There is a recent interest i
the clinical application of biodegradable polymer
such as polylactic acid. Polymers are more Ocxibl
than rnetals and would lead to greater load be:1l-in
by the healing Ii·acture; biodegradable materials d
not have to be removed in a secondary' operatio
and their mechanical properties gradually decreas
with time, thus avoiding stress shielding. Ho\Vevcl
their mechanical strength is much less than that o
metal and some of the degradation products hav
shown untoward biological responses. Researc
continues into the use of various glues, cements
and adhesives for fracture fixation, some of whic
Case Study Figure 15-2-1. are also biodegl-adable.
Wire fixation lIsed as cerclage or a bone suture i
a common application; in both cases multiple wire
are required to provide stable, three-dimensiona
Evaluation of fixation strength can be accolll- fixation. This requires achieving equal tension dur
plished by laboratory testing of actual implants in ing tightening because loosening at one or mor
cadaver bone. One difficulLy of such testing is in ad- sites can provide a locus for motion and possibl
equately simulating in the test model the complex in nonunion or cause malpositioning. Problems wit
vivo, cyclic forces on the device. Another difficulty is v.lire fracture fixation include the necessity and sur
in simulating the biological repair processes that gical complexity of making a'bone hole and passin
would act to stabilize the fixation over time. Ca- the wire, breakage during tightening or later as a rc
daver studies also can determine the anatomical suit of fatigue (cyclic loading), and cut-through o
structures at risk. Computer modeling such as finite the bone. For cerclage applications, there is concer
element analysis can be lIsed as an initial method to about compromise of the periosteal blood suppl
evaluate fixation methods and device designs but re- and the resulting increased healing time require
quires quantified parameters of bone modulus and for revascularization.
strength, which may be lacking. for an exact solu- Some~recent developments are wire tensioning
tion. twisting instruments and the usc of crimping sys
Clinical trials is the other major method used to tems to avoid the problems with twisting or knot ty
evaluate the efficacy of a particular fixation method. ing. There are also new oriented polymers (Spectra
HOWe\lel~ care must be taken to adopt the appropri- that do not stretch as traditional suture malcrials d
ate techniques to quantify data and design the trial that can be Llsed with a suture anchor system t
eliminate the difficult.\' of looping a suture through
bone and suture abrasion against the bone.
Staples alone usually' do not provide sufficient
mechanical stability for permanent fixation and /------ ......
their use often requires pre-drilling holes for the sta~
pic legs; pneumatic-driven staples can be used to \ /
rapidly tack fragments prior to a more rigid fixation ~\ / I
but need careful control of the insertion driving \\ I
force to prevent untoward damage to the bone.
Some staple designs have been developed that can \ \ /1
effect compression during insertion, such as staple \ \ /1
fabrication from nitinol (an alloy.' that changes \ '1/
shape when heated to body temperature). y~
Kirschner \vires are normally used to hold frag-
nlents of bone prior to rigid fixation and for percu~ /
taneous pinning of small bone fractures but, in gen~ /1
eral, lack sufficient mechanical stability for their I--il- Tension b
/ I wire loop
use as a primary fixation in weight-bearing bones.
At least two wires should be Llsed for each bone / /
fragment, and they should not be inserted in a par- /
allel manner to prevent "pis toning" of the bone frag-
ment along the wires (Fig. 15-1). Threaded pins pro-
vide additional stability because they minimize
sliding of the bone fragments, but their rcmoval is
morc difficult. Occasionall'y', pinning is uscd in com-
bination with sutures looped and tightencd around
the pin ends or through loops in the pins. This "len-
sion band" techniquc provides significantly' in-
creased 111echanical stability of the fixation.
The major intrinsic factors that influence scrc\v-
holding po\ver are outer thrcad diameter, thread Tension band wiring of two K-wires; tightening the wi
loop applies compression to the fixation. K-wires are in
configuration, and thread length; extrinsic factors
serted in a skewed configuration for stability,
are bone quality, typc, and screw insertion orienta-
tion and driving torque (Fig. 15-2). The two basic
types of screws are cortical and cancellous and are
distinguished by their thrcad design; cancellous
screws have a greater distance bct\veen adjacent
threads (pitch) and the ratio of outer thread diame- portant to prevent stripping of the bone or sc
ter to body diameter (Fig. 15-3). head torsional Failure.
The inherent holding power of a screw is a func- Because of anatomical constraints or surgical
tion of the outer thread dianlcter times the length of posure, screws cannot <.lIways be inserted perp
its threads within the bone. When used to hold two dicular to the bone axis or the orientation of
bone fragments together, scre\vs comnlonl:v are ends of thc bone fragments is not perpendicula
used in a lag modality in which the proximal por- the screw axis. In this case, the holding power of
tion of the screw remains free within one fragment screw is decreased and a shear component of
(either b:v using a screw design having no proximal holding Force is created, which acts to destabi
threads or b)' enlargement of the hole in the proxi- alignment. Pre-tapping of thc scrcws usually! is
mal fragment, which should require thc use of a necessary and has been shown to have minima
washcr under the screw head for adequate support). fect on their holding ability; many' screws are
Insertion torque detcrmines the force with which tapping owing to a modification to the design of
bone fragments are held togethel~ which, in turn, leading threads. Usually lwo or more screws are
crcates the friction that prevents their motion. Con- quired for functioning, although one screw has b
trol of torque (torque-limiting scre\vdrivcr) is im- suggested for some applications if sufficient in
Outer thread rragment approximation can be achieved to create
diameler
~I adequate friction between the bone surfaces for sta-
bility. The quality of bone also determines serew-
holding ability; cortical bone is approximately ten
times stronger than cancellous bonc. The thickness
of the cortex and the degree of osteopenia (bone
density) are thus critical for fixation strength and in-
nucnce the number of screws required for adequate
Length
Thread
stability. Using screws in a biconical manner appre-
of screw
in bone' pitch ciably increases the strength of fixation.
Anatomical constraints limit the number or size
of screws that can be applied in a given region. As a
result, screws are ohen combined with plates to
achieve adequate stability and increased strength of
,. fixation. The optimal site for a single plate applica-
tion is on the side of the bone subjected to tension;
lIsually two plates are applied to achieve better FIxa-
Lion stability (Fig. 15-4). Owing to anatomical COI1-
Screw parameter~. For ~crew pull-out the bone must shear strail1ls such as soh tissue thickness. sometimes
along the outer diameter (dotted line). thinner plates are used (such as for forearm fracture
stabilization), but these plates possess sufficient
stiffness (function of the width of the plate times its
thickness cubed) Lo prevent undesired fracture mo-
tion as a result of bending loads (Fig. 15-5).
Screws should be inserted with a torque driver
and the tightness of all screws rechecked; if this is
not done, one screw may bear most of the load and
possibly Fail. Some plates use a specially designed
scre\v hole slot, countersunk Lo accommodate the
Load Load
~ ~
Fracture
Gap_
Plate gap Plate
closes
ope~s -~'!lIlIJ'llm~
Plale on Plate on
tension side compression side
Types of bone screws, left to right: cortical, cancellous, Effect of plate placement. A plate located on the compres-
and cancellous lag. sion side causes the fracture to gap when loaded.
Posterior thl.'ir insertion and the possibilit.\" (II" compromisin
bending force
p\.'riosh.';.11 blood stlppl.,· b.\· thL' l':\posure or pl;'11(' i
I sert iOl1 (somi..' plati..' designs have inferior fed O
Posterior
ridges (0 minilnize this possibilil:!). Therc is ;.tlso i
lCrest ill pol:·tTlcric plales lhat would he tTlOrL~ flex
ble 10 achicvc a grealt:r degre\.' of Inicromoti(l!l
Lateral till." fracture:.: thai could he:.: advantageous 10 bon
healing and minimiz\.' stress shielding.
Hip fr.:Ictlire ck\'ices call be intt.·rnal orexlcl"nal
1.8 em Medial
thl.'ir application; lilt: most cornlTlon \.'xternal dt.:\'i
- bending is a side.: plate affixed to the felllur supponing an i
force Icrn[ll. sliding hlg screw through the fleck across th
fmctlll"c.
The relationship uf biomt'chanical forces born
h,,· the tk'\'ice ;'Hld borne b-,· the bone (load \.x'arin
Anterior
load sharing) inllllt.'nces fracture hc;;ding ;'\lld devi
sun.'h·al. An important ractor is the.: ability 01" the d
vice (0 slide 10 cOllsolidate the rnlClurc during hea
Effect of loading direction on plate stiffness. The rigidity ing. lnt\..'rnal c!t:..'\"ic(':-; for fix~ltioll arc llsually i
of the plate is EI, where E is the modulus of the plate mao traIl1L'dullal".\· nails (Ii\,1) alld in cOinparison wi
terial and I is the moment of inertia of the plate. I == ('x (('1"1141 I dc\"iccs arL' SUhjL'ct to less loading fore\.' b
bh 1/12 ( II = posterior bending; 11 = medial bending; II = C;;luse or their location being closer to t1h.. . Ileutr
0.5 x 1.8)/12 = 0.243; I~ = 1.8 x 0.5J /12 = 0.01875), where b
bending axis 01" the bon\..' (Fig. 15·6). Their size
is the base dimension and h is its height. Thus, the plate is
critical bcc..wsc their ht..'nding and tor:-;ional stifTnL'
13 times more rigid in posterior bending than in medial
bending.
;;lre proportional to the diameter to tile four
power. This is \\'11.\· (me large nail provides trw
rigid (jxalion than docs lllllltipk smaller rods. Siz
<:lmoullt or ClilTaturc, and amount 01" n:~;'lIning a
screw head, whose center is offset with respect to also important because the swbilit.\" of the fixatio
the screw head to obtain interfragmentary compres- rL'lics on lond transfer to the bont.~: often, distal an
sion as the scrc\v is tightened. An alternative
method to achieve compression is to pre-bend the
plate before application so that when the attach-
ment screws are tightened, the bone fragments are
approximated as the plate straightens. Some new
plate designs use threaded holes to engage the screw
so that bicOl-tical screw insertion is not as essential
for maximum fixation stabilily.
Plates can also be used to span gaps created by
severe fractures or tumor surgel), and are frequently
used with bone grafts for this application. Unless
the graft is exactly sized. the plate will bear the en-
tire load across the defecl. The bending moment on
the plate-screw fixation linearly increases with c1e~
fect size and thus the plate requires adequate stabi-
lization, particularly at the morc highly loaded,
proximal end where at least three screws are
needed. Multiple-holed plates enable selection of
the best osseous sites 1'01" screw purchase and should
permit anchoring of the graft by at least two addi-
tional screws. Typical intermeduliary and extramedullary devices. Top,
The major surgical considerations I'm" the lise of Medoff sliding plate; bottom, intermedullary hip screw"
plates are the requirements of a large exposure for
•
proximal screws inserted through the bone and nail Type olframe and
connections
arc used to increase torsional stability (Fig. 15-7).
Bending of the nail as a result of insertion in a Size and
curvcd medullary cavity can make inserlion of the pin type
distal screws difficult.
External fixation devices are also used for fnK-
ture stabilization; multiple transcutaneous pins are
inserted into the bone and stabilized with an exter- 1 1
nal bares) or ring(s). Factors that influence mechan- 1 Pin I Fracture I
distance spacing
ical stability and rigidity of these constructs are the
numbel~ diameter, orientation, and length of these
pins and their relation with respect to the fracture:
however, these factors arc subject to surgical con- Typical external fixator showing the variable that influ-
siderations for frame application. Large, short pins ences fixation stability.
located close to the fracture provide the most rigid
fixation (Fig. 15-8).
Spinal implants used for deforrnity correction or
fracture fixation consist of various combinations of
rods, wires, plates, and screws. The junctions be- tion of appropriate sites for device attachmenl to
tween these components are often the site of failure, th~ spine are IitrJi ted. This is imponanl because
such as fatigue or fretting as a result of cyclic load- lhese devices are subject to appreciable forces dur-
ing. A specific problem is that the size and the loc3- ing flexion and extension of the neck, and torso and
fixation failure can occur.
Summarv
Extramedullary Intermedullary
SUGGESTED READING
Burstein, A.H. & Wright, T.M. (1994). FItIll[all/i:J1/a[s of 0,.·
tltoflW.'dic Biol1lcc!ulIlic:s. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
!;...
The extramedullary device is less rigid and when loaded Codlran. G.V.B. (1982).:1 Primer oJ' Orthoplledic lJiOIllCc!UlII-
it..'s. London: Churchill Li\·ingstonc.
has greater deflection, creating higher medial stresses in
DYi.:hc"IlI..'. P.. &. Hastings. G.W.-(Eds.) (l9S . l ). FllIlc:tiOlud Be-
the femur.
. hm;;or of Orlhop(ll'dl~· !J;omata;als. -Bot-'I Raton. FL: eRe
Press.
Introduction
Forces at the Hip Joint
Rotational Moments About the Implant
Reconstructed Joint Geometry
Stem Position Within the Femoral Canal
Periprosthetic Bone loss
Forces at the Knee Joint
Medial-lateral load Distribution
Patellofemoral Joint and loads
Joint line Height
Posterior Crucfate Ligament
Conformity
Constraint
Polyethylene
Anterior Cruciate Ligament
Summary
References
Introduction To meet one design objective, compromises with r
spect to another design objecLive must often b
As designs for total joint replacements evolve, there made. For example, the femoral stem of ccmcntle
is an increasing need to improve the understanding total hip replacements requires initial rotatory sta
of the biomechanics of these joints. For instance, bility for bony ingrowth into the porous material t
reducing loads on a total joint replacement during occur. The rotational stability of early ccmentle
daily activities and designing implants to withstand total hip replacements was insufflcient and was in
these loads will both increase the likelihood of nor- creased by designing implants with greater mcdu
mal joint function and lower the probability of im- lary canal fill. Ho\vever, implants with increase
plant failure. As implants arc put into younger and medullary canal fill were stiffer because of the
more active patienls, the IO~lds placed on the illl~ larger size and were thll:) associated with great
plants arc often several times greater, thereb.y in- stress shielding.
creasing the likelihood of mechanical failure. Me- Forces acting at the hip or knee joint arc depen
chanical problems associated with lotal joint dent on the external forces aCLing on the limb an
replacements include issues related to wear of the the internal forces primarily generated by musc
bearing surface, mechanical failure of the implant, contraction. Joint forces have been measured wit
loosening of the implant from the bone, and dislo- implanted transducers or estimated using invers
cation of the implant at the articulating surfaces. dynamics and analytical methods (Tables 16-1 an
Important biomechanical infOl-mation addressing 16-2). By measuring the external ground reactio
eHch of these issues has been obtained from in vitro forccs, approximating the limb segment inerti
cadaver testing, model simulation of the joint mo~ properties, and localing the three-dimensional pos
tions and loads, and in vivo studies of human loco- tion of the joint centers during dynamic activitie
motion. the intersegmenLal hip forces and external momen
The overall goals of joint replacement are to pro- can be obtained using inverse dynamics. Even \\li
vide long-term restoration of function and pain re- simplifications to the anatomy, solving For the mu
lief. Several mechanical challenges must be met to cle and contact forces at the hip and knee remain
achieve these goals. For example, the control of an indeterminate problem. Thus, a unique solutio
joint motion and stability in total knee replace- for individual muscle forces is not possible withou
ments is achieved through an inLl'icate biomechani- further assumptions or simplifications.
cal interaction between the shapes 01" the replaced In general, two approaches have been used
surfaces and the remaining ligaments and muscles. solve the indeterminate problem. The first is a "r
Hip Force
Walking normal to fast speeds 2.7-3.6 2 1-2 Kotzar et aI., 1991
Stair climbing 2.6
Walking slow speed (crutches) 2.6 Davy et a\., 19B8
Ascending stairs 2.6
Walking 2.7-4.3 2 8-33 Bergmann et a\., 1993, 199
Ascending stairs 3.4-5.5
Descending stairs 3.9-5.1
Walking 1.8-3.3 2 6 Rydell, 1966
Walking slow speed 2.7 1 t5 English & Kilvinglon, 1979
Knee Contact Force
Walking normal to fast speeds 2.3-2.5 12 Taylor el al . 1997
40
-',--; /'-~-
~------------
Hip Force
Walking 4.8 Reduction nlE.'thod P(1UI. 1976
Stair ascending 7.2 Reduction tneihod Pc)tJI, 1976
SI'lIr ciescendlllg 7. ,
VValking slow w!th cane 2.2 0plimILdtlon-maXlfniZe Brand & Crol"vnmshield, 198
VValkltlq 510""./ wltllOlll cane 3.4 endurclnce
vValkinD Cro'lojl)H1Sflleld 0t aI., 1978
Stair climbln~l
(hal( rising 3.3
Walkmg 5.S QuasI SIc1!IC-!llmm)lb2 muscle lorces Selreg & ArvJkar, i 975
Knee Force
VV,llklng 32 Re<.i~:ctlon method Harnng!Oo, 1983
Walking 4 Rt~uuctlon method i'-Aofflson, 1970
Walking 3 Op!imil<:tlon Sclllpp!eJn fit Andric1cchi, i99
W,11kin9 7 Optin11Z,ltl0n 5(>lr09 & ;\rvlkar, i 975
0
"~ ,
0 Rotational Moments About
,~
% 6 ~ ~ ~
,~
0
% ~
'i 'i 0
~
" " 3§
.§
w "
M
" ~' w
" ""
.§ M
.< "
2
~ the hnplant
~
2 ~
~ "~ "~ E
w ~
Out-or-plane loads l11ay be detrimental to both in
B BENDING MOMENT Mf
18 tial and long-term implant stability, especially
16 ullcemented stems (Berzins, Sumner, & Andria
14 chi, 1993; Phillips, Nguyen, & Munro, 1991). E
1\
I 12 cessive bone-implant motion prevents bone i
:i:<D 10
6 D growth into porous coatings and may lead
1\ A
.0
8
o·
A ~ r 61 failure of the biological fixation (Pilliar, Lee,
;; 6
d Pli )11 Maniatopoulus, 1986). The largest torsional m
4
2 ESJ MiJd'i1rl D. Abs. 01i1~ ments measured in vivo during activities of dai
a living (Bergmann, Graichen, & Rohlmann, t 99
,
c g.
~ "~ ,:i
0 F 0
;:;
~
€ 0
% reach the average experimental strcngth of impla
~
0
f ,~ 0 11 "
~" "5 ~ fixation (33.1 Nrn) as dctermined from in vit
" M §
~
'0 M
~ ~
~ ~ ~ w
•" • ~
~ if",
~
~ ~ w
.0
~ ~ tests (Phillips, Nguyen, & Munro, 1991) (Fig. 16-1
In vitro testing of prostheses implanted in huma
c TORSIONAL MOMENT Ml
femurs indicate that the amount of initial bone-im
7
6
plant motion is sensitive to the off-axis loadin
A A A 6 that frequently! occurs during stair climbing an
I 5 A rising from a chair (Fig. 16-2) (Berzins, Sumnec
:i:
<D
4 u, Andriacchi, 1993). Furthermore, resultant prox
6
e: 3
F,
A
mal translations were twice as high with a straig
;; 2 I 6
stcm as with a curved stem at load angles encou
!n I I
tered during these activities (Berzins, Surnner,
o Meclian D. Abs, 01i1~
Andriacchi, 1993).
o - - - - - - \Valking with a decreased hip range of Illoti
during daily activities may minimize the out-o
plane force components (anterior-posterior). Thu
decreased sagittal plane motion during walking o
ten reported in patients with total hip replac
ments (Hurwitz, Chertack, & Andriacchi, 199
Joint loading during different activities for two patients, EB
(EBL: left hip and EBR: right hip) and JB. The median load val-
Murray, BreweI~ & Zuege, 1972; Stauffer, Smidt,
ues (column height) and absolute maxima (triangle) are given.
Wadsworth, 1974; White, Yack, & Lesswing, 199
The resultant force is in the top graph (A) the bending mo- may be beneficial for iIllplant stability b,Y reduci
ment in the frontal plane is in the middle graph (B) and the the rotational moments about the implant stem. D
torsional moment in the transverse plane is in the bottom namic hiii range of motion during gait in patien
graph (C). The gray bar indicates the fixation strength of ce- with uncemented total hip replacements has be
mentless implants (14). Reprinted ~vith permission from Bergmann related to the metaphyseal fill of the femoral ste
G., Graichen, F., & Roh/mann, A (1995). Is staircase walking a risk (Hurwitz et aI" 1992). It was concluded that a r
for the fixation of hip implants? j Biomechanics, 28(5), 535-553. duction in the dynamic range of hip motion \vas
adaptive response to decrease torsional microm
100 vantage of the ~lhductors (Fig. 16-3) (Delp, ":'om;:tttu,
&. \Vi:"son, 1994). Joint contact forces therefore
E should be minimized with sm~t11 1H..'ad-neck all!!les
.3
C 020" extension 0.3 ~ (Johnston, Brand, &. Crownillshicld, 1(79). 'De-
w 70 3
E [J] 20" flexion cre~\sed heml-IH_'ck angles also improve joint stability
~ 60 .34" flexion go
~ through increased congrucnce hv tUI-ning the
g.'"
50 1m 68° flexion 0.2 '"o
:D k'moral head del.~pt..'r into Iht..' aCt..'tabulul1l. j\/toving
is 40 the greater !rochalllL'r b{crall~' also increases the
w
c
!i!
~ 30 §f mechanical ad\'antagl..' of tilL' ahductors. Clinically.
0.1 " increased abdlll:lor/adducLOr stn:ngth has hC1..'1l asso-
E 20
'"
ijj 10 ciated with incl"easC'd neck length and a morc distal
greater trochantcr position (HuJ"\viti'. & i\ndriacchi.
o Resultant Transverse 1997).
Translation Neck angle and neck length have an impact not
olll~' on I he ~\bductor muscle force and resultallt
hip force but also on the bellding rnomenls in the
Distal motions as a function of flexion angle (mean and
proximal felllur_ A varus hip or an illcrcasl.,d neck
standard deviation) There were significant differences be- length increases bending moments in the proximal
tween 20 and 34° and between 34 and 68° for the resul- felllur by inCrL'~ISillg. lill.' fllOllll.'nt arm or the forces
tant translation and the transverse rotation, but for the lransmitted along tile slwft or tilt.: felllur. Proslhc-
sagittal rotation only the difference between the 20 and S('S IllUSl be designed to resiSl these bending mu-
34° was significant. Reprinted with permission from Berzins, ments. Decreasing the neck k'ngth or increasing
A, Sumner. D.R., Andriacch!; T.P, et ell. (1993). Stem curvature !he ht.~ad-neck angle (yalgus) will decrcase the
and toad angle influence the initial relative bone implant motion bending 1l10mcnts in the steIn; howcver, these al-
of cemenrfess femoral srems. J Orthop Res. 11 (5), 758-769. terations compromise thc abductor function and
incrcas(' the joi nl react ion rorc(~ (Case 5t ud.v 16-1).
• The abductors art.' important during the singlc-
legged stnnec phase or gail because their contrac-
tion pulls the rim or till' pclds toward thL' grt..'ater
tion produced by out-of-plane loads when the hip trochanter and prl..'\1:nts tlK contralateral side of
reaches greater ranges of Oexion.
the pelvis from dropping as a result of the weight Although the models can predict hip joint center
of the swinging leg and upper body. If changes in sitions that minimize the resultant force, these p
the neck angle, neck length. and joint center posi- tions may not be practical for the acetabular co
tion decrease the abductor moment arm relative to ponent. Pathological conditions strongly inOue
the body weight and no compensation in [unction the potential locations of the hip cente!: For
occurs, then an increase in the resultant force stance, osteoarthritis h-equently results in
would be expected. Subjects may, however, adapt femoral head being displaced laterally, superio
their gait to lessen the demand on these muscles and posteriorly.
when the moment-generating capacity of the ab- Large joint forces are analytically predicted
ductors is compromised. hip centers that are located superiOl~ lateral.
Alterations in hip center location have a large ef- posterior as compared with the original locat
fect on the moment·generating capacity of the mus- (Johnston, Brand, & Crowninshield. 1979). H
cles and the resultant hip force (Doehring et aI., joint forces were obtained with superior latenll
1996; Johnston, Brand, & Crowninshield, 1979). Pre- centers in an experimental sel-up in which a load
dicted joint forces are minimized when the joint fixture simulated the hip abductors, adductors,
center is moved medial, inferior, and anterior (Fig. extensors during single-legged stance and s
16-4). This position maximizes the moment-generat- climbing (Gore et aI., 1977). Superior displaceme
ing capacity of the abductors and brings the hip cen- of the hip center reduce the moment~generating
ter closer to the line of action of the foot floor reac- pacity of the abductors, adductors, flexors, and
tion force, thus decreasing the external moment that tensors as a result of alterations in muscle leng
needs to be balanced by muscle forces (Doehring et and moment arms (Doehring et aI., 1996). Incre
aI., 1996; Johnston, Brand, & Crowninshield, 1979). ing the neck length or advancing lhe gre
,./0.,0' C, _w·.'·
trudl;:IIlICl' pani~III.\" compt'llsal('S for lhl..'se lusses
in rI1u:-.ck m()lIll·llI-gt,"lh.'r~lting l'aracitk-s (Delp,
KOlllattu. ~ \\'j.'\:-'Oll, 19lJ.i),
Prosthesis Moment
0.4
Sf eIII Po., if iOfl IIi fII ill f lie
r'e/110 m I Co iI {II
"o
fI)
pL'i.lk sll"l.'sscS lhall thosL' ill \'algLls or llL'lllr~d for Ih..--:
same loading condiliol1s (.-\lldrii.lccili l..'1 ;;11., 1476).
0.1 SubjL'l'IS with :'1 .\'hIL'IIL'I'"cL'lllcnlL'd Stl..'lll ill ~l ,'antS
positi()l1 \\'~llk \\'ilb 11101\.' ~d)[lorl"ll~l1itics thall those
\\'ilh a \'alglls sll'l'll tiL-spilL' thL' I':ll'l lhal :-'lIbjL'Cl~ in
hoth groups h~H.1 an L'xcdlL'IH clinical OlllL'(IIllC
A D A D A D (Hodg(', :\ndrii.lcchi. & Gal~llllL', 19tJl). Tltl..' gail ab-
llorllli.llitiL,:-; in till.' \';:II'lIS group may be sllggcsth'L' or
<l bi{ll11l.'chaniGII ~ldapl~lli(Hl 10 I.'illle!· nlicromolioll
ur ahnol'lnal SlI"L'S:-; patterns prL's\.'nt in \'i.I!"lIS stl'llb.
Peak contact forces at the hip and peak moments about
the neck-stem junction of the prosthesis during level walk-
ing, stair climbing, and rising from a chair under the fol-
lowing conditions: A normal location of the hip center
0=0: Pcripmst!wlic BOi!e Loss
and 0 = hip center 20 mm medial, 20 mm inferior, and 10
mm anterior. Peak forces were based on an optimization Pcriprosthetic bOlk' loss associ'lled wilh uncc-
approach that minimized muscle stresses. Reprinted with Il'lclltcd rL'rnoral slerns has bL'l'll \\TIl dOClllllCl1\l'd
permission from Johnston, R. c..
Brand, R,A., & (rownins!lield, (Br:-"i.l11 t'! al.. 1994: Engll & Boh,n1, I 088; En~h L'l
R.D. (979). Reconstruction of (he hip. J Bone Joint Surg, :.d., 1992L and concerns han:' lk'cn raisl.'d \\'itll rc-
6IAIS),646. gi.\nls to the long·lerm clinical impliG\linns or this
phL'nOllll.'llon. OSI('olysis, stress shielding, and gL'Il-
',-:
eralized limb unloading all may play a role in Bobvn, 1988; Engh el al.. 1992). Au lOpS), stud
./0~; ;periprosthctic bolne loss"lvvearl dcb,:islhas (been im- have also shown that the lower the bone mine
;,:,,::,'plicated in osten ysis ane imp ant lai lire Amstutz density or content 01" the contralateral femur,
"i;, , et aI., 1992). Wear particles f!'Om the polyethylene greater the reductioll in peri prosthetic bone on
and other implant materials are found in the joint affected side, which further implies that preope
Quid and adjacent tissues. Even small amounts of tive bone mineral density' influences the extent
~vear can generate large numbers of polyethylene postoperative bone loss (Engh et aI., 1992; Malon
particles that are as small as or smallcl- than a mi- el aI., 1996).
crometer.. These wear particles resuh in a foreign-
~'/ body· reaction with increased macrophage activity
and intercellular secretion of mediators that slimu- Forces at the Knee Joint
" late osteoclasts and I'esult in periprosthetic bone
loss (Jasty et al.. 1993; Willert & Buchhorn, (993). The knee joint depends primarily on soft tissucs
unexpectedly" undersized or unstable compo- stability while sustaining large joint reaction for
have a higher incidence of osteolytic lesions at the tibiofemoral and patellofcllloral articulatio
than do those with stable fixation (Noble, 1995). The peak forces during walking predicted by
Stress shielding results from a decrease in the analytical modcls (Morrison, 1970; Schipplein
stress distribution in the fenloral bone as a result of Andriacchi. 1991; Seireg & Arvikar, 1975) val'
the presence of the implant stem thal has a greater from 3 to 7 bod~· weights and arc similar to th
or equivalent mechanical stiffness as compared measured in vivo (2.3 to 2.5 body weights) in
with the femur. Changes in the loading environ- single patient with a distal femoral replacement a
ment rcsuh in bone remodeling. Once bone in- rotating knee hinge (Taylor et al.. 1997) (Tab
growth occurs in the cemcnllcss prosthesis, load 16-1 and 16-2). Thc magnitude and cyclic nature
transfer can OCClIr through these areas of bony at- the compressive force in the tibiorelTlOnd joint
tachment. However, bone remodeling docs not re- important considerations in the design of a to
sult in the restoration of normal cortical strain lev- knce replaccment, General chnracteristics of
els (Engh et aI., (992). The fit of the prosthesis predicted forces at the knee joint show three pe
within Ihe femoral canal (JaslY et aI., 1994). as well
as the material properties (stiffness) of the stem
(Cheal, Spector. & Hayes, 1992; Weinans, Huiskes,
Latera! Medial
& Grootenboe,; 1992), affects the amount of stress- % change % change
shielding (Fig. 16-5).
Bone loss also can result from limb disuse
(Goethgen et aI., 1991). Postoperative subjccls with
total hip replacements continue to walk aSy'lllmctri-
cally, with decreased forces on the operated side as
compared with the contralateral side (Bl)'an et aI.,
1996; Long et al.. 1993). Tibial bone loss is unaf-
fected by implant characteristics and most likely re-
sults from generalized limb disuse associated with
asymmetries in joint loading conditions. A 160/0 de-
crease in proximal tibial bone n1ineral content has
been demonstrated in subjects with long-term total
hip replacements, and this decrease has been re- Percent change in the strain energy density within the m
lated to an as)'mmetry in the peak vertical interseg- dial and lateral regions of the medial and lateral cortex f
mental knee force during gait (Bryan et aI., 1996). a three-dimensional finite element model. The greatest r
Preoperative gait mechanics of patients with hip OS~ duction in strain energy density was found for the femur
teoarthritis have been shown to be correlated with with the stiffest implant (CoCr). The femur with the most
the bone mineral density of the proximol femur- flexible implant (Composite 1) had the smallest reduction
(Fig. 16-6) (Hurwitz el aI., 1997). The greater the strain energy density (Camp I and Comp2. composite mat
bone loss preoperativelv, the less stilT the femur and als; Cocr, cobalt chromium; Ti. titanium) (Personal commun
the more that likely stress shielding and associated tion. RN NariJrajan).
bone resol-ption will occur postopcratively (Engh &
• -.
during stance phase. Thus, failure as a result of rolling of the femur on the tibia as thL' knel' flexe
cyclic fatigue of both interfaces and implant materi- two·dimcnsionall1lodelusing input from gait an
als is an important consideration in lotal knee re- sis has demonstrated the presence and location
placement designs (Ducheyne. Kagan. & Lacey. tractive forces on the tibial surface (\.ViIII l1ler &
1978; Kagan. 1977; Landy & Walkec 1988). In acldi- driacchi. 1997). The model shows that a ""versa
tion. the portion of the tibial plateau that is loaded the tractive force occurred at the postcrior end
varies with knee flexion angle (Fig. 16-7). In many the contact region, suggesting that the effect 01" t
designs of total knee replacements, a large contact live forces should be considered in the evaluatio
area only occurs for a limited portion of the knee damage mechanisms. Different types of gait
range of motion with a I1luch smaller contact area cause different tractive forces on the tibial surfa
occurring at other flexion angles. The smaller the Thus, one of the importanl variables in the con
contact area, the larger the contact stresses. eration of factors leading (0 POI~:L·th.\·lenc d~lm
One consideration in the Factors producing wear may be a variation in the tractive force associa
on the tibioFemoral articulation is the tractive with the gait of a particular patient.
•
'"
'in
c
w • • •
0
rn
c
<;;
2
• 2
• 2
•
~
w
c
0
lD
• •
g
~
C
'" 0 0 0 • •
...."
e
<;;
iii
i"
OJ
-0
w
.'rn" -2 -2 -2
• ••
E
• • •
0
Z
•
5 10 15 20 25 30 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 2 3 4 5
Dynamic Hip Range of Motion External Rotation Moment Adduction Moment
(degrees) (% body weight· height) (o{;, body weight· height)
The hip range of motion and external adduction and exter- lady, the anterior fibers of the gluteus medius and minim
nal rotation moments were significant predictors of the nor- are recognized as primary internal rotators. Thus, the de-
malized bone mineral density of the greater trochanter in creased external rotation moment in early stance may als
the patients with hip osteoarthritis. The abductors are the reflective of decreased abductor muscle forces. Modifi~ w
primary structures responsible for balancing the adduction permission from Hurwitz. D.E.• Foucher. K.C Sumner: D.R.. et
moment. Because the abductors insert on the greater (1998). Hip motion dnd moments dtJring gail relMe clireCily 10
trochanter, a reduced adduction moment may reflect re- proximal femoral bone mineral density in pc1tieflls "''/Ith osteod
duced forces in this region and may result in bone loss. Simi- tis. J Biomechanics 3 I (lOj, 919-925
Posterior Adduction Moment During Gait
60 and
Medial - Lateral Joint Loading
ROIII~o .~90
70 5g 20
20
Roll 60 _'0
- .D
I<t
10 0+-1--------.
c
c
40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 "E
em ~ ~ 20
40
The tibial-femoral contact moves posteriorly with knee
flexion. The contact on the lateral side moves posteriorly
Heel
1 - -Slance
- - - 1T
much more during flexion (0-20°) than does the medial strike phase o
side because the lateral femoral condyle is rolling on a
larger radius than is the medial femoral condyle. Beyond
20°, sliding motion begins on both condyles. Reprinted with
permission from Andriacchi, T.P., Sran...vyck, IS., & Galante, J.O
(J 986). Knee biomechanics and (Oral knee rep/~Kement. ArttlrO-
plasty, 1(3),211-219.
-'l"~4.~.
ance, tibial component designs were modif-lcd to
have a mewl backing of the polyeth~'lcnc articulat- 100 * Abnormal
pattern
i.m!: surface, and surgical instrumentation was rnod-
ifi~d to allow for proper alignment or the mechani-
cal axis.
Loads
5.0
the incidence of tibial component loosening sub-
stantially decreased in the eady 1980s, patello-
fcmoral problems began to emerge as a primary is- -f
c
2.5
Non-anatomicallro
sue in total knee replacement (ROI'abeck et aI., 1995; ""OlD
Es:
Rosenberg et aL. 1988), The magnitude of the rell'o- :i: ~ 0.0 --I''-------->,--~f_-1''''----
......= - - -
patellar force as well as the contact area on the
retropatellar surface varies with knee Oexion angle
(Ahmed, Burke, & l-hder, 1987; Hubeni & Haves, 2,5
Swing
1984), Loads between two and three body weights
have been reponed at the putcllofcmoral joint for
, various activities of daily living. It was shown that
for walking, the loads arc relatively' low but because (Top) The moment tending to flex the knee during
the knee flexes beyond approximately 40" during ac- climbing demonstrated differences in stair climbing
tivities such as stair climbing, the loads can reach tion between the patients with nonanatomical fem
trochlea and anatomical femoral trochlea designs.
levels of several body \veights. The high magnitude
Reprinted with permission from Andriacchi, T.P., Yoder. D
of these forces poses a great risk lO the mechanical
Conley, A., er 8/. (997). Parel/ofemaral design influences
integl"ity of the implant as well as the implant's fixa- tion following coral knee iJrihroplasty. j Anhroplasty. 12(
tion to bonc. 243-249. (Bottom) Patients with the nonanatomical
The external knee nexion moment as measured femoral trochlea had increased knee flexion in late
with gait anal~'sis is reflective of net quadriceps phase (shown by It). The increased knee flexion was
muscle activity. Alterations in the external llexion anced by an increase in the flexion moment (balanc
momenl during stair climbing have been related to net quadriceps contraction) during late stance phase
both the curvature of the patellar nange (Anclriac- Reprinted with permission from AndriacclJi, T.P. & Hurvvit
chi & Hunvitz, 1997) and the height of the patella (1997). Gail biomechanics and total knee arrhroplasly. A
(Mat,tel et aI., 1990), Two groups of patients with Knee Surg. 10(4), 255-260.
• ~ •.. <
Interaction Between Tibiofemoral Joint Line Position
Joint Line Height and
Patellotemoral Mechanics
In some instances, the joint line is elevated following
total knee replacement, \vhich results in an inferior
movement of the position of the rctropatellar con~
tact on the femur: Elevated joint lines, which affect
patella function and patella subluxation, have been
correlated with wear patterns (vVasielcwski et al.,
I994), decreased longevity of the patellar component
(Rosenberg et aI., 1988), decreased clinical outcome
(Junnosuke et aI., 1993), and decreased range of mo-
tion (Rittel~ Faris, & Keating, 1988). The height of
the patella with respect to the joint line has been as-
sociated with signilkant changes in the flexion mo-
ment of the knee during stair climbing (Fig. 16-11).
vVhen the patellar position was changed IS mm in- Slair Climbing Knee Flexion Moment
ferior to its normal position, more than 50% reduc- and
Joint Line Change
tion in the flexion mornent during stair climbing was
. ..
noted (Martell et aI., 1990).
• • A
/' .
•/ ' ""-""":......-----
t-- - - . •
·A L-' •
•
nexion moment during stair climbing between nor-
mal subjects and patients following LOlal knee re-
"~iUS
placemenl. The lack of a statistically significant dif-
ference in that study may have been associated with
the small sample size or the test population, ralio extension
~
The functional differences between the postel'ior
cn-'Ciate ligament-retaining and sacrificing designs
were associated with the normal posterior movemenl
of the femur on the tibia (rollback) with flexion, This
finding has been explained by the dynamic interac-
tion belween the posterior crudate ligament and
tibiofemoral rollback with flexion. The lever arm of
the quadriceps (Andriacchi, Stanwyck, & Galante,
1986) normally increases with knee nexion. The func-
tional adaptations seen among patients with cruci-
ate-sacrificing designs were likely associated with the
need to compensate for the lack of normal femoral
rollback in knees in which the cruciale ligament is re-
moved, Thus, rollback must occur in the early phases
of flexion to have an appropriate quadriceps lever The radius of the femoral component varies with knee
arm to sustain normal stair climbing. flexion angle. Thus, in the sagittal plane it is not possible
to achieve optimal conformity in both flexion and exten-
Conformity sion. Reprinted with permission from Andriacchi, T.P. &
Nararajan, R.N. (/993). Conformity allcl polyethylene damage
The degree of conformity between the femoral in lolal knee replacement (lnrerndJ Communication
component and the tibial component depends on 97-5110-206 3MZ). Zimmer, Inc.
the ratio or the radii of the two components. As the
•
Section through
metal femoral
component
Seclion Ihrough
plastic libial
DefeCIS componen1
in plastic
Time Cracks propagating
from defects
Surface wear
~ and deforma1ion
smallr::~r-:~~~=t--I~~::~~~"""'7
contacl Level of maximum shear
area and sUess moves downward
high slress as surface wear proceeds
A model of delamination wear in polyethylene with intergranular defects. The lower dia-
gram explains a possible reason why delamination does not occur if there are no defects in
the material. Reprinred with permission from Wdlker. AS. & Blunn, G.W (997). Keynote Lecture
1/: Modem design of tocal knee replacement. In S NiwiJ. X. Yoshino, M. Kurosdka. K. Shino, S. Ya-
mamoto (Eds.). Reconstruction oi ,he Knee Joint (p.o. 129-142). Tokyo: Springer· Verlag.
•
Constraint body particles (cement), and areas of high cont
stress (Bargren, Blaha, & Freeman, 1983). Defe
In general, proper soft tissue balance is necessary for in the polyethylene serve as sites for crack initiat
a satisfactory outcome. In the presence of con;plex and propagation (Fig. 16-16). Increasing the po
bony defOl-mities such as a severe valgus deformitv ethylene thickness to at least 8to 10 mm will red
sati~factOl)' stability is often unobtain:,ble and co~~ contact stresses and should decrease the amoun
straint must be provided by the implant design. His- wear (Collier et aI., 1991). Metal backin2 was
torically, a hinged prosthesis, which provides maxi- tially introduced to more evenIv distribut-;; the lo
mum constraint. was advocated for those patients to the underlying cancellous b~ne of the proxim
with severe valgus deformities. Hinged prostheses, libia. Howcvc,', overall component thickness need
however, have been associated with a poor clinical to be increased following the introduction of me
outcome (Bargar, Cracchiolo, & Amstutz, 1980; Bui backing so that an adequate polyethylene thickn
& Fitzgerald, 1980; Rand, Chao, & Stauffer, 1987). A was maintained. The multivariate nature of
more contemporary alternative to the hinged pros- causes of pol:vethylene damage makes it difficult
thesis is a highly constrained but unlinked total knee draw definitive conclusions on failure mechanis
replacement (constrained condylar knee). This de- from retrieval studies. Moreovec the diverse nat
sign eliminates the need for lio"ament balancin.
a bv of the contact stress distribution (compressive, t
0 0
providing medial lateral stability throuah a rectan- sile. and shear) may result in differenl dama
gular polyethylene tibial post.- This "highly con- modes. Deformation, pitting, cracking. and ab
strained design has provided adequate outcome for sion are all examples of polyethylene dama
elderly low-demand patients with severe valgus de- modes.
formities (Bullek, Scuderi, & Insall, 1996).
Anterior Cruciate Ligament
, -
Polyethylene
During total knee replacement, the anterior crud
Polyethylene damage has been closely related to its ligament is either already absent ~r usually
thickness (Collier et aI., 1991; Wright & Bartel, moved. In the case when only oTie compartment
1986), the material properties, the presence of third- the knee requires replacement (unicompartmen
.,
knee arthroplasty), both cruciate ligaments are fre- :\Ildriacchi, TP. (1993). FUllclion;t! all;t1.\'sis or prL'- ;\Ild POst
quentl.\' retained. Gait studies of total knee replace- knee surgL'lS: TOI;t! kllL'L' ,lrthropl,lStv ,tlld :\CL I'econstruc_
lion. J Diollll'c!IIiJlic." Lug, 115,575-5:)1.
ment patients (Andriacchi, Galante, & FermieI~
:\ndri:tcchi, T.P, 6.' C;\l'lnte. J.O. (19t:t:J. Relcnliull (ll' IhL' DOS
1982; Chao, Laughman, & StauffeI~ 1980; Kelman et tl'rior nlll.:i;ill' lig,lIl1enl in tul;1I knee arthropl;\SI~'. J
aI., 1989; Simon et aI., 1983) show that normal func- Arthroplasty, SI3-,19.
tion is not achieved in the majorit y' of the patients .-\ndri'lcchi. TP.. Gabnll', J.O., Iklvlschko, TIL l't ,d. (1976)
despite improvements in stride lengths and knee ,.\ stress an;dysis 01' rl'[llOI';t! stelTI in lotal hip prustheses. J
HOlle Joilll "ill I)!" 58:\(Sl,61,s",62·1.
motion and clinical status. Numerous subsequent
Andrial'clli, TP., G;danlc. J.O .. 6.' FLTlllil'l', R.\V. (1982). The
studies demonstrated differences in the flexion- inl'hlL'ncl' or loul! knee rL'pl;tCeIllL'lll design on walking and
extension moment during level \valking. These vari- sl;\ir-clilllhing. .I !lout' .loiul Sill)!" 6-1:1, 132S.
ations in the flexion-extension moments at the knee Alldri;\cchi. TP. & Hurwit/, D,E. (1'107J. G;lil hiomeckmics
could not be related to an}' specific design but in- ;llld tillal knee arthruplasl,v. ·1!11 j I\I/(l' Sill',:!" 10(4)
255-260.
stead suggested the possibility that loss of joint pro-
.'\ndriacchi. T.P. & N:\laraj~ln, R.\:. (1993). Conl'ormil\' ~ll1
prioception or the functionalit y of the anterior crll-
l
polyelh,\'lt:!lL' d;lIn;l):!l' in lutal knee replacelllelll (Interna
ciate ligament may have been a factor (\J\'einstein, Communication 97··S110-206 3\lZ). ZillllllL'l'. Inc.
Anclriacchi, & Galante, 1986). The removal of the :\ndriacchi, TP.. Stal1\\',vck, T.S., & Galanle. J.D. (1%6). Kne~
anterior cruciate ligament was common to all total biolllech;lllics and tOlal knee repl;lct:JllL'llt. :Irlhro/dusty
/(3),211-219.
knee replacement designs and may be one of the
:\ndriacclli, T.P" l·odl'r. D.. Conle\'. .'\ .. L't ~i1. (1997)
factors that limit a patient's recover)' of total normal Patelln!'ell1or;1! d('sign influL'nces funclion I'ollowing tota
function. Similar patterns of abnormal flexion- knee 'lJ'lhroplaSI,\'. .I :lohruplosty. 12(3). 2..L ',·2-l9.
extension moments (Berchuck et aI., 1990) have Barg;II', \V.L., Cracchiolo . .'\., L\.: :\mstllll. H.e. I: 19801. Rt:sult
been reported in patients foll()\ving injury to the an- \\'ith constr~tlned IOlal knee proslhl'sis in lreating se\'L'l'('!Y
dis:thkd p,lliL'nb ;\Jld p:ltil'lItS \\illl 1',\iIL'd tot,li kIll:":' 1\>
terior cruciate ligament.
pl,tce!1lent, J BOJlt, Joint Surg. 62:\. 50..\-"512.
Ibrgren . .I.H" Blah;!. .l.D., & Fret:rn;lIl. \1.:\,R. (1983). .'\li~!Il
lTlL'nt in IOl,1I klll'e i\rthropl:lst.\', COlTL,I;ill'd ,tnd clinical ob
Summar)! S(·l'\'iltions. Clin On!zO!I, /73. 17S,
lkrchuck, \1.. :\ndriacchi, TP., Bach, B.R. Jr.. el ;d. (1990)
Gait ;ld;tptalions hv p;\li(:nls \\'110 ha\'<.-' :1 deficienl :\CI.,.
t The effect of forces on the stability of a total
BOlle Joini Sur,!.:. 72:1. 871-877.
joint replacement depends not only on its magni- Ikrgmann, G., Graichen. F., L\: Rohlmann, .'\. (1093J. !-lip join
tude but also on its orientation and point of appli- k':lding during \\',lIking ;lnd running measurwl in t\\'o pa
cation. lil'nls. J BirJlncc!wuics, 26(8), 960 . ·990.
Ikrgnwnn, G.. Gr;lichell, F., & Rohlmann. A. (199S). Is slair
Magnitude, orientation, and point of applica- case walking a risk ror the fi\;\lion or hip irnpl;lI11s?.1 Bin
tion of the loads at joints influence the stresses, lI/c·c!liIuic.,-, 28(31. 335-333.
bending ITIOments, and rotational moments of the Berzins. :\., Sumner. D.R .. & Andriacchi. TP. (19931. Stem
implant, and are critical for the implant stability Clll'VatUl'l' and load angle influence thl' initial rel<:\li\e
ho!w·implallt ll10tiun of l'ernentk'ss kmoral slerns. J Or
and longevity.
Ihop Nt's, 11(5). 758-·769.
3 Understanding the d.ynamic loads during daily' Bl'I'I,ins. A" Sumner, D.R .. i\ndriacchi, TP., L't a!. (10931. Stl.'1l
activities provides critical information for address- Clll'\'alure ,\nd load an~le illfluellct the inili:d rel;1Ii\'e bonc
implanl motion of celllent1l'ss remoral SkillS. J Or/hop Nn'
ing clinical problems such as ITIechanicalloosening
11(5!. 758-760.
of implants, amount of weac bone resorption, and Bo\, G. & Noble, P.e. (1993). TI1I,,' posilion of the joint Cl'l1lc
the choice of rehabilitation and surgical protocols. and thl' l'ullclion;1! outcomc 01' tolal hip rl'placCIllClll. ONS
Trans. IS, 323.
4 The evolution of total joint replacement has
Br;lnd, R.A. &: CnJ\\'ninshicld, R.D. (1980). The ellcl't or C;tllC
been aided by information generated from biome- use 011 hip conlacl forcL'. CONI?, 1-17. 181 184.
chanical studies. Brand, R.:\., Pedersen. n.R .. & Fricdl'l"ich, .l.A. (1%6), Thl,
sensith'it.\, or lIluscle forcL' predictions to changes in ph.\·s
iolngic cross-sectional area. J Hiolllec!lIIl1ic.,', IY(Sl
S80-·396.
Brugioni. DJ .. :\ndriacchi. T.P.. &: GaLlIllc, .1.0. (1990). A
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Long, \V.T.. DOlT. L.D .. Healy. B.. l..'l ,,!. (1993). Functional rl,.·- prosthesis::\ Sltltl~· CHI ~Il':lin g;lUg.e supplkd prostht.·st.·s
covcry of nonccmented total hip llnhroplast~'. CORR, 288. li\·ing. pnsons. An(/ Orrhol' SCi/1Il1 (SIrf'f,[J. S~. 37,
73-77. Schipplein. 0.0, ~ Andri:li.'I.·hi. T. (1991), Irlln:lcllOJl bClWl'C
~'lahoney, 0.:\>1., Noblt::, P.c., Rhoads, D.O., l..'l al. (1994). Pos- activl' ~lIHI p:lssi\'c kncl' SI:lhiliJ,er:-i during !L-\'l' I walking.
terior crllci<lte function following lotal knee ~\rthroplasty. Ort/lOp Res, 9. 113-119.
A bionll.'chanicai study. J Arthroplasty. 9(6). 569-378. Sci reg. A. L'\: Ap,·ibr. R.J. (1973). Thl' pr,.-diction of Illuscul
Maloney, \V.1. &. Schunn<ln, OJ. (1992). The effecls or im- lo:uJ sharing ~Ind joint fol'!':l,.·s in the 10\\'l'r l,.-'xtl"l,.·lllilies du
planl design on range of nHHion after total knee anhro- ing: walking. J Bioll/f.:dlCllliL~. 8. $9-102.
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condylar designs. CORR, 278. 147-132. QU:ll1titati\'e g:..lil allalysis ariel' 10lal klll..·..· i.lrthropb~t~- f
Maloney, \V.J" SychlCrz. C., Bragdon, C. et al. (1996). Th" fllOl\anicular dl'gl,.'lli.'rati\·e arthritis . .I H(lI/~' loilft SlIrg. 6
Olto Aufn\l1c Award. Skeletal rcsponsl.' 10 well fixed 605.
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C!ill Orr/lOp, Dec(333). 15-26. 'l1H.I bioJl1l,.·c!wnical an'd.\'sb of g;\il I'ollowing Clwrnle.\· 1
Manell. J.M .• Andriacchi. T.P., Rosenberg. A.G .. et nl. (1990). tal hip ri..'p!;U;l,.·Illl,.'1l1. CaRR. 99, 70-ii.
The rdationship b~t\\'een changes in pa!dl<lr heighl and St<'Tn. 5.1-1. &. Ins.a11, J.H. (1992). Postl..'rior :-Iahilizl,.·d proslh
function following total knee repl<lccment. Transcript of sis n.-sults "ft,-r follow·up of nine to l\\·t.·!n' .\"l,.·;II'S. 1 BO
the 36rh AIlI1IUlI Mecril/!;, of the OrtJIO!Jlwdic Rt'search Soci- 1oill/ SlIr!::, 7.,l:1. %0.
ely, 15(1).169. Swany. .\1.R. & 5";011. R.D. (1993). Posll..'rjor poIYl,.·thylc
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lation to nOfmal walking. 1 Biolllt·dlilllics, 3. 51-61. an hrop1ast~'. J .. Inhrop!flsly. 8, ·B9~.J.J6.
Murray, i\'I.P.. Brewer, 8.1., &: Zuege. R.C. (1972). Kinesiologic Taylor, 5.1., Walkl.:r, P.S., LlIlnon, P.L 1.'1 a!' (1997), Th
measurements of functional performance before and after ror<:l.:s in the dislal 1'l,.'Ill11r 'Illd knee during diffel\.'111 acti
McKec-Farrnr total hip rcpbcemelll. 1 BOlle 10ill1 Sllr~, itil,.·s llll':!sur"d by klemetr,\·' Tmllsl/clioJlS or
lilt' ·UI"(I A
54;\(2). 23i-256. lIt/al OUS .\lc?l'til1::'. 259.
Noble. P.C. (1995). The design of cCfllcnlless femoral proslh~ Walker, 1).5. & Blunn, G.\\'. (1997). Ke.\"IIOIC Lel,."hu·L' II: !\-\o
scs. In J.J. Gallaghan, D.:\. Dennis, & A.G. Rosrnb(,'rg l'rll elL'sign of total kn('L' rt.'pl~ICl.:nll:lI!. In S. Niw::l,
(Eds.). Ol'1hopaedic Kllo\l'led~t! U,ulate: flip ((1Il1 Kllee Re:- Yoshino. ~l. KUfOS;lb. K. Shino. S. Y;lln:l/11oto (l~ds.). R
cOllstructioll (pp. 12i-138). Rosemont. IL: AAOS. (,.·OllSffllctiOJ/ or lite KlIt't' .1oil1t (pp. 129-1.J2). Toky
Noble, P.c., Helmke, H.W., & Paul, J.P. (1993). Femoral posi- Spri Il!!l'r- Vt.'rl:l!.!.
tion crilic;:t1ly affects the intl.'l'pretation of intra-vital hip \\"aside\\~ski, R.C.~ Galante, J.O .. Lcii,dlly, R.\I., cl al. (1994
force dnta. TrailS ORS. 18(2),443. \\'(::11' patll'rns on rt.'trie\·"d pnlyclh.vkllC tibial ill.~CnS an
Paul. J.P. (1976). Approaches to design: Force ':Ictions Irans- lheir relationship 10 Icchnical col1sidt.'l"~lIiOllS during lCJI
mitted by join Is in thc human body. Proc I?es Soc LOlldol1. knt.'l,.' anhropl'lsty. CORR. 299. 31-43.
192, 163-72. Wcin:\I1s. 1-1., I-Iuiskes. R.. .$: Groo!cnboer. H.J. (1992). Effec
Phillips, T.W" Nguyen. L.T.. & Mull1'o, S.D. (\991). Loosening of mate!"ial prol1L'l"lies of femoral hip cornpOlll'nlS on bo
of cemen(\css femoral stems: A biomcchanical nnalysis of rClllodeling. J Or/hop Rt's. 10. 8-15-53.
\V~instdn. J.N ..Andriacchi, T.P.. &. Galante. J.O. (1986). Fac- Wilson. S.A .. McCann. P.D .. Gollin. R.S .. et a1. (1996).
tors influencing walking and stairclirnbing following uni- prcherlsi\"(.' gait analysis in posterior-stabilized
compartmental knee arthroplasty. J Arthropilisty. 1(2), anhroplasty. J ..\rthroplasty. 11{41.359-367.
109~115. Wimmer. ;\1.A. &.: Andriacchi. T.P. (1997), Tracth'e force
\Vhite, S.C., Yack, 1-1.1 .. &. Lesswing, A.L. (1992). Pre- and post ing rolling motion of the knt.'e: Implications for wear
surgical gait of a total hip replacement p<:llielli. hilliS 71h tal knee replacement..1 Biol/lcclulllics. 30(21.131~37.
iI/lllual East Coast Gail ('olll('I"('II('c 1992; Session 11, Rich- \Vright, T.i\'1. &. Banel. D.L. (1986). The problem of s
moml Virginia. damage in polycthylL'ne total knee components. Cl
\Villert. H. &. Buchhorn. G.H. (1993). Particle disease due to {hop, 205, 67-74.
wear of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene. Findings )'oder, S.A., Brand, R.A .. Pedersen, D.R., et a!. (1988).
from retrieval studies. Wear of polyethylene in total joint hip acetabular component position affects comp
arthroplasty. In B.F. ivlorrey (Ed), Biological ,lIa/erial alld loosening rates. CORR, 228, 79-87.
,1Ice/wl/ical COllsideratiolls of Joillt Rcplacelllclit (pp.
87-102). New York: Raven Press Ltd.
Engineering
Approaches to
Standing, Sitting,
and lying
Chris 1. Snijders
Biomechanics of Standing
Reaching
Biomechanics of the Pelvis
Flat Versus Ball and Socket Joint
Sitting
Arm Rests
Back Rest
Seat
Chair and Table
Leg-Crossing
Lying
Sitting in Bed
Decubitus Ulcers
Summary
References
Biomechanics of Standing
Muscles extending from the neck to the ankle are
continually active to prevent collapse of the skele-
toll. In view or this function, these muscles are
known as postural muscles. ObvioLisly, these I1lLlS·
des are comparatively strong and do not tire easily.
In skeletal musculature, postural and phasic mus-
cles-also known as slow and fast muscles-are
present (see Chapter 6). Thc mO"phological differ-
ences arc particularly marked in the Illuscles of
birds, but in humans this distinction is less evident
because of the mixed composition of muscles. It is
assumed that the force proportion of postural to
phasic muscles is 3:2. Exercise, especially participa-
tion in high-level sports or athletic training, can
change this proportion to even 5; I. Selective training
of postural (red) muscles is ach-antageous because
these muscles are stronger and deliver more work
than do phasic (white) muscles. The neurologist and
muscle physiologist Vladimir Janda (1980) pointed
to the following relationship between postural and
phasic muscles in agonist and nntagonist action:
/
and y directions.
I
I
I •
condition of neuromuscular control. Consumption
of alcohol or certain 11lcelicines causes greater
swaying. Marksrnen, conversely, stand significantly
more stable. Most force plates have a rectangular
design with four force transducers uncleI' the cor- A B
ners. Such construction, however, has the disad-
vantage of static overdetermination. Because stand- 0.24 II
ing is not a pure static equilibrium as a result of I
accelerations and decelerations of body mass dur- I
F, I
ing swaying, the COP does not represent the exact I
position of the mass center of gravity' of the body. + •
Recordings show that the COP is always located in
front of the ankle axis at the site of the as navicu-
lads. Therefore, in standing, calf muscles are al- 0.42 (
ways active (Fig. 17-3, A & B). Figure 17-3, C & D 0.18 I 0.72 I Fill
presents the location of forces in relation to foot
geometry taken from different literature sources
(Snijders, 199\). C 0
Standing in shoes in general means standing on
uneven ground because a heel of elastic rubber has
a certain height for shock absorption and because at A, The foot-ground reaction force {F...} is always in front o
the ball of the foot, the sale must be thin to give the ankle axis (black circle). B, Therefore, the calf muscles
goodllexibility. It is beller to look at the inclination {FJ have to be constantly active. C, Mean values of lever
of the foot, not at the height of the heel, because the arms for calf muscles and foot ground reaction forces in
inclination determines the degree to which a person relation to foot length (t). The data is derived from diffe
loads the forefoot. With an)' given heel height, the ent sources. D, Lever arms for resultant forces on the hee
inclination of the foot depends on the length of the (Fr.) and the forefoot (Fin) in relation to foot length (I).
foot. vVith a certain heel height, the angle of incli-
A B c
•
erably larger than with a bare foot (Fig, 17-513), This
moment claps the forefoot down on the ground, A
-
which can be reduced by! cutting off the back edge D
~
B
of the heel (Fig. 17-5D). The laller produces a more ...---....
~
horizontal movement of the ankle. This provision is
relevant for normal, sport, and orthopaedic shoes.
+
Excessive I110bility' or play is characteristic of an
unstable joint, as compared with that of the healthy
joint. In the following, instability refers to a Sllscep-
tibility to tilting or falling as a result of interFering
0) \
Calculation Box
Figure 17-1-1.
~~
longitudinal orienlation of the spine. Howeve
the sacroiliac (51) joint surfaces are parallel to th
largest forces and are not protected against disl
cation bv the closed form of a ball and sock
//11111111 1111/11111 joint. Thus. the 51 joints arc vulnerable to shea
ing because of their predominant flat surface
which arc almost parallel to the plane of maxim
load (Fig. 17-9), In a biomechanical model. Sn
.iders et al. (1993) made the assumptiollthat in <
dition to strong ligament support, muscle forc
B are always required for compression of the S
~
but a more comfortable position, thanks to suitable support
of the pelvis. The lever arm a is reduced by 30%. and the
arms and eyes are in a better position. (F" = center of gravity
upper body; a = lever arm center of rotation spine to F".)
• F
\ REACHING
Conditions like those shown in Figure 17-81\ occur
at work when the person reaches as far as possible
to a distant object while the feet cannot be placed
any further forward, either because of the design of
the machine involved or because the tocs touch a
tank with liquid. The provision of a support for the
pelvis as shown in Figure 17-88 allows for the same
I'cach but with greatly improved posture. This mea~
sure reduces the lever arm by approximately 300/0
and the arms and eyes are in a much more suitable
position. In the workpl<lce, people often seek sup-
port 1'01' the pelvis or upper legs by using the edge of
a tablc or bench.
Scherr,atic drawing illustrating that the sacroiliac joint is
vulnerable to shear when loaded in the sagittal plane (m
BIOMECHANICS OF THE PELVIS
ment M/Force F). Integrity of the joint reli~s on ligament
With reference to Figure 17-8, the largest forces support; joint compression by muscle force can raise fric-
always act in the longitudinal direction of the tion and prevent shear.
spine. The position of the intervertebral discs is
\1
i:':'
%,
~".~
~
U'.~ .... ly,=~""·,z':liC,::c:::c_*i?"~;::se
JOInts to raise friction, which resists shearing.
This so~called self-bracing is also expected in sit-
ting with reference to ligament creep by the load II J/II
of upper body weight. -1---5
IIIIII
FLAT VERSUS BALL AND SOCKET JOINT 2 ---I--\--\ ~IIIW 6
The different joints in the human body have a wide
variety of often highly irregular forms. By compar-
ing a ball and socket joint (or cylindrical joint) 3
with completely flat joint surfaces, some main
principles of load transfer can be identified. If a
transverse force is applied to the bones in Figure 4--+..,..,.~
17-1011, shearing must occur to produce stress in
ligaments, which stops the movement. The bones
are no longer in line. A ball and socket joint (Fig.
17-10B) is better protected against transverse
forces. \"'hen a flat joint is loaded with a bending
moment (Fig. 17-IOC), the joint reaction force can
shift to the edge of the joint surface and can pro-
duce with ligament or muscle force F{ a couple
with moment M = F f .2c \Vhen a ball and socket
joint is loaded with a moment (Fig. 17·10D), the Transversely oriented muscle forces that cross the sacroiliac
joint reaction force cannot shift to the edge of the (51) joints can press the sacrum in between the hip bones.
joint surface. Here, F" and F 1 form a couple with Such forces caudal to the SI joints may contribute to the
moment M = Fi.r. This shows that a flat joint can mechanism of the pelvic arch by opposing lateral move-
ment of the hip bones. (1) linea alba, (2) external oblique
transfer a "factor two" larger bending moment
abdominal, (3) transverse abdominal, (4) piriformis, (5) rec-
than a spherical or cylindrical joint at the hip
I tus abdominis, (6) internal oblique abdominal, (7) ilioin-
joints. In Figure 17-10, C d.! D, the joint reaction
force is perpendicular to the tangent to the joint 1.-_9_u_i_na_I_I_i9_a_m_e_n_t,_a_n_d_l_8_)S_I_iO_i_n_t. ~~~_~~_
surfaces at the bone contact point. This holds
when friction can be neglected. At the spherical hip
joint the problem of a lesser moment of force has
ARM RESTS
The importance of arm rests is often underestimated.
Arm rests unload the shoulder girdle, which is a loose
construction hanging on the spine by means of liga..:
ments and muscles. The weight of the arms is 100/0 of
Case Study Figure 17-1·1.
body weight, which is considerable. In chairs without
BACK REST tion. (":'urther transhltion results in backward tilt o
the pelvis and lumbar k~·phosis. The reader can cas
The back rest provides stability for the vertically il~' perform this test. The fUllcticl!l of a lumbar sup
erected trunk, analogous to Figure 17-8B. HoweveI~ port is to exert a firm force on the upper side of the
in prolonged sitting, the prevention of a lumbar pelvis ..md the lumbar area to prevent tilting of the
kyphosis seems to be the most important function of spine into kyphosis. This support should not reach
the back rest. The significance of a lumbar support higher than the lower edge of the scapulae. The tho
can be illustrated with the so-called click-clack phe- racic spine is still enough (ribs) and a higher lnlC
nomenon (Fig. 17-13) (Snijders, 1970, On the form rest pushes the shoulder blades rorward, which
of the human thorneD-lumbar spine and some as- "overrules" the lumbar support and hinders th
pects of its mechanical behavioc Thesis, Eindhover). shoulders to stretch and to turn to the lert and th
This can be experienced when one sits upright on right. The absence of a back rest, like sitting on
the edge of a straight chait: Slow forward translation crutch. alwa~'s leads to a C-form of the spine.
of the trunk increases lumbar lordosis, whereas slow
backward translation moves the center of gravity
above the ischial tuberosities into an unstable posi- SEAT
The weight of the trunk, head, and (part 00 th
arms is alnH)st completcl~' carried b~' the ischia
o
tuberosities. This leads to a simple representation o
The lumbopelvic click-clack phenomenon. Lumbar lordosis nearly' perpendicular to the surface. There is a re
is the result of a mass center of gravity of the trunk at the duced force component in the shear direction
ventral side of the ischial tuberosities (right). The mass cen- \Vhcn the back rest is tilted further) the seal angl
ter of gravity of the trunk dorsal to the ischial-tuberosities must follow because F becomes more inclined. [
I
forces the lumbar spine into kyphosis (left). The latter can Figure 17-15. the relation between back rest angl
be prevented by the exertion of lumbar support on the and scat angle is given for the condit.ion that Fric
upper side of the pelvis and the lumbar spine. tion is absent (Goossens & Sni.iclers, 1995). This re
lation was found with a biomcchanical model o
o Measured - - Calculated
20r----------------
1ii
'"
(f)
o'--~......"O:_~___,~~,__.,;;,____;;,___;;.,____::':::_
70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86
Backresllnclination (degrees)
A B
the total bod)-' divided in five links and \vas verif
by measurements on 10 healthy subjects with d
ferent body height. Back rest inclination is lar
in auditoriums, cars, and eas)-' chairs at home. T
facilitates a horizontal direction of looking and h
the advantage that the back rest contributes in c
rying the trunk. Head rests cannot carry' the he
when they are positioned too far fonvard. Fig
17¥16A illustrates that the head rest can only g
F,
Fgr(
c
~"FIG:~17-14 ~
~~--~~
D
1:,
A B
A, Sitting with maximal support. B, Free-body diagram of
the trunk. Back rest force (Ft» and upper body weight
force (F() intersect in the point S. The resultant seat force
at the ischial tuberosities (f\) must intersect in 5 as well, A. The mass center of gravity (represented by a circle a
and therefore inclines backward. The horizontal compo- gravitational force F~) is behind the atlanto-occipital jo
nent (F h ) must come from friction acting on skin and un- axis A-{F t represents the joint reaction force). With sup
derlying tissues. (-0, By tilting the seat slightly backwards port of a head rest, no muscle forces are needed for e
((\), the resultant seat force (f l ) becomes nearly perpendic- librium of the head (F'J = Fl ). B, The head rest is posi-
ular to the seat surface and friction on the ischial tioned too far forward and is useless. Muscle force F,
tuberosities is significantly reduced. remains needed for equilibrium andF, increases.
support when the mass center 01" gravity of the Upright Position Anteflexion Position
head is dorsal to the axis of the atlanto-occipital
joint (A). In Figure 17-168, the head rcst hinders
movement because the head cannot bc tilted back-
ward. This design error can be recognized in trains
"nd buses in which people nod or rest with the
head sidewa.ys.
~
served. Problems arise when such extreme pos-
tures are mainrained for long periods of time. In
the relaxed posture according to Figure 17-17;\ the
Fj
direction of vision with the head upright is given
(dOlled line). However, reading with the trunk up-
right requires a sharp bend in the cervical spine,
which cannot be sustained for a long time. Fur-
thermore, in this position the reading distance is Transverse
larger than 25 to 35 CI11 (the height of the table view
must coincide with approximately the level of the
elbows). Consequcntly, children and adults always
bend fonvard with a curved spine over the table
(Fig. 17-178) and urgings to sit up straight are
useless.
In the past, inclined desks wcre common. The
fixed angle was approximately 12 0 because at a Anteflexion of the head leads to a larger lever arm of the
higher angle, paper will slip downward on paper be- weight force (F'l) with respect to the atlanta-occipital joint
axis (A) than in the upright position. For equilibrium,
greater neck muscle forces (FJ are needed. Forward indi-
nation also raises tension in the ligamentum transversum
atlantis (F 1) to transmit the force from the dens (F el ), which
,,--
,: is directed transversely to the cervical spine. This force fol-
lows from the equilibrium of the atlas, with joint reaction
forces F1 and Fl·
(
Tissue
\ Muscular
2 3 4
breakdown spasm
\ Poor
blood supply
J tLl
5 i' ,l::!
~ • I •
6
Smooth 7 Rough
8
•
9 11
longed, continuous contraction (above approxi-
mately 20% of voluntary maximal contraction)
causes a lack of oxygen, accumulation of sour
metabolites, and intracellular shortage of potas-
sium. Pain is the result, which can lead to muscle
spasm, which closes a vicious circle (Fig. 17-19). ~~
Prolonged isometric contractions can even cause an
inflammation process with fibrosing; the result is a
~
12 13 14 15
passive shortening of the respective muscle. Enter-
ing this vicious circle is also ascribed to cold and
stress. Attempts to cut this circle are analgesia, mus-
cle relaxation, and improvement of circulation by
massage and heat radiation. These efrorts involve
the treatment of symptoms, while the improvement
of the work posture addresses the origin of the mus- 16 17 18 19
cle spasm. Some biomechanical problems in sitting
arc illustrated in Figure 17-20.
I. The absence of an arm rest loads the loose
shoulder girdle, which hangs from the spine
with ligaments and muscles.
2. Sitting without a back rest always leads to a ~
C-form of the spine. 20 21 22 23
3. A back rest must leave space for the but-
tocks. \ViLh a straight back rest staning
from the seat, no proper support can be
given to the upper side of the pelvis and the
lumbar spine. A support that is too high
does not provide force on the lumbar area
and a C-fonn of the spine is the result. 24
4. If the back rest is too high (as it is in some
folding chairs), it gives no support to the
lumbar area and the back bends in a C-form.
Examples of poor chair design leading to poor posture.
5. A vertical, straight, and high back rest also molded lO the individual anatomy should be
promotes lumbar kyphosis. restricted La the severely handicapped.
6. On a horizontal slippery scat, the botlom 21. A head rest lh<:tt is placed too far forward
slides forward and the body sags in the hinders upright sitting.
chair because the [detion force (Fh in Fig. 22. Tall people experience hindrance from a
17-14A) is absent. head rest thm pushes against the shoulder
7. On a rough horizontal seat, the friction (analogous to 5).
force (F" in Fig. 17-14B) causes discomforl; 23. \,y'hen reading and writing at a horizontal
people avoid back support and adopt a pos~ desk, adults and children always show
tureasinFig.17-17B. flexion of the thoracolumbar spine. This
8, When silting on a horizontal cushion like on forward bending is independenl of the
a lounge chair, the cushion is moved by the chair.
horizontal force component at the ischial 24. Neck and shoulder complaints arc reponed
tuberosities (reaction force of F h in Fig. with visual display units. \.Vhen it is not nec-
17-14B) and mOves inlo Ihe room. essary Lo look at the kevboard all the time.
9. Further lilting of Ihe back rest must be cou- the optimal height of the screen is approxi-
pled to the same increase of scat inclination. mately al eye level (Snijders el aI., 1991;
In ailvlancs, ho\\'evel~ seats remain almost Wall el aI., 1992).
horizontal.
10. Broad persons are jammed by lateral sup-
LEG-CROSSING
pons. In common cars, such pronounced
lateral supports arc useless because curves The majority of people cross their legs often when
are not taken with more than 30 111/S1 (0.3 g sitting, alternating left over right and righl over left
centripetal acceleration). A back rcst with a (Fig. 17-21). There may be many' reasons to do this,
uniform moderate curvature flts everybody bUl in the literature th(~rc is no scientiflc proof
and provides sufficient lateral support. aboLlllhe benefit or demerit of leg-crossing. One e:\'-
1I. Elderly people do nol appreciale a low or
deep sinking seat.
12. The length of the seat in a chair for adults is
too large for children.
13. The lengths of scats in easy chairs or lounge
chairs arc often too large for adults.
14. Although the length of Ihis seal (2) seems to
be sufficient. Ihe effective seat length (t) is
fm" too small because of a useless elevation
at the dorsal side and a too large radius at
the foreside. A radius of approximately 30 to
50 mm is sufficient.
15. Pronounced lateral supports on seats have
no use, also common in cars. Broad people
experience painful jamming on the thighs.
16. A back support that is too low cannot give sta· A B c
bilily 10 the LJunk (analogous to Fig. 17-88).
17. Arm rests are even more important in easy
chairs than in straight chairs because the Even in sitting with the support of back rest and arm rests,
arms cannot rest on a table. the internal oblique abdominal muscles are significantly
18. Easy chairs exist with a pronounced C-form. more active as compared with when supine. Crossing the
19. A seat Ihal is 100 high causes pressure on legs (upper legs crossed or ankle on knee) lowers this activ-
the thighs. whlch promotes "sleeping legs." ity. Therefore, leg·crossing is assumed to be functional and
20. Seats must be straight in the anteroposterior should be allowed for in work places (except car seats and
cockpit seats).
direction. The curvature in the lateral direc-
tion should remain moderate. Forms
ception is the observation that leg-crossing (upper thin people. But this may also hold for heavy peopi
legs crossed or ankle on knee) may result in less ac- because with an increase of volume, the weight i
tivity of the internal oblique abdominal muscles creases with the third power (m]) but the suppo
that have the same orientation as the transverse ab~ surface only with the second power of length (m')
dominal muscles (Fig. 17-11) (Snijders et al" 1995). The most unconstrained form of the lumb
By crossing the legs, an ahernativc and less fatigu- spine is found when the angle bet\vcen the trun
ing means is found for self-bracing of the Sl joints. and femur is 135" (Keegan, 1953). Furthermore, th
muscle running from the lumbar spine to the fem
(111. psoas major, part of the 111. iliopsoas) can
Lying shortened, which raises tension in this muscle an
causes a hollow back in supine posture. This can
A bed is a body support surface on which prolonged improved by exorotation of the legs and, if this is i
"'. and complete rest must be found. It is a combina- sufficient, by lying on the side. When lying 011 t
tion of a mattress, a mattress carrier, and a bed side. the spine should not bend laterally. resemblin
frame or bedstead. However. in many countries it is the scoliotic form. This occurs in persons with pr
customary to sleep on a spread-out mat on the floor. nounced waists and little give of the mattress in t
Three types of mattresses can be distinguished:
polyethel; foam rubber, and internally sprung.
There are several kinds of mallress carriers, like the
wire-spiral mat, the hardboard boltom, lathes thar
can tih, the box spring. and a carrier simply made of
planks with distances of approximately 7 cm. Many
combinations of mattress and mattress carrier arc
possible, but not every combination is appropriate.
A good bed should (1) adapt to body curvatures,
(2) remain nal, (3) have a pleasant spring action,
(4) have good ventilation, and (5) not be too warm
or too cold, Aspects I to 3 concern body support
that evenly spreads the pressure on protruding
(bony) parts. gives a straight spine when lying on
the side, and gives a natural S-shape to the spine in
the supine posture. Lying on a horizontal surface is
special because each body part receives separate
support with minimal pressure on skin, and under-
lying tissues and joints can be kepl in a relaxed po-
sition. The result must be that for static equilib-
rium, muscle action is superfluous.
For separate support of the head, a pillow is
needed. The thickness of the pillow is related to the
curvature of the spine: the more curved (especially
in older people), the thicker the pillow (Fig. 17-22).
II' the pillow is too thin, the head must be tilted
backward. A pillow that is too thick is inconvenient
because it causes a bend in the cervical spine. This
bend can also occur when the pillow is harel. Wilh
the shape of a coconut resulting in a concentrated
force on the head at the side of the crown. Pillows
must be pliable to also support the neck. Pillows must be pliable to also support the neck. The thic
A bed that is too hard results in restless change of ness of the pillow is related to the curvature of the spine
posture to unload areas with disturbed blood flow. because hyperextension or a sharp bend of the cervical
spine should be avoided.
Normally. people change posture 20 times per night.
One can imagine that large pressure occurs with
~----------- r
Decubitus Skin Ulcerations I
90-year-old man. v,nth a pelvIC fraClure and cognitive lim-I
A itatians. In his second week ai hospiializatlon. the patient !
is spending 10.0% of h.is t1rl1e In. be~.
Prolonged pressure and Ii
15
SITTING IN BED
"
"-
~ 12
c
Sitting in bed is common, especially in hospitals in 0
.~
Study 17-2).
Solid material
A B
Fluid Gas
c o
A. Equilibrium of a body on a mattress of solid material. Re- mattress with a loose cover; less shear than in B. D. Equili
stricted support surface. a, Fluid mattress with an elastic en- rium of the body on gas. A favorable, uniform pressure d
velope. The highest pressure is at the deepest point. C, Fluid bution over almost the maximal available supporting surf
cor-dance with Figure 17-14C. This folding princi- largest bod).' surface is involved in support w
ple is now applied in hospital beds and in beds for the body sinks deep in the maltress (Holsche
home care. aI., 1994).
The medium for antidecubitus mattresses can
be divided in four groups: solid material. fluid,
gas, and a combination of these media. Solid ma- Swnmarv
terials are foam, sheepskin. woolen blankets, etc.
Deep impression of the material results in a larger Any deviation from the anatomical pos
force (Fig. 17-25A). The ideal material should have generates increased tension in soft tissue and
a horizontal (isotonic) and adjustable spring creased loading on the skeletal structures.
characteristic. For fluid, a good envelope is The design of hurnal{ tools should inc
needed (Fig. 17-25B). Tensile forces in this enve- knowledge of biomechanics and its effect on
lope contribute to bodS' support, but raise shear mans.
stresses. The supported surface is large but still
the largest stresses are at the deepest point. Gas al- Use and adaptation of supports, including
lows for the application of equal pressure along a rests, back rests, and adjustable desks or beds,
large surface (Fig. t 7-25D). Chambers are neces- help to decrease the load on musculoskeletal st
sar.y to follow the contour of the body. Combina- tures.
tions of the foregoing are the "air-fluidized" beds, The most important factor to reducing loa
hammocks, etc. For home situations, gas support the lumbar spine during lifting is to keep the
is preferred, with an adjustable spring characteris- close to the body. For engineering purposes, the
tic to accommodate bod)' weight. In all cases, the is to reduce the lever arm of the object.
Snijdc.:rs, C.J. (1991). Biolllc..:hani(,·s of fool gcnr. hallux \·.I!gllS
REfERENCES .1lH.I splay fool. In ,\tH. J.dlSS (Ed), TIlt, FoOl (jIul ifS 0;'::0,._
Goossens. R.I·Uvl. & Snijdc:rs. C.l. (1995). Dc:si!!.11 ,ritcri~l for lIt.'rs (2nd cd.). rhil.lddphia: W.B. S'llllldcrs.
the reduction of ShClll" forces in beds and S~~ltS. J 8i0I1I," Snijdcrs: CJ., :\?hi~n. J.c.r.M., Rid. ~"'ll.J.i\l.. d al. (1990).
dWl1ics. 28(2).225-230. Rcadlllg and IIldlned surf.lc..-s. L.al/al, 335(8692}, 802.
Goossens. R.H.M .. Zegers. R.• Hoek \'an Dijkc. G.A .. ct ~II. Snij~lers. C.l .• .Hoek V;Jll Dijkc, G.A., 6: Roosch. E.R. (1991).:\
(1994). Influellce of shear on skin oxygen !ellsion. J eJin ~101llt'~hanlcal model for the an.\lysis of Ihl.' cen'ica! spine
Ph)':;i"/, 14, 111-118. III stauc postures. J Biol1w..)ulIl;c:.... 2-1(9),783-792.
Hel Bcd. IIlSfi1l1l1l 1'oor fllfisllo/l{ltecJlllisdl Advic:s (lVI1A) \'(111 Snijde!'s, c.J., Slagter. A.H.E .. Strik. R.. ct at. (1995). Wh\' Ie!!·
dc Nctlahllulsc \'crclligillj; vall I-/lIiS\'rDI/II't!II. Tl!stn:pol'/ (in crossing? The influl.'llcc of common postures on abdomi-
Dutch). Gr:l\'cnhagc: 1979. nal muscle acth·ity. Spilll.'. 20( IS}, 1989-1993.
Holscher. T.G .. Goossens. R.IL"!., Snijdr.:rs, C.l., c:1 al. (1994). Snijdl:r~, C,J. & Verduin, ~'1. (1973). Stabilograph. all <lCCU·
A new low·cost anti·decubitus mattress for home care: Re- r~tl: Instrument for sciences inlcrrslcd in postural equilib-
qllirctlWrHS and development. J RehaIJ Sci, 7(2).53-58. rium . ..tgressologie. l-1C, 1520.
h.nda. V (1980). .\1l1skel{llJlkliollsdiagJloslik. Verlag {iiI' .\It:tJj· Snijdc-rs, c.J .. Vleeming. A., &. StOl.'Ck;II't, R. (1993). Trnnsfer
:';1/ Dr. EU'ald Fischer. LClI\'cn. AceD Valag; Heidelbcrg. of IUlllbosacr.1i IOi:ld to iliac bones and h:gs. P;lrl I: Biome-
Kecgnn, J. (1953). Aher'lIions of the 11Imb~r curH.' n:latc~1 10 d.l~llics of sdf.bracing of Ihe s'lcroiliac joints and its sig-
posture .md seating. J BOlle )0;111 SIl,.~elY. 35. 589-603. IlIflCanCe for treatmenl and c.xcrcise. Clill Biol1lc.'clulII;cs S
Moll v.m Chan:mte. A.W.• Snijdcrs. CJ .. & Mulder, P.C.H. 285-294. . .
(1991). Posture control and Ihe risk of industrial .lCcidcnt: Wall, !\..t., d.e Rid, \t.P.J.M., van ,\ghin.l, J.c.rJ\'I., l'l al. (1992).
A st.lbilographic invcstig'llion in u nU\'al shipy'll·d. Ami 0(.'- Impwnng the sil!ing posture of Cr\D/C,\~<t workers bv in·
ttlP l1y:;;<:IIe, 35(5),505-515. creasing VDU monitor working hcighl. Ergo/lomics, 35'(.4)
Snijdcrs, C,J. (1988). Biomcchanical analysis of s~illcd pos· 427-436. . .
tun:. IC..tART 88: hlfl.'l'/wtirmal COI1/'cn.'~,(.'l.' of lite Associ/I-
liOI/ for Ilti.' /\d\'allct:IlIClIlor
RelUlbilitafioll Tt:f.:llIlIllo""
i\'lontrcal. 472-473. e>.'
Introduction
Anatomical Considerations
Hip
Knee
Ankle and Foot
Upper Body
Methods of Gait Analysis
Gait Cycle
Time-Distance Variables
Angular Kinematics
Hip
Knee
Ankle and Foot
Talocrural Joint
Subtalar Joint
Midtarsal Joint
Forefoot and Interphalangeal Joints
Trunk and Pelvis
Center of Mass
Segmental Kinetics
Joint Moments
Hip
Knee
Ankle
Joint Power
Hip
Knee
Ankle
Work and Energy Transfer
Muscular Control
Hip
Knee
Ankle and Foot
Taloc(ural Joint
Subtalar Joint
Midtarsal Joint
Forefoot and Interphalangeal JOints
Summary
References
Introduction ANKLE AND FOOT
Ankle motion is restricted by the morphologica
Bipedal locomotion, or gait, is a functional task constraints of the talocr-ural joint, which permi
requiring complex interactions and coordination only plantarllexion (extension) and dorsillexio
among most of the major joints of the body, par- (Ilexion), Although frequently modeled in ga
ticularlv of the lower extremitv. This fundamental analysis as a rigid segment. the foot is required t
task ha~ been the subject of st;,dy by scientists for act as both a semirigid structure (as a spring durin
several centuries, both with respect to description weight transfer and a lever arm during push-of
of typical body movements and of pathological and a rigid structure that permits adequate stabilit
conditions and therapeutic intcl'"ventions. Gait to support body weight.
analysis and training in one form or another is a The movements of the ankle, subtalar, tarsa
staple of physical therapy and rehabilitation mcdw metalHrsal, and phalangeal joints contribute t
icine practice. As technological advances become the smooth progression of the body's center o
both more sophisticated and affordable, detailed mass through space. Thcl-e are constant acljus
biomechanical analyses of gait increasingly can be Illents in these joints in response to the charac
performed in a clinical setting. This means that teristics of the supporting terrain and to the ac
the biomechanics of gait need to be more broadly tions of the muscles that cross them, whic
understood b)' both clinicians and researchers. In provides a smooth interaction between the bod
the paragrapl~s that folio\\', the anatomical charac- and the wide variety of supporting surfaces en
teristics of the major joints of the lower limb and countered when walking. The loss of normal mo
trunk will be summarized and their behavior dur- tion or muscular function at these joints has a d
ing level walking in healthy adults will be de· rect effect nOt only on the fOOl and ankle bUI als
scribed. More detailed anatomy of the relevant on the remainder or the joints of the lower ex
joints and tissues can be found in other chapters tremity.
of this book.
UPPER BODY
Anatomical Considerations The pelvis and thorax may be considered sepa
rately or, as in many studies in the literature, as
HIP rigid unit comprised of the head, arms, and trun
During gait, motion abollt the coxofernoral, or hip, (pelvis + thorax), or HAT, segment, The uppe
joint is~ triaxial: nexion-extension occurs about limbs and head have not received as much atten
a mecliolateral axis; adduction-abduction occurs tion as the trunk and lower limbs in the literature
about an anteroposterior axis: and internal-external Studies that do exist indicate that shoulder mo
rOlation occurs about a longitudinal axis. Although tions occur pl-imarily as flexion-extension an
flexion-extension movements are of the highest am- internal·external rotation at the glenohumera
plilude, motions in the other two planes are sub- joints. Elbow flexion-extension and forcarm prona
stantial and consistent both within and between in· tion-supination oceUI: Cervical spine motion is pri
clividuals. In addition, impairments in all three marily in flexion-extension and rotation to stabiliz
movement planes can cause problematic deviations visual gaze or facilitate the vestibulo·ocular refle
of the typical gail pattern althe hip and olher joints. as the body is propelled through the cnvironn1cnl
KNEE
lVlethods of Gait Analysis
In the case of the knee, three degrees of fTeedom of
angular rotation are also possible during gait. The The information presented in this chapter is sum
primary motion is knee nexion-extension about a marized from the scientific and clinical literature
mediolateral axis. Knee internal-external rotation which various laboratory methods have been llse
and adduction·abduction (varus-valgus) may also oc- to measure gait charactcristics, including strid
cut: but with less consistency and amplitude among analysis, angular kinematic anal~;sis, force plmc an
healthy individuals owing to soh tissue and bony foot pressure analysis, and electromyograph
constraints to these motions. (EMG) analysis, In stride analysis, the temporal s
43
quence of stance and swing are quantified using ei- terns. and load bearing of the lower cxtremities and,
ther simple tools, slich as a stopwatch and ink and as a result, is cfflcicnt in translating the bod)/s cen-
paper, or electromechanical instruments. stich as ter of muss in the ovcrall direction 01" locomotion. A
pressure~sensitive switches imbedded in shoe in- full gait cycle is defin~d by the OCCllrrcnce 01" a ~e~
serts or applied to the bollom of the fool. Stride quential stance phase and swing phase by one limb,
analysis data arc used to calculate basic time- or a stride (Figs. 18-1 and 18-2). The limits of a
distance variables, which will be described in detail. stride can be demarcated by the occurrence of a
Angular kinematic analysis lIses c1ectrogoniome- specific gait event (e.g., initial COlll<:lct) on one limb
t!)', accelerometry, and optoelectronic techniques. to the next occurrence of that same event on the ip-
ElectrogoniOlllelers arc available in uniaxial and silateral limb.
multiaxial configurations and are attached directly Stancc phase occupies 60(7"0 of the stride and con-
to the body segments on either side of the joint or sists of two pel"iods of double limb support (initial
joints of interest for the direct measurement of an~ and tcrmillal), wh~n the contralateral foot is in con-
gular displacement. Accelerometers arc attached to tact with the ground, and an intermediate period of
the bodv .. sc cr ll1ents of interest for the direct mea-
~
single limb support. when the contralateral limb is
surement of segmental acceleration from which seg- engaged in swing phase. Stance can be decomposed
mental velocities and displacements arc then dc- into six events or period~. Initial contact or heel
rivcd. Optoelcctronic techniques involve the use of contact is ddlncd as the instant the foot makes con-
video cameras to capture images of an individual tact with the floor. Loading response is an interval
walking. Such systems llsually include the use 01' during which the sole of the foot comes into con-
reference markers. which are attached to the sub-
ject, to estimate.: the location of joint axes and to as~
sist in digitization. Such camera systems require Stride/cycle
careful calibration to locate anatomical markers
and are often permanently installed in a "gait labo- LTO LHC LTO LHC
ratory." Force plate and foot pressure analysis tech-
!
niques involve the recording of information at the L. swing I L. stance L. swing
foot~noOl' interface during the stance phase of gait.
Force plates measure the resultant ground reaction
I I
I
force beneath the foot and the location of its point " ,<",,·,'1' O,".,i . , I
of application in the plane of the supporting sur-
A. stance R. swing R. stance
face. Pressure plates or insoles measure the load
distribution beneath the foot during stance. Force 60'% I 40~G
and pressure plates are often combined with angu· RHC RTO RHC RTO
Bipedal locomotion is a cyclic activity consisting 01" RTO. Reprinted with permission itom Bart; A.E. (998). Gair
two phases for each limb, stance and swing. Gait is analysis. III J. Spivak & J. Zuckerman (Eds.), Orthopaedics-A
Comprehensive Study Gllide. New York: McGr~w-Hil!.
morc or less symmetrical with regard to angular
motions of the major joints. muscle activation pat-
Fool Terminal
lIat Midslance stance Pre-swing
RHC RTO
lnilial swing Midswing Terminal swing
LHC
Schematic diagram of the spatial sequence of the gait cycle Swing phase is demarcated by two events, TO and He, and
or stride showing stance phase on the right and swing phase broken into three periods, initial swing (from -60 to 70% of
on the left. He, heel/initial contact; TO, toe off, R, right; L, the stride), mid-swing (from -70 to 85% of the stride), and
left. Stance phase is demarcated by two events, HC and TO. terminal swing (from ... 85 to 100% of the stride). Reprinted
and broken into four periods, loading response (foot flat) with permission from Barr, A.E. (1998). Gait analysis. In I Spivak &
(from -0 to 10% of the stride), midstance (from -10 to 30% I Zuckerman (Eds.), Orthopaedics-A Comprehensive Study Guide.
of the stride), terminal stance (from -30 to 50%, of the New York: McGraw-Hili.
stride), and pre-swing (from -50 to 60 % of the stride).
tact with the noor and the weight of the body is ac- stride. During pre·swing, weight is transferred onto
cepted onto the supporting limb. The loading re- the contralateral limb in preparation for swing
sponse period coincides with the end of initial dou- phase. The end of pre-swing corresponds to toe off
ble limb support at approximately 10 to 12% of the at which moment the foot breaks contact with the
stride. Ivlidstancc is the period during which the floor, thereby demarcating 'the beginning of swing
tibia rotates over the stationary fOOL in the direc- phase.
tion of locomotion. The beginning of midstance co- Swing phase occupies 40% of the gait cycle and
incides with single limb SuppOrl and lasts from ap- is decomposed into three periods. Initial swing
proximately 10 to 30% of the stride. Terminal lasts From approximately 60 to 73% of the stride
stance is the period during which the weight of the (approximately one third of swing phase), from toe
body is transferred fTom the hind and midfoot re- off until the swinging foot is opposite the stance
gions onto the forefoot. It occurs from 30 to 50% of [001. Mid-swing ends when the tibia of the swing-
the stride and coincides with the beginning of ter~ ing limb is vertically oriented and lasts from 73 to
minal double limb support. Pre·swing occurs si- 87% of the stride. Terminal swing lasts from 87 to
multaneously with terminal double limb support 100% of the stride and ends at the moment of ini-
and lasts from approximately 50 to 60% of the tial contact.
Time-Distance Variables
~ Normal Values
for Time-Distance Parameters ,.
Time-distance variables arc derived from the tem-
poral and spatial occurrence of the stance and
of Adult Gait at Free Walking Velocity swing phases. Normal values or these quantities are
Stride or cycle time 1.0 to 1.2 mlsect provided in Table 18·1.
Stride or cycle length 1.2 to 1.9 mil
Stride time refers to the time it takes to perform
a single stride. Stride length refers to the distance
Step length 0.56 to 1.1 m-''' . covered b.y a stride in the direction of locomolion.
Step width 7.7 to 9.6 em" '. Step is defined as the occurrence of an event on one
Cadence 90 to 140 steps!~jnuteo.. root until the ncxt occurrence or thai same evenl on
Velocity 0.9 to 1.8 m/sec:.> the opposite fool. It is most commonly delineated
by sequential contralateral initial contact. Laterality
Reprinred with permission (rom Barr. A.E. (1998). Gait analysis. In 1.
Spivak & 1. Zuckerman. (eds.), Orthopedics: A Comprehensive Study
is determined by the swinging limb; fOl' example,
Guide. New York: McGraw·Hill, right step is delineated by left initial contact to the
~Vafues adapted from multiple sources as summariled in Craik, R.t fit -"S subsequent right initial contact. Step length refers
Caris, CA. (1995). Gait Analysis: Theory dnd Application. Sr. Louis: -:~- to the distance covered by a step in the direction of
Mosby.
locomotion. Step width refers to the distance cov-
l"Values adapred from Whirr/e. M.W (1991). Gait Analysis: An lntro-
duC!ion. Oxford: Builen'lorth·Heitlemann ered by a step perpendicular to the direction or lo-
comotion as measured from the points of contact on
20 40 40
10 30 30
0;
~
E 0 20 20
\\
~
c -10
'.\ 10 10
'"
C -20
\\ O~· 0
'-.\
..,'0
-30
-40
0 20 40 60
".:.....
'
80
'.,
100
-10
-20 L::::J
0 20 40
::::=:-..,
60 80 100
-10
-20
0
::::::::::........ ~
20 40 60 80 100
1.2 1.2 2
1. 1
0; 0.9 0.9 0.9
'"
E
;;. 0.6 0.6 0.6
C
~ 0.3 0.3 0.3
E
0 .... ::::::._.:..
:2 0 0 0
c ""
..,'0 -0.3 :"/ ,/ -0.3 -0.3
..-'
,
Angular displacements and moments of the hip dur~ng level A (bottom). Hip extensor «0) and flexor (.>0) moment;
walking at freely chosen velocity among normal subjects (25 B (top), Hip abduction «0) and adduction (>0) position;
males, 4 females; 15 to 35 years of age). Solid Jines indicate B (bottom), Hip adductor «0) and abductor (>0) moment;
mean values (ordinate) over the course of a single stride (ab- ( (top). Hip external rotation «0) and internal rotation (>0)
scissa).. qashed Jines indicate 90% bootstrap confidence inter- position; C (bottom), Hip internal rotator «0) and external
vals. A (top), Hip flexion «0) and extension (>0) position; rotator (>0) moment.
the heels. Two sequential steps comprise a stride. Al-
though step variables may differ fTom right to left
within an individual, stride variables will remain Bootstrap Method for the Statistical ..
constant regardless of whether stride is delineated Calculation of Confidence Intervals
by right or left initial contacts, because stride con-
The boo ISHap method for the calculation of confidence,.:", '.;
sists of the SlIlllS of right and left steps. ;. ./':, -,
intervals is an iterative technique whereby a population of "
Cadence is a measure of step frequency that is de~
fined as the nUI11ber of steps taken per unit time and gait data time history curves (e.g., joint angular disp,la.c~~;':,,:>,"
ment or joint moment with respect to percent of the.. g~it:::;
is usually expressed in steps per minute. Velocity is
cycle) is sampled with replacement. This sampling is ,;',,:, '"
defined as the distance covered in the direction of
known as a bootstrap iteration.
locomotion per unit time and is usually expressed in
Each curve in the population of interest is first ana-;: .
meters per second.
Iyzed using a Fourier series representation, and a mean
. '.,
curve for the entire population is constructed by averag~
Angular Kinematics iog [he Fourier coefficients. Then. for each bootstrap iter-
ation. a sample of curves, equal in number to the popula-
tion of curves from which the sample is taken, is
This discussion will focus on joint angular displace-
randomly selected with replacement and a mUltiplier is
ments about the motion axes of the major lower ,.
calculated for that iteration. b. using the following for-
limb and axial segments during level walking. Fig-
mula:
ures 18-3 through 18-7 show examples of angular
displacements at these motion segments over the
course of the stride in a healthy adult population
(Calculation Box \8-1).
where f\t),)! is the mean of all curves at point tj of.
gait CYCle, F(tJ)tF. is the mean of the bootstrap
HIP the same point of the gait cycle, and is (T(t)b~ ;t;h;;e:';;:;~~~;d
deviation of the bootstrap sample at the same poi!)t of
At initial contact, the hip is flexed approximately
the gait cycle (Lenhoff. et aI., t996; and personal c·,·,mrnu-
30' (Fig. 18-3A, top). Throughout terminal stance
nication).
phase, the hip extends until it reaches approxi-
Alier the final bootstrap iteration, the multipliers:":
mately IDa of extension. During pre-swing and
M!bJ. are sorted by magnitUde and an M value is selected
throughout the majority of swing phase, the hip
corresponding to the desired confidence limit at each
nexes to approximately 35°, and then begins to ex·
point in time. For example, if a 90% confidence interval is
tend just prior to the next initial contact as the
desired, the value for M is selected such that it is larger
lower limb is extended for placement of the foot on
than 90% of [he remaining M values at a given pOint in
the ground.
the gait cycle. The standard deviation of [he population
The hip is neutral with respect to adduction-
mean is then multiplied by the appropriate M value at
abduction at initial contact (Fig. 18-38, lOp). By the
each point in time of the gait cycle to obtain the confi-
end of initial double limb support 0'· early mid-
dence interval envelope.
stance, the hip achieves its maximum adduction po-
The stability of the confidence intervals obtained by
sition of approximately 5°. Throughout the remain-
the bootstrap method increases as .the population size
der of stance, the hip abducts to approximately 10'
creases and as the number of bootstrap iterations in-
at toe off, then steadily adducts throughout swing in
creases. The curves depicted in Figures 18·3 through
preparation for the next initial contact.
were analyzed using the bootstrap method. For more spe-
Hip rotational motions are more variable across
cific computational details. see Lenhoff et al. (1996).
individuals during gait (Fig. 18-3C, top). At initial
contact, the hip is externally rotated approximately
5° and remains so throughout loading response and
early midstance. It begins to internally rotate to swing, i(s hip internally rotates to within 3° of neu-
within 2 of neutral rotation by the middle of termi-
0
tral. then it oscillates between 3 and 5' or external
nal stance, then reverses direction and externally ro- rotation dudng terminal swing. Except for perhaps
tates, as the heel begins to rise, to its peak of 150 of a brief period during the middle of (erminal swing,
external rotation during initial swing. As the limb the hip never achieves an internally rotated position
swings past the opposite stance leg during mid- during gait.
;,~::-: .
!I'l?~ w" "_,. " "= _~",m=,.", ., ,Yo~',"~"_",", ?"." ","·':! !L" "-~, -_~," ' ~' '. ., _,. "_,~ ._ "'_: ", .:g, ,~o.~
!l_!lIf'l!!j!l'__ . __ .__>"
.,_-c" .....,...-.. ... .,- :,<"-_g'f!b:>n_jz,ri1dG", -'@,~'t 1.'FS0;._~ F' "' ,;>_".1§·.:~[0 ~;,~"}':; .
--...,..,."...,.....,...".,,,.",.":,-",.·,. __ ... _<;-
70,---------, 60 50,----------
60 50 1 40
50 40 30
40 30 20
30 20 10
20 :--.. 10 o-l--~~-~-~-_.
/,'"""-', o.~-=;---=--.=---=?--=;;;;~.d·;0;;~:::§::-~-- , .. ,---------- , .... ....
10,: ....:::- __ ). --10·
----··B' .-.
o-l-~---''-''r--_-.--'k:i1 -10 -20 "',
Angular displacements and moments of the knee during (>0) position; A (bottom), Flexor «0) and extensor (>0)
level walking at freely chosen velocity among normal sub- ment; 8 (top). Knee abduction «O) and adduction (>0)
jects (25 males. tI females; 15 to 35 years of age). Solid lines tion; B (bottom), Knee adductor «0) and abductor (>0)
indicate mean values (ordinate) over the course of a single ment; C (top), Knee external rotation «0) and internal
stride (abscissa). Dashed lines indicate 90% bootstrap confi- rotation (>0) position; C (bottom), Knee internal rotator
dence intervals. A (top), Knee extension «0) and flexion and external rotator (>0) moment.
20
15· ANKLE AND FOOT
0; 10 Talocrural Joint
:s'" 5,-\
'"c
0, a At initial contact, the ankle joint is neutral or
« slightly plantarllexecl 3 to 5' (Fig. 18-5, top). From
C
-5
initial contact to loading response, the ankle plan w
,0 ···10
tarflexes (I.e., extends) to a maximulll of 7° as the
-15 foot is lowered to the supporting surface. Through-
-20 out midstance, the ankle dorsiflexes (i.e., flexes) to a
a 20 40 60 80 100
maximum of t 5° as the lower leg rotates anteriorly
and medially over the supporting foot. During ter-
0.5
minal stance and pre-swing, the ankle plantarflexes
0;
O·
to approximately 15° as body weight is transferred
~ onto the contralateral limb. Immediately following
;S toe off, the ankle rapidly dorsi flexes to the neutral
-0.5
C
position to attain toe clearance and then may plan-
'"0
E
·-1 "\ tarflex slightly during terminal swing in preparation
::::
c '-::'\'--' for initial contact.
,
'0 '1.5 '-'-'
-2
a 20 40 60 80 100 Subtalar Joint
A Gait Cycle (%) The subtalar joint rotates in, both stance and swing
(Fig. 18-6, bottom), but it is the motion during
stance that influences the weight-bearing alignmen
Angular displacements and moments of the ankle during
of the entire lower extremity. Like the ankle joint, the
level walking at freely chosen velocity among normal sub· arc of n10tion at the subtalar joint is small compared
jects (25 males, 4 females; 15 to 35 years of age). Solid with the knee and the hip, but it is the motion pre-
lines indicate mean values (ordinate) over the course of a sent at this joint that permits the foot to adapt to a
single stride (abscissa). Dashed lines indicate 90% boot- varietY.Qf surfaces. The subtalar joint functions as a
strap confidence intervals. Top, ankle dorsiflexion (flexion) mitered hinge during gait to transmit internal and
«0) and plantarflexion (extension) (>0) position; bottom, external rotation from the tibia to rotations (ever-
ankle plantarflexor (extensor) «0) and dorsiflexor (flexor) sion and inversion) about the foot. The subtalar join
(>0) moment. also transmits inversion and eversion from the foo
to external and internal rotation about the tibia.
Midtarsal joint
Heel contact
.. ..
Toe off Heel contact
.. Motion about lite.: transverse a:\is of the Inidt
joint affects the longitudinal arch of the foot.
Ankle
rotation lowing forefoot contact during loading resp
the longitudinal arch n"ttcns during single
Stance phase j ; support. The restoration of the arch occurs
Ii' heel rbe,
Foot immobile Midtarsal extension is another of the rn
• nisms for shock absorption as body weight is
ered Onto the stance limb during loading resp
Sublalar
rolation and carly midstance. This motion, which acco
nies forefoot contact at the onset of midstance
curs after subtalar eversion,
~_ .._ - - o ' : - . Finally, the interaction between the sub
o 20 40 60 80 100
joint and the midtarsal joint is such that if
Percent of Walking Cycle
tion at the subtalar joint is limited, then mo
at the midtarsal joint will be limited. Simil
when motion at the talonavicular joint is
Ankle and subtalar rotations during normal walking in a \'cntcd, aimosl no motion is permitted at the
single subject. Reprinted with permission from Wright, talar joint.
D.G., Desai, S.M., & Henderson, W.H. (1964). Action of the
sub[alar and ankle-joint complex during the stance phase
of walking. J Bone JOInt SlJrg. 46A(2), 36/-382
Joint Compensation: In- and
Out-Toeing
;1 c'
The toes then Oex to neulral after for-croat contact at
during pre-swing. During swing. the toes Oex
slightl~1 but rernain in extcnsion. Finall~', there is a
I
the end of loading response. A ncutral position is
minimal increase in toe extension in preparation for
maintained throughollt midstance. Olll-jog terminal
initial contacl. Little or no flexion occurs at the
stance, as the heel rises, the metatarsophalangeal
~14 joints (collectively known as the metatarsal break)
metatarsophalangeal joint during walking, although
some Illay be presenl during athlctic activities.
extend to approxirnately 21 0 while the tocs remain
!
Littie or no motion occurs al the interphalangeal
in contact with the ground and the hind fOOl lifts up
joints during gait wilh the exception that during
into the air. This metatarsophalangeal extension
pre-swing, slight rlexion is occasionally noted.
places tension on the plantar aponeurosis, which in
turn exens a passive hind foot (calcaneal) inversion
~~ force. Tightening of the plantar aponeurosis also re·
TRUNK AND PELVIS
suits in supination of the foot and accentuation, or
heightening, of the longitudinal arch of the fOOL At initial contact, the pelvis is tilted anteriorly ap-
The subsequent stirrening of the intcrtarsal joints proximately 7° (Fig. 18-7A. bOLlom). rOlated for-
15 15 15
i
~;_-JI!i 10 10 10
c; Ii
"
?
5 5
I
5·
"
.,.-
"
"c
e;,
0~",1
"
0 0
?/""'~'~
«
-5
-10
-J '". ,' I
-10
--5
15 15 15
10 10 10
....',
c;
5 ...... .....
"
?
5 5
"
e;, ,- '-- ... '
c 0 0 0
«
-5 -5 -5
Angular rotation of the trunk and pelvis during level walking Trunk downward « O) and upward (>O) tilt with respect to
at freely chosen velocity among normal subjects (25 males, 4 the stance limb; B (bottom), Pelvis downward «0) and up-
females; 15 to 35 years of age). Solid lines indicate mean val- ward (>0) tilt with respect to the stance limb; C (top), Trunk
ues (ordinate) over the course of a single stride, (abscissa). backward « 0) and forward (>0) rotation with respect to
Dashed lines indicate 90% bootstrap confidence intervals. the stance limb; C (bottom), Pelvis backwar.d «0) and for~
A (top), Trunk posterior «0) and anterior (>0) lean; A (bot- ward (>O) rotation with respect to the stance limb.
tom), Pelvis posterior «0) and anterior (>0) tilt; B (top),
, "",.,..
\\~ardapproximately 5° (Fig. 18~7C. bOllom), and is trunk is rataled backward approximately 3° w
level from right to left. During the loading re· the pelvis is rotated forward approximately 5°
sponse, the pelvis tills upward on the stance limb anlpliludes of the angular displacemenls o
side to a maximum of 5°, then it regains ncutrallilt trunk segment as rencctcd in the movement o
at the nexl initial conlact of the swinging limb (Fig. shoulder girdle arc only slightly ullcnuated in
18·78, bOllom). During stance phase, the pelvis 1"0· parison with the pelvic movements, as can be e
tates backward on the stance limb side and tilts an· appreciated by comparing the lOP (trunk) La bo
teriorly (hollom of Fig. 18-7 C & B, respectively). (pc)vis) plols in Figure 18-7.
The total excursion for anteroposterior tilt is ap-
proximately 5°; for lateral tilting, approximately
10°; and for forward and backward rotation, ap·
CENTER OF MASS
proximately 10°. The body's center of mass remains located withi
Tnmk motion during gait is opposite in direction. pelvis anterior to the sacrum throughout the ga
or out of phase, 10 the motions of Ihe pelvis (Fig. cle. It undergoes sinusoidal displacements in all
18-7, A-C, lOp). For example, at initial conlaCl, the planes with peak to peak excursions of approxim
"
,-,
j,,, '
~"
' \
,
Joint , ""
'
,
rotation
, ",, , ,
,
Extension - 15 .- 15 ,.__..--." ,
Extensor
,
2.0 r·
Joint
,,
i
.- I ..
moment I ,',- . :........
Generation 3~ ,,
!
~ , ,
,
,, ,,
I'
,
I
JOin!
power
L'\
r" - "'",
,~
#
.
......
" ...., - -'
~--~
,- ,
l' '.. "',- . . . ---- "
"
"
1\
'
'
1-
-2 L __l _ _ ~~_ -L----' 1 ,_--'-, _~ ._--'----'--- - - '- -
Absorption
a 50 100 o 50 100 a 50
% Gait Cycle % Gait Cycle % Gait Cycle
Joint power profiles in watts/kg of body weight (bottom ments in Nm/kg body weight. Joint motions are in degr
row) of the hip (left column), knee (middle column), and an· Reprinredwilh permission from Gage. l.R. (1991). Gait Analy
kle (right column) for flexion-extension motions (top row) Cerebral Palsy (p. 31). LOlldon: Mac Keith Press.
during level walking. The middle row shows the joint mo·
3 em in the vertical direction, 4 em in the lateral di- Hip
rection, and 2 em in the anteroposterior direction.
At initial contact, there is an extensor moment
about the hip that fluctuates at first, then stabilizes
at approximately 5 Nm/kg (Fig. 18-3;1, bottom).
Segnzental Kinetics This extensor moment persists through early mid-
stance and then reverses to a flexor moment in the
In gait analysis, the human body is modeled as a
latter third of midstance. For the remainder of
mechanical system of anatomical segments linked
stance, there is a hip flexor moment that peaks at
together by the joints. Kinetic computations in
approximately 1 Nm/kg ncar the end of terminal
gait analvsis make use of angular kinematic and
stance.
force dat~, ~
Although the hip moment about the anteroposte-
rior axis is adductor at initial contact (Fig. 18-3B,
JOINT MOMENTS bottom), it rapidly' reverses to an abductor moment
of approximately 0.7 Nm/kg during loading re-
A moment is defined as the vector cross-product of
sponse. As the opposite limb s\vings ncar the mid-
a force vector and the perpendicular distance of
line of the body during midslance, the stance limb
the joint center from the line of action of that
hip abductor moment decreases to approximately
force vector. Moments arc frequently expressed in
0.4 Nm/kg, but it once again increases to 0.7 Nm/kg
Nm pCI' kg of body \veight in gait analysis (i.e.,
during terminal stance (Box 18-2).
normalized to body weight). The effect of mo-
ments is to cause a tendency for joint rotation. In
this discussion, the term moment \viII refer to the
internal moment generated about the joint in
question. A knee extensor moment, for example,
~'----'-------------------_._-'-_.
when the external moment tends to cause knee found gait deviations. One possible pathological gait pat-
flexion). Activation b,\' the knee cxtensors is re- tern is Trendelenburg gait, which results from the failure
quired to counterbalance the tendenc'y' for knee of the hip abductors to produce a sufficient abductor mo-
flexion caused by the external flexion n~oment. In- ment during loading response and terminal stance. This
ternal moments arc assumed to be generated b"" pattern is easily observed as a lateral drop of the pelvis on
the muscles, soft tissues, and joint contact rorce~ the side opposite the weakness during stance on the
acting on the joint and are inferred from inverse weak side. Another way of describing this pattern is ex-
dynamics calculations of external moments. As cessive adduction of the weak hip during stance phase.
such, the internal m0111ent is an expression of the Another pathological gait pattern seen with abductor
net effect of internal active and passive structures weakness or coxofemoral pain is the lateral lurch. In this
and is strictly accurate in the case where a muscle i pattern, the trunk is displaced toward the affected stance
group is contracting unopposed by antagonist ac- , limb during loading response, where it remains through-
tivation. At certain periods during normal gait and out terminal stance. This is observed as excessive lateral
for longer periods during gait in nlany pathologi- displacement of the trunk toward the affected side, The
cal conditions, agonist-antagonist coactivation result of this gait deviation is to reduce the required hip
may be present. In such cases, reported values for abductor moment by displacing the body's center of mass
net internal moments will underestimate the ac- closer to the hip adduction-abduction rotation axis.
tual muscular forces occurring. However, this ter- Both of these gait deviations effectively reduce com-
n1inology is prevalent in the literature and useful pressiori" across the coxofemoral joint by reducing contrac-
for the calculation of other kinetic variables. Plots ! tion force of the hip abductors, thereby alleviating joint
of the internal moments occurring about the hip, I pain. The Trendelenburg pattern is a simple mechanical
knee, and ankle joints during level walking in I ._re_s_ultOf.hiP a_bd.. c.t_or weak_ness. The lateral_lurch is a. __
U.
e
By the end of loading response, the peak hip ex- Nm/kg occurs. During terminal stance, a second lo
lernal rotator moment of appro.ximately 0.18 Nm/kg amplitude extensor moment of 0.2 Nm/kg occu
is achic\'cd (Fig, 18-3C, bOllom), The eXlernal rota- (Case Slud" 18-1),
tor mOment gradually decreases until the middle of As \\'as the case with adduction-abduction abo
terminal stance. Throughout the remainder of ter~ the knee, knee adduction-abduction moments a
min'll stance and pre-swing, a slight hip internal ro- controlled primarily through bone and soft tissu
Lalor moment occurs, constraints. Therefore, the terminology for the
moments nt the knee refers to passive restraints, n
Knee to n1uscular control.
At initial contact, there is a small knee flexor mo- An abductor moment persists about the kne
ment (Fig, 18-4A, boltom), During early midstance, throughout stance with lwo peaks of approx
an extensor moment peak of approximately 0.6 mately 0.4 Nm/kg during loading response and te
80 50
70 40~ ...... --
"'"
~ 60 ---- Unalfected llexion
E
:s
._-- Unaffected
-Affected
'"'" 50
:;;
- Affected flexion C 30j
'"
E 20
..
c
C
'"
0> 40
'0 30
c
0
:;;
·0
~
1O~
~
'"'"c 0
'"'" ....
20 ,""
C
'" 10
-,
-- '" -10
0, -20j , ,
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Gait Cycle ('%) Gait Cycle (%)
Case Study Figure 18·1-1. Effect of anterior cruciate ligament injury on knee motion and moments about the flexion-
extension axis. Data were obtained during three trials of walking at freely chosen velocity and averaged. The figure (left)
shows the difference between the ACl-deficient knee (affected) and unaffected knee flexion angles. The figure (right)
shows the corresponding knee moments with values greater than zero representing knee extensor moments and values
less than zero representing knee flexor moments.
min'll stance (Fig. 18-4B, bottom). During mid~ Knee
stance, the knee abductor moment decreases to
During loading response, power absorption b
approximately 0.2 Nm/kg. In individuals who
the eccentrically contracting quadriceps contro
achieve abduction (valgus) positions of the knee,
knee flexion (Fig. 18-8. bolloll1-llliddle). Durin
the moment profile may' be shifted toward adduc-
early midstance, power generation b:v the co
tor moments, and midstance adductor moments
centrically contracting quadriceps extends th
mayoccur.
knee while the contralateral limb is engaged
A knee internal rotator moment peak of 0.18
swing. During pre-swing, power absorption b
Nm/kg occurs at the transition between loading re-
the eccentrically' contracting quadriceps contro
sponse and midstance. The knee rotation moment
knee flexion \\'hile the stance limb unloads
then reverses direction during the latter portion of
preparation for swing and the transfer of bod
midstance, reaching an external rotator moment
weight onto the contralateral limb. During term
peak of approximately' 0.15 Nm/kg during terminal
nal swing, power absorption by the eccentrical
stance.
contracting hamstrings controls the forward a
celeration of the swinging thigh, leg, and fo
segments.
Ankle
Immediately after initial contact, there is a slight
dorsiflexor (Le., flcxor) moment of approximately Ankle
0.2 Nm/kg about the ankle that rapidly rcverses to a
During midstance, power absorption by the e
plantarflexor (i.e., extensor) moment for the re-
centrically contracting plantarflexors contro
maindcr of stance (Fig. 18-5, bottom). The plan-
the tibia as it rotates over the stationary foot (Fi
tarflexor moment peak is approximately 1.6 Nm/kg
18-8, bottom right). During pre-swing, a hig
at 45°;0 of the stride, or the latter portion or termi-
magnitude power generation peak of 2 to
nal stance.
\vatts/kg by' the concentrically contracting pla
tarflexors represents approximately' two thirds
JOINT POWER the total energy generated during walking and
believed to contribute significantly to propulsio
Joint power is defined as the product of joint an-
in gait.
gular velocity and the corresponding internal mo-
ment at a given point in time and is expressed in
watts/kg of body weight. It (luctuates continuously WORK AND ENERGY TRANSFER
throughout the gait cyTle and can be either nega- v\fork is defined as the integral of power with r
tive or positive in value. Joint po\ver indicates the spect to time and is expressed in Joules/kg
generation or absorption of mechanical energy by
body weight. \Vork is an estimate of the flow
muscle groups and other soft tissues. Profiles for
mechanical energy from one bod)' segment to a
joint power about the Flexion-extension axes dur-
other and is used to determine overall mechan
ing level walking in healthy adults are depicted in cal energy efficiency during gait. \Vhen work
Figure 18-8. positive in value, the internal moment and joi
angular velocity are actirlg in the same directio
a concentric muscle contraction is indicate
Hip and mechanical energy' is being generated. ,",Vh
From initial contact through early' midstance, the work is negative in valuc, the internal mome
concentrically contracting hip extensors generate and joint angular velocity are acting in opposi
power to a peak of approximately I watt/kg (Fig. directions, an eccentric contraction is indicate
18-8, bottom left). From midstance to terminal and mechanical energy is being absorbed. Du
stance, po\ver absorption by' the eccentrically con- ing p'eriods of energy generation, the muscle
tracting hip flexors controls the backward accelera- working on the limbs to produce movemen
tion of the thigh segment until approximately 50% During periods of energy absorption, the lim
of the stride. From pre-swing to mid-swing, p()\ver are working on the muscles, which must the
generation by' the concentrically contracting hip contract to resist the tendency for muscle elo
Oexors acts to pull off the swinging limb. gation.
contact to the middle of loading response that
Muscular Control pers off by the end loading response. The upp
J\tluscle activation patterns are also cyclic during fibers of the gluteus maximus and the glute
gait (Figs, 18-9 through 18-11), Muscle contraction mcdius (and probably the gluteus minimus)
type varies between the eccentric control of joint an~ crease activation intensity through loading
gular accelerations, such as in hamstrings activa~ sponse and taper olT by the end of rnidstancc. T
tion during terminal swing, and the concentric ini- postcrior fibers of the tensor fascia lata arc moc
tiation of movement, such as in tibialis anterior crately activated at the onset of loading respon
activation in prc~swing. In normal individuals, ago- while the anterior fibers become activated la
nist-antagonist coactivation is of relatively short and persist into terminal stance.
duration and occurs during periods of kinematic During pre-swing and initial to mid-swing, t
transition (e.g., terminal s\ving to initial contact). hip Ilcxors act to advance the limb. particula
The presence of prolonged or out-or-phase agonist- when walking velocity is changing. The adduct
antagonist coactivation during gait in individuals longus is activated earliest in terminal stance a
with pathology may indicate skeletal instability as persists the longest to earl~' mid-swing. The rect
well as motor control deficiencies. femoris is the second hip Oexor activatcd duri
pre-swing and remains activated a short time in
early initial swing. Thc iliaclls, sartorius, and g
HIP
cilis have short periods of activation predominan
During early stance phase, the hip extensors act during initial swing.
concentrically while the hip abductors stabilize The hip adducLOrs are activated during tran
the lateral aspect of lhe coxofemoral joint (Fig. tions between stance and swing, as are the ha
18-9). The lower fibers or the gluteus maximus string muscle group. This activation pattern can
show increasing activation intensity from initial interpreted as the dynamic control of the swingi
Stride evenlS IC TO IC
Slride inlelVals LR MSI TSI PSw ISw MSw TSw
Phasic pattern of electromyographic (EMG) activity of the tact; TO, toe off; LR, loading response; MSt. midstance; TSt
muscles of the hip during level walking in healthy adults. terminal stance; PSw, pre-swing; JSw, initial swing; MSw, m
Gray regions represent activation below 20% of maximum swing; and TSw; terminal swing. Adapted with permission fro
voluntary contraction. Black regions represent activation Perry, 1. (1992). Gait Analysis: Normal and Pathological Function
above 20% of maximum voluntary contraction. /C, initial con- Thorofare. NJ: SLACK Incorporated.
~"~fu~.!~'I'~"-I--ll-r-l--r~~[§';,~,:;' -~ Vaslus intermedius
~ ~- Vastus lateratis
~
t-,
Vaslus medialis longus
~.wEl.~ VaSlu$ medialis oblique
~ Reclus femoris
~
:"i:i Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
,,-2
c2(,~~;:~i!t&;~t:.: Popliteus
Gaslrocnemius
Gracilis
Sartorius
Stride events Ie TO Ie
Stride intervals LR MSt TSt PSw ISw MSw TSw
Phasic pattern of eleetromyographic (EMG) activity of the tact; TO, toe oft; LR, loading response; M5t, midstance; T5t,
muscles of the knee during level walking in healthy adults. terminal stance; P5w, pre-swing; 15w. initial swing; MSw, mid·
Gray regions represent activation below 20% of maximum swing; and TSv.I, terminal swing. Adapted with permission from
voluntary contraction. Black regions represent activation Perry, J. (992). Gail Analysis: Normal and PJ!hologlCill FunCtion.
above 20% of maximum voluntary contraction. fe, initial (00- Thorofare. NJ: SLACK.
limb that is tending to flex and abduct at the hip. Most of the harnstrings muscles are activated in late
The function of the muscles during such periods is mid-swing or terminal swing. Their function at the
to control the acceleration of the rotating joints to knee is probably to control the angular acceleration
ensure the precise placcrnent of the fOOL on the sup· into knee extension. This is consistent with their pre-
port surface in anticipation of the upcoming stance sUllled action at the hip, or the control of hip flexion in
phase. This explains lhe hamstrings and adductor preparation for the upcoming stance phase. The short
magnus activity during terminal swing. head of the biceps femoris is activated earlier than are
the other hamstrings muscles in early mid-swing and
probably assists in flexing the knee for foot c1ean:mcc.
KNEE
The gracilis and sarlorius muscles also may con-
During stance phase, the quadriceps muscle group tribute to swing phase knee flexion when they are ac-
(vasti) is relied on to control the tendency for knee tivated during late pre-swing, initial swing, and early
nexion collapse with weight acceptance and single mid-swing. Ho\Vevel~ these muscles may very well be
limb support (Fig. 18-10). This muscle group is acti- acting as primary hip ncxors during this period.
vated during terminal swing and then acts eccentri-
cally during \veight acceptance as the knee rotates ANKLE AND FOOT
from the fully extended position at initial contact to
Talocrural Joint
its peak support phase flexion of approximately 20°
during loading response. Thereafter. the quadriceps From EMG sludies on the muscles that cross the an-
act concentrically to extend the knee through early kle, the dorsiflexor muscles are shown to be firing
midstance as the bod)/s center of mass is raised ver- concentrically during swing to allow for foot clear-
tically over the supporting 11mb and the anterior ori- ance and eccentrically during loading response to
entation of the ground reaction force vector pre- control the placement of the foot by ankle plan-
cludes the need for furlher Illuscular control of knee tarflexion (Fig. 18-1 1). The plantarflexors are con-
flexion. sistently firing eccentrically during stance to conrrol
SUide events Ie TO Ie
Stride intervals LA MSI TSt PS...J ISw MSw TSw
Phasic pattern of electromyographic (EMG) activity of the mus- relative intensity as a percent of maximum voluntary cont
cles of the ankle and foot during level walking in healthy adults. tion is not shown. Ie, initial contact; TO, toe off; LR. loadin
Gray regions represent activation below 20% of maximum vol- sponse; MSt, midstance; TSr, terminal stance; PSw, pre-swi
untary contraction. Black regions represent activation above ISw, initial swing; MSw, mid·swing; and TSw, terminal swin
20% of maximum voluntary contraction. Whire bars for the in- Adapted wirh permission from Perry. 1. (1992). Gait Analysis: No
trinsic muscles of the foot indicate phasic data only for which and Pathological Function. Thorofare. Nt SLACK !ncorporared.
iA
! A bands. 151. /52
,gail cyck muscle ;;Ictio\l (If. 228-229,
136, 23i, ~53--456
compOIll.'lHS cA. 61-67, 62
stIlIClllr:l! inh... r:IC:'lioll ~11ll0iH!. 67-6
1 anisotropy of. \5\ joints and Illolion of. 225. 245-149 in IO:tdl.'d :lnd \lnloadl.'d li~Sll(,.
! Abdominal musdc:s 'kinl.'malics of. 223.225 75-77, is
! in intra-nbdomin;d p[,~sslln:, 278-279 axes in. 226. 242-143 c('lnpn:ssion (If
in spinal mov~mcn!. 265-266. 266 !.!;Iit CVl.,:k and, 226-228 bipll~l:'lic rrL'ql l'c.::'POl1SI.' in. 71-7~
in spinal slabilit\'. 278-281 iig:,m~1ll ane! hone injllr\' in. biph:ISic stl'l·~s·n,"-I;t:.;ntioll n:sponsc
strcnglhcning.276-277 2-15-249 ,. in. 73-7~
lension of. and spinal loading. 268-269 r::tllge of mOl ion in. 24-1 confincd. 70-71
Abductor musch:.- group. hip slIrbce:: joinl motion in. 244-2-t5 stress propl.'nks ill, 6$-69
slabilization, 207 kinl,:lics of. 249-251 degi:lll.:ratioll of. 90
Abductor pollicis longus muscle. 374 lig:uth.'IlIS of. 245-249 ~h(llldrocvlc..' fUlH.:tion in, 91-92
Abrasive WC:\I-. 88 iUjUI;" of. 245-249 faclOr"!' I.·(;nsidcrl.'d ill. 00-91
Acccleromctrv.440 load disll'ihulion hi, 25\ malrix illtCgrilV in. 90-92
;\cct,abululll.203-204 musck :tclion of. in e.ail I.:H-Ie::. Ol>tW:ln Ilrilic, '()()-92
Inbrum of. 20-1 453-456 ~ . l'Xp!;llH loading l.'ollligurmioll of. 70-7
loading p,lltcrn (Jf, 20-1 ShOl·\\'I.'~lr nnd m~'ch;\Ilics of, 251-252 lluid (lo\\, in, 69-75, ~I-SS
transversc :Icc::tnblllar 1i£:ltllc::nl of. 20-1 spr:lin in,lury of. 245-149 fUllctions of. 61
Achilks tcndon, 236 - sl;,bilitv or. 245-249 hv:dirw.61
injury of. as~()ci<l{(,'d with high slrain sl:ltic ~illal\'sis or. 250 h;bricoHion of. 81-83
I';;UC (nlfll1('rs). 114 and subwl:tr ,join I 11'101ion, 226, bnostl..'d. 85. 86, 86
kincmntics of. 249-250 12t\. 230 bOtilldal\'. 83-H4, 8'+, 86
Acromioclnviclllnr joint, 319 joinl (.'oll'lIX'n~')li(Jn in. 446 I..'lasloh\"lrodvrwmir.:. $5
analOlllV/killcm;'I'tics of. 321-322 Ankk- Il'lOl'\isc. 223. 242 t\:udcd' fluid 'in. ~5
Actin fihllllents. 149-150 Annulus fibroslls, 258 !luid film. 82-83
arI1lngcmcnt in sarcomen:. 150. 150 of cervical illICI'\'Crldlr:'t1 disc. 292 intl.'f'Sliliallhlid pn::ssllriwtion in.
in musch:~ cormaclion. 153-155 tClIsioll in. 258 86-88
Adhesive wear. S8 Anll.'rior crlldal~ Jigalllclll (ACL) mLxl'd. S-I-86. 85
ADI (,:ltJalltode1114lJ intc['\,:tl). 302. fUtlClion of. 195-196 molecular organ;z:llion of. 61-69
303.303 g:lil :lc:l:lptaljon~ inddkicncy of, 450 PCI'Il1l.':lhililV of. 74-75
A~!lrccan(s) iujurvof. 1 13. 16S puq)OS('S (i. 61
-aging and i)1n.lctur~\1 \'al'iation of. '~ts~ol,:blc::d wilh tr<tum'l. 195 shl.':u'~Il\di(.'s of. 77-$.0
65.67 in km'~ :\nhroplasty, ... J S-416 SllllC1l1l:11 dcfc..·cls of, ('":lllsed
b\' \\'c::ac
bOllle-brush mock-I of. 66, 67 postsurgical rcp:tir of. 16S slrUClure :Ind c::omp(lsiti(Ht ol'. 61-69
molecular cOmposilion of. 65 Anlioecuhilis matll\.'SSI:!'. 434-l35 sUl'f:u.:r.: of. 804. 84-85
slnlctural variations of. 65. 67 Apical IigamclHs. 29{) swdlin!.! behavior of. SO-$I
Aging. <lnd biomr.:chanical prope::nic::s Arch«(.'s} ll.'nsik' ~(rl.'$s,sll':Lill curve for, 76
of arlicular cartibgc. 65. 67 of fOOl. 235-236 lripll:tsic bioltlCdl:lllic'll bl.'ll~IViol' of.
of bone. 53-5~ collapse of. 236 RO-Sl
of ligaments, 115 of h~lIld, 362 uniaxi:tltcnsion on. 7S-77
of tcndons. I 15 AI'\:<I It)OIll('nt of inertia, 47-4S viscoelaslic bdlil\'ior of. 70
Airbag injudcs, of ccr·Yil... nJ spinc, Armrest suppor!. 427 now-irl(h.:p~·tl("-·nt.70
311-312 Al'lllrodesis intrjn~ic. 70
Alar ligamems. 290 cClyical. 308-311 wr.::\!· of. 0$-90
Anconeus OlllSCh:. 350 spinal. 306. 30S colbgcn-nro1coglyC:11l rcslxII1SC 10.
activitv of. 351 AnhroplaslY. 401-402 SS-90
Angle or' ante\'crsion, of fcllloml head. arllcrior cl1.tdatt.: ligmnenl ill I\nl.'I.', dcfl.'cts :lIlcl. 89-90
204-205 415-416 iltlP~ICI lo:tding in. 89
Angular kincm:Hic analysis. 440 goals of. 40 I intcrr:\(:bl. SS
Anisotropy. 36 hip. 401--107 AtlalllO:\xial SCgmcnt. 2S8-290
Ankle joil1l. 223 knr.:r.:. -107--412 coupled motion of. 299
axis of. cmpidcal. 242-243 poslerior crudale ligament in knec.:. inst:lbilitv of. wilhout fr:lclun:. 303
ball-and-sockel.229-230 -112-414 r.lIl£,c o(motioll of. .297-29~
in biomcchanics of sianding. 4:22-H4 Articular ('al'lila~c Allmltodcnl:\l iIHt..'I'V:11 (/\DI). 301. 303. 3
boncs of. 223, 225. 245-249 :lIlisolrOpi(' plnpcnks of. 63. 6-("65 :\tlas n'r1I..'bnl. 287. 288-290
dynamic mwlysis of. 251 bioltlt.'chnnic::nl hch;;\\'iol'of. 69-81 Axis \'(,'I'Ic::br:l. 287. 290
gait cycle kincmalics of. 226-228. hiph;l~k C\'l..'l.'P response:: in. 71-72 :Uld dcn~. 288. 290
445-447 biphask Sil'l.'Ss-rc!a,xalioll rl.'sponsc in. Axonal 1r:IIl~pOn syslclns, 127
gait cycle kinetics of. 249-251, 451 73-74 Axons. 127
:
(I> ----------------------------------
45
B bi0l11cch;lllk;11 propcnil:s or. 31-36 C~lllalicuJi. 27-28
Ba~k belts. biolllcchankal l.:ff..:clin,'ucss anisOl.-opic.3-4, 36 C:.nct::llolls hOlll..·. 29
of. 281 cotlljxlrcd to olher maled:tls..13-34, rtlcchanienl properties of. 33, 292-293
Back muscles, in spin:l! rlIo~'clllcnL 266 35f stress-s!l"ain cun'c (If, 34
Back rcsl suppOrt diffcrcnc(,.·s 1.Jl.:twten bont:: typ('s, 33-34 Cnpsular ligaments, spinal. 260
and loading of lumbar spine. 269, 271 biphask propc::nit::s of, 27-29. 31 Cardiac 11ll1Sdc, 149
Backrest support, 428 composition and stJ'UClurl..' of. 27-31, C:u"I':d bones. 359
B~lsc Siunits. 19 55 C<ll'pal tunnel. 359
definitions. lOt lllacrosl.:opic.29 ClI'pal tunnel syndrome. fllcdian nerve
Bcd(s) microscopic. 29-30 in. 36~
fcatures of good. 433-H4 damage of Caq)ol11l:tacarpal (Ci'vIC) jOilllS. 359. 379
lying in, biorncclwnics of. 433--434 extrinsic factol's, 56 of fing<:rs, 378-380
sitting in. biomechanics of. 434-B5 intrinsic bctors, 57 of thumb. 380
Biceps brachii. 350 fatigue or. in r("'pctitivc loading. ~5-47 C'II'PUS, 359
activit\' of. 352 geometry of, 47-51 (<.:I11.:nl linc::, 28
Biceps lllllScI.... he<llin!? of Celltl:ror pressure (COP), 421-422
in elbow kinetics, 350 inrn~c(Ul'(, fixation, 391-392 Cervical anhrodesis
in sholllder kinetics. 322-324, hypertrophy of, undt::r platt:, 52, 53 alllcrior approach in, 308
330, 350 pCI·iproslht.:lk loss of. 406-407 gmft malerials in, 30S-309
Biulvcan 65 n.:modcling of. ~\lld biomechanic:ll indications for, 308
Bi~l;lcch·allic~. -' behavi<ll~ 51-53 poslc!"ior, 309-311
ddonn~Hion modes in. 7 slri.:nglh and stiffness of. 31-36 studies of, 309-31 I
c1:1stil".- ddonnation in, 10-11 nging t:fft.:cIs 011. 53-54 Cen:ic<lllamilll:ClOm\'. 305-306. 30i
cndurnncc in.m:ll..: .. ial. 14-15 bone Icn2th innucncc 011. 48 Ccrvk~ll plming systems. 310
('quilibrilllll conditions in. 6 (:aHus form~llion and incrc;:asl,.' in, CL'r"ic;t! spine
fatigue' in. material. 14-15 48-49 allalonw of. 2~7-292
force Vectors in, 3-t cross sectional an'a influence on. ;IIHcllcx'ion of. in silling position,
frcc-body di.tgrams in, 5-6. 6 47-48 430-431
ll1<l1crial propcnies based on sln:"$S- fatigue.: in, in l"e.:pctili\·I..·loading. ;tpplied biomechanics or. 305-311
slrain di:lgrams in. 13 45-·.:7 :lnhrodesis or. 306-311. 30S
mOllH:llt vectors in, 4-5 n.:modding ;\lld. 51-53 biomcchanical mOdt:lilH! of. 287
of rnusl.:llioskeleta! svstem, 15 surgical prex.'(.'(!ures thaI wcakL'n, 49-51 dl.'compression of. 305-306. 307
applied biollicchallics, 15 stlllcture ~Illd composition of. 27-31.55 fi,\,ltiol1 of. 308-311
joints. 15 macroscopic. 29 function of. 287
tissut's and Slll.lctltfCS. 15 microscopic, 29-30 fllBclionallillil or. 296. 297
Newton's bws in. 5 \'ascukll' ~)'SICIll of. 30. 31 injury of. 311-314
nomlnl SU"~tin in. S-9. /0 Bone densilv. 33 instabilitv or. 301-305
norl11~ll stress in. 7-8. 8 and <lging·. 53-54 instan! C~IllCl" or Illotion or. 293
plastic ddolTIlation in, 10-11 [lolle mass illll.'r",:nL·br'll discs of, 288. 291-292
principal stn:ss in. 13-1~ 'I"C "cnd!"'r '\l1d 53 i.J medl;tllical projK'nies of, 293
scalars in. 3 ;t~(i ~'dght. '51-52 .- kin(,Ol;tlics of. 296.297
shear· strain in. 8-9. /0 Bone milll:r;ll, 27 abnormal. 300-30 I
she.lr stress in, 7-8, 9 BOlle rCllloddin2. 51. 52 coupled motion in, 299-301
s!<ltics in, 6-7 body weight :tl~d bone m:ISS in, 51. 51-52 l';lIl~C of motion, 297-298
strains in, normal and sheal~ 8-9. 10 C;lse stud\' of. 52 slllLce joilll llIolion, 298, 299
stresS'Slrain diagrams ill, 9-10,10 implanls ·<lnd. 52-53 ligaments of. 288
stresses in Boosted lubrication, 85. 86 mechanical properties of, 293
normnl and shear. 7-8 Bootstrap ilt.:ratioll, 4~3 motion of. 287, 288, 290
pdlldpal, 13-14 BoundalY lubl'ic;ltion. 81 ~\hnonnal. 300-301
tensors in. 3 of aniculal' c~\nib2c. 83-8.... $6 p;tradoxlc;tl. 300-301
IOrqlle \,('ctors in. 4-5 BI71chialis Illuscle. 350. 37... l1lotion scgmelH or. 288. 290-291
\'I..·clors ill, 3 ncti\'itv of. 352 llluscular medwnics of, 293-29-4
dscoebsticity in. 11-13 BI"::K:hio;'adialis llluscle, 350 l'lcur:1i lllc::chanics of. 294-296
Bone, 17.~7-48 activil)' of. 352 neurologic,injury in. 294-296
aging and changes in. 53-5~ Brooks type. cc,,'kal arthroc!L-:,is. 309-310 OSSl.:OllS SIlU(:tur~s of. 28H-291
anisolwpic propenks of. 3-1. 36 Bunched lisi. 38.. stabilit\' of. 301-305
biomcdwnicaJ beh:l\'ior of. 37 BUllions. 233 tl"::IUI1l~ 10. 311-314
bending !onds and, 40-~2 shoe wear and de\'Clopmcnt of. 251-252 \'i,'nebntc of, 288-291
combined loads nnd, 42-43 mechanical propl.'rtics of. 292-293
compressive loads and, 37-38, 39 llflcO\'L'l'lebnd joints of, 291
gcomt:tJ')' of bonc and, 47-51 C C!londrocvles, in articular cani1a!!.l.l, 61,62
llHISclc ,Jctidtv and stress CJ-C7 vcrtebrnc. 297-298 degenel:al i\'i,~ clwnges and. 91':92
distl"ibulioll in. 43-~4 Cadence. 443 Chondroitin SlIlf<ll(:
n:pctili\"(:')onding and, ..5....-17 Cnlcancocuboid joint. 229. 230 in aniculat' cal'lilagc. 65-69
sh"'~lI' londing ~lIld. 33-W Clkancofibular Jigaml.:lll. 245-2-16 in cerdcal nuclclls plilposus, 292-
sll71in mtc dependency of. ~4--45. -16 flillciioll or. 2-J9¥ Chopan's joilll motion, 230
stn.:ss di,Sll·ibution in. and muscle injlll)' to, 245-249 Clavicle, 322
"clivity.43-l4 Calf muscles. ~55 CI<lw loes, 237
tensik·lo<ldini!. and. 37. 38 Callus formation. <lnd incrense in bone Click-clack phenOIIl(·non. IUlllbopdvic. 428
lorsionallo;uiing and. 42 stl"l,,'ngth...8-49 Co:tJ-hanllnl..'r grip. 3S-I
ColI~gcn Diarthrodinl joints, 61 Epincul"ium, 129, 130
anisotropic properties of. 288 uoicondvl.w, 378 Epilcllon, lOS
of nrticulul' cnnilage. 61. 62 Digital Oc.\OI' tendon sheath pulk,.\· Equilibl"illHl condition.s, 6
distribution of, 62, 64 systcm, 368-369. 370 Erl1S palsy. 135
mechanical properties of. 62-65, 288 Dil~ital rays. 362 Ercttor spinae lllllsck·s. 265-266
rnOlcCllkll" composition of, 61-62, 63 ~ollatel:al liganwnts of. 369, 371 in arched batk in prone position.
stl1.lctLlral alignment. in loaded and extc:nsor and flexor systems of. 375 276,277
unlo:ldcd tissue. 75-77.78 c.,tcnsor systellls of. "371-374 f()f"cCS of. in standing, 268-269
Sll1.lCIUrnl organization of. 61-63. 6..1- flexor tendons heath pulley systelll of. strengthcning c.,crdses fOl~ 276-277
65.67-69 368-369.370 EX"'rcisin"
type II. 62-63 joints of, 378-380, 379 ··Ioads o~ ankle joint in. 2-19-251
nnd prolCoglycan m:urix of :Irticubr muscles of. extrinsic and imrinsic, londs on fOOl in, 240-241, 2-12
c:lrlilagc, 67-69 375.3751 loads on lumbar spine in, 276-277
response 10 weal- of. $8-90 mllscular mechanisms of. 375 Extcnsor digilOnlln longus. ..l55
in tendon ~machmcnl of muscle lO llumbcl"ing of. 359 Extensor mechanism injury. kllcc.199
bone, 149 l-::lIl!!C of n~otion of, 378-380 Extensor s\,sh.:m
of tendons nnd Iigamcnu'i Dist~\I-in(Crpll:llangcnl(DIP) join\S, 362 of digitai rays, 371-374, 375
mcwbolic turnover of. 105 range of motion of. 378-379 of toes, 455
molecular composition of, 103-104. tendinous mechanisms of, 371-374 of wrist. 350. 374
105 Donnan equilibrillll1 ion distribution Extraccllular matrix (ECi\l),
structural alignment of. in loaded law, 68 of aniClll,u" c<lnilage. 61
and unloaded tisslie. 109 Donnan osmotic pn:.'SSUI·C cqu'Hion. 81 in dc~t'ncl'::\li\'(,.' conditions, 90-92
Slll.lctlll~1 organizalion of. 104--105. 106 Donnan osmotic prcssufc Llleol)". 67, 68 Illole~u!ar aggregates and propertie
type I. 103-10~ DOI'Sa! intcrcarp;:ll ligament. 368 67-69
type II, in cen'ical nucleus pulposus. 292 Dorsal root g"lIlglion. 128, 131 of tendons :\nd ligaments, 103, 10-1
types of. 62-63 Dorsal scnson' roots. 128. 131
visc:odastic properties of. 288 Dorsiflexion. 2-t-l, 453-454
Collagen fibers, 104. 105 D\"namic she.lf modulus. 78-79 F
Colla!!cn fibrils, 10-1-105 D;"namic tripod, 383 F'lcct capsular lig;:l11u::nts. 288
Compact bone, 29 Dynamics, 185 F:lccteclOmy, pani:\J, 306
Component inst,-\bility, 301-302 F~ICl.:tS
Computer workst<ltion, biomechanics of of ccrvical intcl'ycrlcbl"al joints, 290-
sitting at, 427 E of intervcrtd>n:tl joints. 259-260, 26
Concentric muscle contraction, 159 Eccentric muscle contr:\ction, 159 F"lscicles
Conversions. 51 units, 221,23 Elastic deformation. 10-11 of muscle libcrs,I..l9-150
Coracohumeral lig'lments. 321,325-327 Elastic material bdlavior, I I of periphcral nerves, 129, 130
Conic..d bone. 29 Elasticitv. 33 F..lIiguc fractllr\.'s, 45--47
mcchanical properties of, 33, 35. EI'-lstin, of tendons and ligamellls.l 05 F'-ltigue WCal", 88
292-293 Elbow joint. 3-t 1 of articular cartilage, 88-90
stress-strain curvc for, 33. 3-1 nnatom.,.· of. 3-11-342 of bone, in rcpt.'titi~'c loading, -t5-47
yidd points in, 34-36 articula"tions of. 3-11-3-12 evclic
Crecp and recovcry tCSt, 12 forccs gencratcd in. 352 . of hip jlmsthcscs. ..t02-W3
Crcep response forces on articular surface of. 353 of knee pmsthcscs. 407-10S
biphasic. in articubr l..'artilage, 71-72 fracture disloc'-ltion of. 3..l9 nwtcri.. I, 1-1,14-15
in tendons and ligamt.:nts, Ill. 112 injury of. 347-350 of prostheses, 392. 393. 402--103,
Cross-bridges. of myosin filaments, lateral epil.:ondylitis, 352 407-408
I 153-155
Cnlciate IigHmcnts, 195
kinematics of
carrvin" nn"le 345 346
Femoral head, 203, 204
Fcmoml intcnrocharlteric fracture, 2
II Cvelic faliuLle
.of hip p~osthcscs. 402-403
of knee prosl heses, -107--108
cent'er;r r07:ttion. 343, 34-1
f1exion·cxtcnsion, 3-12-3-t3
pmnation/supination. 343-345
stability.3-t5-350
valgus position, 345
remoral neck, 204
aging and ch"lIlgcs in. 205-207
in hip anhropbsty. -104-106
neck-to-shaft ..Hlgle of. 20-1-205
Fencing grip, 38..l
I
D kinctics of. 350-355 FG (f'lst twitch glycolytiC) fibers, 165
de Quc!"\'ain's Icnosyno\'itis. 374- muscular :malon1\' of. 350 Fibroblasls, '103.10-1
Dccodn,65 muscular mech;:ulics of. 350 Fibulolalm' joint. 223. 225
Decubitus. 434-435 clcctromyogm,phic an'-llysis or. 350 Fick's principle. 236
Ddormmioll. 7 reaction for<:c calculations for, 353-355 Fingers. 359, 362
ofbone,31-36 stability of. 345, 347-350 in prehensile hand function, 3~2-3
;1 clnstic and plastic, 10-11 Ekctrogoniol11etry, 440 range of motion of. 378-380
Deltoid ligaments, of ankle, 245-246 Ekctromyogrnphic (Ei'v1G) .analysis. 440 Fixation plate ['nihl!"c, 393
I function of. 249 Elel.:tromyography. 156 Flexion-relaxation phenomenon, 265-
rI
injury lO, 249 End plalc, 258 Flexor digilOl1.lll1 lon!!us, -l55, 456
Deltoid muscle. 329-330 Endomysium. 149-150.150 Flexor hallucis I()ngu~. 455. 456
Dens, 288,290 Endoneudum. 129. 130 Fh:xOl" s\"stcm
Derivcd 51 units, 19 Endosteum, 28. 30 of digital r:lyS, 368-369, 370. 375
with spccial names, ddinitions. 201 Endotenon. 104. 108 of tocsJfordoot. 237-::238, 453-456
Devic(,.· f:-tti£!.uc, 392, 393 Endurance,material,I-I-15 of wlist. 350. 359. 374
I Diabetes nldlitlls. h,'ndons .md lig3mel\ls
in, 116-117
Enlrapmenl, nerve. 132. 133
Epimysium. 149-150,150
Flexor tendon sheath pulley syst,,·m.
368-369.370
I
~'-"""""""""""""'=-""""""~".,.-"---.-.."...",..=-"""",,,,,;==;r.-~~~~
f!'!!%-1Jk=-~~,~_",-zt"'". £€{"--,..=~ _~cs. -."-0""_ ~~ "y(' '?cP5'~" ".' -,- ::'·~._'c>"'5
;<O.7'__ .... ];g,~~.±gA...1 ~'$--.-~.
Fluid·(ilm lubril'illion. 82 Kil'sdllll.'r wire. 394 Gk'rlOhuflll,:rnl joinl, 3/9
of :lrticular c~ll·tibge. 82-83 ori';':IHcd polYrlll.'r. 393 -394 capsule of. 325. 326
FOCi (fasl twitch oxidali\"l.' glycolYlic) plate. 395-396 gk.·llOid bbnllll of. 323-324
Jibers. 165-167 scn.'\\·, 394-396 Inslabilil\' of. 327
Fool spin.1I impbnt. 3'17 kincmilli~.s of. 322-327
'In~llomy of. 223. 22-1 slapk 39-1 lig~lInenl CUlling sludies of. 327
in biomechanics of st:lndin!.!. 422---+24 wir..:-. 393 ligi\lllt:nls of. 325-317
extrinsic nluscks of. 233-2.34. 237-238 \\"in: lensiolli!l!!;twisli!H!.. 393-394 IO~Hls on, 335-336
fn.'c·body di;lgi41111 or. 250 fn:e bod.\' di;lgn~ll(s), 5-6. 6 I't::lclion force on. 337
gait cycle ground reaclive fon.:cs on. Frec-bod~' diagl,llllS Glenoid,323
240-24 I ill sialics, 18~-190 Glc.:noid bbnllH, 323-324
g.lil cycle kin(~n}[ltics or, 226-229, Free-body tcchniqul.:, for coplan.lr forces, injuries involving, 32~
445-447 18~-·190 Cil~'cosaminoglycans (GAGs), 27
g~\it cycle leg rot:nion ,Ind. 226. 228 simplified. 211-213 in artkulnr C:irtilnge, 65-67
gnil cycle mus(,:lc nelioH of. 22X-229, chondl"Oitin sulfal~. 65-69
236. 237. ~53-156 ker~lin sulfale. 65-69
!.!.r<l\\'!h of. 223, 225 G Gracilis. in 2:tit cvde. 453
Joints of. 223. 22-J Gail. ~39 Grafts - .
killcll1:llics of. 223. 225 an~IIOJllicnl Illolion in. 439 in cer\'ic:11 nnhrO(ksis. 308-309
anklL' :and suhtaku: 226. 228. 230 ~1l!~lIl~lr kincmalic:s of. 443-149 tcndons ~Ind lig;:lInl;.·nls in, 117-118
gait cycle and, 226-229 c\'~I(" of. 4"0-457
hallux. 231-234 ,fc\'i:ltions of. -149
lesser lOe, 233-234 join! killL'lllatics of, 443-449 H
111I.'lat'-\l"sal bn.::lk, 228. 229 joint moments in. 449 H zonc. 151. 152
prorwlion/supination. 223, 226 joint POWt:I' in. -151 1·1.llil'<:lx C!:llllpS, ccn'iC~11 ;:lnhrodcsis.
subml;u: 229-230. 23/ IHuscubr co1l11'o1 or, 452-156 309-310. 3//
!:\rsomctat.lr:-al and inlen;ll·sal. segml.:ntal kinclks of. 449-431 H:lllux
230-231, 232 w~rk and Clll'!'!!V tr~\nsfi.:r in. 451 joint 1I10tion of. 231-134. 233
trnnS\'i.·I"SL' l;lrS:ll, 229-231 G~dt ~Ul:d\'sis. mc~t'h()ds of. 439-4-10 'tendon posit ions in. 238
kin~lics of, 238-2-11 Gail c\·d~. 4-10~4 I I-I;lilux dgidu:-,. ~32
g,til cyde and ground n::aeti\'c fore..::-. <lnkle killenwlics ill. 226-22~. 218. lbllux \';\Igus. 23 L 233
in. 2..1 0-24 I 445-447 shoew~.':lr and dcvclormL'nt of. 251-252
running ane!, 240-241 ankle kinctics in, 249-251. 45! in spntin injury. 2-J7
slJOcwc-ar and, 240 ankk: muscle ;Iclion in, 228-229. 236, Hammer tocs. 237
sol'ltissut:s lind, 241-242, 2..J3 237. 453-456 sho(,'wc:\!' ;\Ild development of. 251-252
medial longitudinal arch of. 235-236 bootstrap iwrmions of. .;)43 H;llllsirings, function in knec joint.
muscle aClion of. 236-238, 236/ c("utcr of mass in. hod\'. 4-18-149 196.453
g~it cycle and, ~53~56 cydil' btiguc of hip p,:osth..:-ses in. l·blle!.359
rnusdl..· injury :lna disorders or. 136-~3:$ 402-403 arches of. 362
shoewcar <lnd m....ch:mics or. 2..m. e~'c1ic bligu(' of kncc proslh~sl.'s in. articulations of. 359. 362
2S 1-252 . 1 07-408 blood supply of. 365
soft tissues of, 241-242.1';3 dorsilkxioll in, 453-454 capillal;" prcssurc within. 365
FoOl prcssure :Ill;,lysis, 4-10 fOOl kinematics in. 226-228, 4-15-447 control mcchanisms of. 365
Fon.:c: plalc an:dysis, 440 foot Illuscle action in. 228-229, 232, aCli\'e, 375
Force ,·cctOl'S. 3-4 236. 237. 453--456 ll1uscllhu: 375
For....ann. pron'llion and SUpill:ltioll. ground l'1.':tclin: forcl;.'s in. 240-241 passive. 368-37-\
376-377 hip kinemalics in. 4-'3 immobile unit of. 378
Forefoot aging alld, 206-207. 208 joints of. 36/.378,379
g.\it cycle kinematics of, 446~47 gcndL'r differcnces and. 215 H!!amenlS of. 371-374
g;til cyclc muscle :activity of. 456 hip kinclics in. 449-150. -1-19-151 -dieil~11 colbll'l"l!. 369..HI
Fnlcturl."{s) dt:g('neraliw p:lthology and. 449 digilal flexor lendon shl.":llh pulle."
hone healing in. 391-392 hip musd£: action in. 45~-453 SV$h:m of. 368-369. 370
brittlc, 35. 36 kn..:-I.~ kinemalics in, 179-180, 444-445 \'obl"phUL',371
,hlclite, 35,36 knl.'l: kindies in, 185-194,450-451 lI1uscies of. 363l
fmiguc,45-47 knee muscle action in, 453 t:.\lrinsic, 350. 362, 365, 375
Iwnlin!!. uhnlsolHld Irc;HI11\.'nl for. 392 leg rOl;ltion in. 226. 228 intrinsic. 350. 362, 365. 37/,375
yield ,;oint of hOlle. 35, 36 lo\\"er k'l! muscle action in. 232 nerVeS of. 362. 36-1-365
f"acturc fixation, 391 mllscllli~' acti\'~ltion in. 452-456 OSSt.'lIS sll1t<:lttrC of. 361. 362
boll\.' hcaling in, 391-392 p~:l\'ic kinc.:matics in, 4~7-148 prdlcnsik function patt(''I"llS, 382-3S5
hone 1110\'CIll\.'n! in. 39\ st~lllCt: phasl.~ of. 227 r.1ngc of Illotion of digital rays.
deviccs and Illl..'lhods of. 393-397 s\\'ing phase of. 227 378-3$0
ev:t1uation of. 393 tillle·disl;lIlce \·ari.1bles of, 4-12-443 repelil!\'(: Ill(ltion injlll;" or. 37-1
goals of, 391-397 tnlnk kincmatlcs in. 447--I-iS s..:-nsOl)· specialization of palmar, 364-365
sllr!.!.ical factors in. 392-393 w:dking ~tnd mnning skirt of. 362
tl"<\<iitional methods of. 391 comparison of. 226, 227 tendons of, 371-374
Fr.H:lllfC fixation c!C\'iccs!mclhods, 393 forccs on ankli: in, 251 \\Tisl mOl ion nnd motion of. 381
cxtrmncdullm;:. 396-397 kne~: flexion in. 179-180 Ha\'cI-sian canal. 27
btiguc of. 392. 393 Gallic (~'p\.;'. ccrvicill anllrodcsis. 309-310 Havasi'lIl S\'SICIll, 27-28
hip, 396-397 Gastroclll'rnillS mU5ck 454~55 Hl."acl,·cst :l;lde, -129-130
intcnncdulhll;:, 396-397 Gill,gl~'moid joilll, 34\ Heel pml, 2-1 i -242
Hdf~1 tl~st. 184.186 11lIerfacbl we;lr. 88 f(.nt..'l,.' :mhroplast.\·
i-kmodialysis, tendons and ligamems in. Interosseous ligamL'nt. of ankh,'. 245-246 :ITlh.'rior cnl<.·iatc ligan1L'll1 in, 415--4
117 Intcl'osseous membl-:mc:.', of dbo\\'. conformity of femoral and tibial
Hinged joint. 3~ I 348-350 components in ...H4
bicondylar. 373 injury of. <"Ind r;lelia] migr;uion. 352 conslr~lillt <k'sign in. 415
Hip ill,th,:oplasty Interosst..'olls mllsd~s. 237 forcl.·s acting on, 401--402. 407-408. -
bone n:moddin~ around. 52-53 Intcrphal::mgeal (lP) joints hinged proStheses in, ... 15
celllented tOI~1 hip rcph\CCmcnl . .:lOS of fim::ers, 362. 365-366, 378-379 joinl lint.: dc'·;ltion in. 412
forces ;:lctin~ on, 401-402 of thl~mb. 380 ·1l1edial.laleralload disll'jbulioll in.
!!.ail and sttl~lics of forces 011, 402-403 of tocs, 233-234 409-411
joint recollstruction and biomechanics I:::~lit cvdL' kinematics of. 447 patcllofcmoral joint loading ill. 411
. of. 404-406 gait c;'c1e muscle activity of. 436 polyc(hy!cllL' cbmagc modes in. 415
peri prosthetic bont: loss in, 406-407 Ill1crspinous ligaments, 260. 288 posteriol' Cnlciate ligament in. 412-
rot~\tional moments <Inc! bone Intcrstitial fluid pressuriziltion, in tihi:d component loosL'ning in. 409-
in-growth in. 403. 404 ~lniClll<lr cnrtilage. 86-88 Knr.:,'(.' joint
stem position within femoral canal in. Intel't~II"Sal joilll mOl ion, 230-231, 233-234 bio;nl.·dwniGII analvsis of. 177-178
406 Intenransn:I'se ligamel1ts. 2SS cnpsuh:: of. 195 .
Hip joint. 203 11Hl.'lycl.. tcbml discs, 258 dcrangelllt:llts of. 182-1 t\5
::lcc(;lbulum of. 203-204 cervical. 288, 291 dynan~ics of. 190-19';, 197-199
"ging and changes in. 205-207. 208. 217 :.nnulus fibrosus of. 292 nc:don of
anatonw of. 203 loading. 291 injury in. 196
ball-and-socket configunltion of. 203, lllc:.'chaniC;l1 propt..'nics of. 293 rc:."lctiOll forcl"s in. 197-19$
, 204,205 nucleus puJpOStlS of. 292 in SlancL' phase of l1.mning/walkin
(knamics of Illmb~u' 179-180
- gait and gcndcr differences. 213. ~l~in~ of. 259 fn.:e·hod," dii:l2rmn of. /89
215-217 c~mpositioll of. 258-259 gait cycle kin~lllatics of. 179-180.
wilh instrumented o::lil pialI..'. 217-219 degC"l1cmtionnl changt..'s in. 259 -t4.........t.45
wilh insI11.1mcillcd prosthesis. loading distribution in. 25S gnil cycle kincticsoL 185-194. 45Q-.
216-217 lo;:\(ling f;lilllrc of. 271-273 g<tit i.:yck muscle aClion of. ... 53
c-,tern;ll support, nnd dyn;\lnic~ of, in rniddlt: age, 259 menisci of. 193-194
218-219 prL'ssure on. 258-259 muscle action on. gait c~·de and,
btiglle fracture of. 2/i in \'OlI!h. 259 196. 453
femoral head of. 203. 204 lliechailical propL'nit::s of. 293 patella of. 196-197
femoral neck of. 204-205. 206 Imr:l·abdominal prL'ssul'e (lAP) l";:1l)2C of motion of. 179-180
rr~lcturc h.\atioll devices, 396-397 ,HlCl!oading of lumbar spinl.'. 272-273 :-;i.\ 'kgrees of freedom of motion, 1
fracturc of. 21 i in st~lbility
of lurnbal' spinc, 278-279 s(~lbilitv of. 194-196
kinenwtics of. 205-208. 209, Inlnlflls~,1muscle spineles. typl."s of. 169 statics ·of. 188-190, 197-199
mll~e of motion, 206-107 Intrinsic minimlls condition. 234 SIl'lICturc of, 177
surf.'1ce joint motion. 207-208 Intrinsic muscles. of foot, 233-23.... surf<lce joilH 1Tl00ion of. 180-187
kinetics of, 208-213. 2/5 237-238 ll.'ndons and ligamen(s of. 177. 19"'
ex lerna I forces on body in single-leg Isoinertial muscle contl-:lction, 159 Knee meniscectollw, 90, 9/
stance. 212 IsokinL'lic mllsclt: cOll(l'aclion, 159 Kyphosis. 267-268: 287-288
free-body diagr;llll of lower Isometric rnusclt: comnlction. 159 pathology of cervical. 29..J
cxtremity. 21~ Isotonic muscle conu71ction. 159 posturc and. 421-425
mm'Clllt:'nlS or:207
muscle action in g;:lit cycle. -I52......t.53
in Slalics of standing, 26S
I
1I
Paraspinal muscles. 265-266
Par~ltenon. 108
Patella, 196-197
fracture of. 199
precision grip, 383
Principal stress, 13-14
Prominens, 290
Pronalor quadratus muscle. 350
Sciatic pain, 137
nucleus pulposLlsin, 144
SCIWORA (spinal cord injury witho
radiognlphic abnorm,llilies)
I P:;\Iellofemoral joint. 185. /87
instant center of. /86
PronalOr teres muscle, 350
Pronator teres tendon. 3i4
295-296
Screw-horne mechanism. 182-183,
I loading in knec arthroplasty. 411
static and dynamic analysis of.
197-199
Proteoglycans (PGs). 27
in aggregate solution dom'lin. 67-68
in articular cartilage. 65
/84. 352
Seming angle, 429-430
Sensory nerve, t 27-129
surface joint motion of, 181-185 disruption of matl'i.x, 88-90 Sensol~' spinal nen'c roOtS, 131
!,
Pectoralis major muscles, 329-330 moleculnr composilion of. 65-67 Sharpcy's pelforating fibers, 108
Pcdiclcs. of cervical vertebrac. 290-291 stnlctural interaction of. 67-69. Shear slrain, 8-9, /0, 32
Pelvic tilt. and spinal statics. 268-269. 75-77 Shear stress, 7-8, 9
425-426 wash out of. 88, 89 Shocwcar. and biomechanics of
Pelvis in cen.. ical nucleus pulposus. 292 fool. 240. 251-232
gait cycle kinem.ltics of. 447-448 of tendons and lig:UllCntS. 105-106 Shouldcl: 319
i- kinematics of. 266-267 Proximal interphalang"'al (PIP) joints. injuries of. 323-324
f Pcrimalleobl" muscles, 455 362,374 rotator cuff lear. 334
Perimysium. 149-150 lkxor tendon sheath pulley system SLAP lesion. 324
Perineurium. 129. /30 of,370 subacromial impingement synd
Periosteum. 28, 30 in passive control of wrist, 365-366 334
Peripheral nerves. 127. /28 range of motion of. 378-379 instability of. 327
biomechanical behavior of. 133-139 tendinous mechanisms of. 371-374 joint capsule of. 325-327
blood-nerve bmTicr in, 133 Psoas muscle. 265-266 joinls/articulations of. 319
compressive injury of, 135-136, /45 lens ion of, and spinal loading, acromioclavicular, 321-322
critical prcssure levels in. 136 269-271 glenohumeral. 322-327
mechanical aspects of. 137-139 scapulothoracic. 327-328
presstll-c application modes in. 136 stcmoclavicuI<\r. 320-321
pressure duration \·5 pl·cssure Icvel Q kinematics of. 319-328
in. 139 Quadralus lumbomnl muscle. 265-266 spinal conlIibution lO. 328
connective tissue of. 129, /30 Quadliceps kinelics of, 328-337
funclion of. 127-129 function of, in knee joint, 196. extension, 334
Illvdinaled, 127-129. /30 in gait cycle. 453 external rotation, 333-334
st;..lclure of. 127-129. /29. /30 in knee motion, 196-199 forward elevation. 332-333
tensile injtll)· of. 134-135 glenohumeral joint loads in.
\·asclilar svstcm of. 129-131 335-336
Peroneal ml;sc!cs. 237. 455-456 R internal rotation. 334
Pcs phll1us. 237. 238 Radial arter\" 365 pitching, 336
Phalanges, of fingers, 359.36/.362 Radial collaieralligament. 366 scapulolhoracic. 334-335
~
l!lo. .~~c
Shouldel'--coll 1i Hl ted tensile o\·el"1o<ld of. 161-163 St:.Iil- climbing, lower leg in. 190
ligaments of. 325-317 types of, 149 Sumcc phase, ..\-10-4-11
muscul<lture of, 329-331 work performed by, 149, ISg-160 londs on foot in. 239-240
mechanics of, 331-337 dynamic. 159-160 St:.\nding. biortlcch.lllics of
osseous .motom\' of. 319-328 static, 159 Celltel: of pressure (COPl in, 421-42.2
range of motion' of. 3! 9 Skeletal system, 27 eye and hand movemcnt in. 42.4-425
Sf metric system, 19 SLAP lesi~n, 324 flal joint \'S ball and socket joint in.
SI units Slip lines, 34 426-427
base. 19 Smooth mllsch.~. 149 foot and ankle joilll in. 422--U.t.
conversion of. 221. 23 SO (slow twitch oxidative) fibcl's.165-167 mass center of gravity in. 421-422
definitions of. 20t Soleus muscle . ..\5-1, 455, 456 peh·ic kinematics in, 425-426
derived. 19 Spinal anhrodesis, 306, 308 postural and phasic mllscles in, 421-422
multiplication factors and, Zit Spinal cord injury reaching while, -U5
named artci' scienlists, 21-23, 21t and cen'icnl mechanics, 294-296 stooped-posture while, -124
prefixes of, 21t without radiogl'aphic abnOlll1ulitics. Stmics.6-7. 185. 187
specially named, 20-21 295-296 free-bock dia~r~lIns in, 188-190
suppkmcntm}'. 19 Spinal implnnt li.'\ation dcvict:s. 397 Sttcrs Rlll~ of '[hirds, 303
svlllbois for, 211 Spinal n('",..e(s), 127, /28 Step, 442
Sitting, biomechanics of. 427-431 embryologic development of. 131 Step frequency, 443
amm::st support in. 427 peripheral, 127 SICP length, ..\42
backn..' st support in, ..\28 roots of. 127, 131 Step width, 442
in bcd, 434-435 Spinal nerve roOts. /28, /3/ S('modaviclll~u- joint. 3/9
at cOlllpUler workstation . ..\27 analOm'· of, 131-13.2 :'Ul<ltomv/kinematics of. 320-321
nnd decubitus ulcer dc,·c1opmcllt. -134 biomechanic:.ll behavior of. 139-144 Steroid ll~e. tendons and lignmcnts ill.
hei.ld :'llltcncxion in, -n0-431 blood-nCIYC barrit.'r in, 133 117
hend rcst angle in, .t.29-430 compression injury of. 132 Strain
leg-crossing in, 432-.03 compression of linc:'I1'.32
maximnl SUppOI-t in, -128-429 expedmelllai. 141-1..\2 nOll1131, 8-9. /0
neck pnin in. -130-431 expaimcntal chronic, 1-13-1-1-1 I:\tc depcndem:y of bone. 4-l--I5,-I6
problem arei.IS in. 431~32 multiplc k'\'ds of. 143 sh..:.ar. 8-9, /0. 32
seating :.lngle in, ..\28-431 onset raw of. 141-143 Strain gauge, 33
at tabk:, 430-..\31 connectivl: tissul: of. 131 Stress, 32
Skeletal muscle, 149-150 motor, 131 normal. 7-8
activity of. :.md sO'ess distribution in ph:,-'siology ()f.131-131 principal. 13-14
·bone, 43-..\4 sensory. 131 shc:.u·. 7-8, 9
.au3chment of. lO bone. 149 vascular system of. 132-133 units of measurClllent of. 31
banding pa[[em of. 149-153 Spin;ll slcnosis. 295 Strl.·ss r:.liser. 49-50
biomcchanical behavior of. 160- I65 Spine. 257-258 Siress-relaxation experiment, /3
composition of, muscle fiber, 149-153, Clllyature or, 267-268, 2$7 Slress-rdax:.uion response
165-167 fatigue fracturcs of. 271 of articular c.:artilallc. 73-7-1
contraction of fllnctionnlunit of. 257-260 of tendons and Iig;menls, III, // i
mechanics of. 156-160 (eSling, 296. 297 Stress-strain diagl.ll1ls, 9-10
molecul.u- basis of. 153-155 instnnt Center pathway of. 264 SU'ctch test, for subaxial instability,
Slllllmntion :.md tet:.mi<:. 157-158 intcrycrtebmi discs of. 258, 28S. 304.305
typt:s of. (58-160 291. 293 Stride. 442-443
work types and, 158-160 kinematics of. 260, 301-30.2 Stridc analysis, 439-440
force production in, 160 muscle <:letion in. 264-267 Stride length, 442
fatigue crfect in, 164-165 range of motion in, 262-163 Stridc time, 442
fOfc:c,timc relationship of. 162 surface joint motion in. 262-263 Subacromial impingement syndrome. 334
length-tension relationship of. kinematics of shouldel" and. 319-328 Subaxinl spine. 287. 290-291
160-161 kinetics of. 274-180 COli pled motion of, 299-300
10:ld-"elocil)' relationship of. 161-162 ligaments of. 257, 260. 293 inswbilit\' of. 303-305
muscle architecture cffLoct in, 162-163 loads on diagnosis checklist for, 3051
pn:stl'Ctching effect in, 163 dvnamic analvsis of. 273-280 stretch test for. 304, 305
temp<:falUrC effect in, 163-16-1 sianding, 268~269 fange of Illotion of. 297-298
function of. 149 st<:ltic annlvsis of. 268-273 Subtalar joint
functional unit of. 155-156 mechanic:.l! j>roperties of components !:!:'lit c\'cle kinematics of. 4-15-146
injurit.'s of. 167 of. 292-296 gtlit c)'c!c muscle :.lcti"ity of. 455-456
extrinsic factors in, /72 motion of. 263-.264 ligaments of. 249
intrinsic faclors in, /7/ motion segment of. 257-260, 288 motion of. 229-231
innervation of. /54 muscles in movement of, 264-267 ankle and, 226, 228, 230, 249,
motor unit of. 155-156 flexor and e.xtensor, 265-266 445-446
musculOlcndinous unit of. 156 lateral flexor and rotation. 266 Summation, 157
I rcmodeling. 167 pelvic motion and. 266-267':" Supin:.llor muscle. 350
disuse and immobilization in. neural dements of, 29-1-296 Supplemelllary SI units. 19
167-168 stability of, 301-302 definitions. lOt
j physicallraining in, 168-169
repair or. 167
structure of. 257-260
vertebrae of. 287, 291-293
Supraspinolls ligaments, 288
Surfact: joint motion, 180-181
II
structurc and organization of. 149-153. Spondylolisthesis, 262 Swing phase. 440--141
170 Spring ligaments. 235-236 Symbols, 51 units. 211
}
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1iJ,"4;'J.
Syndesmotic ligaments. 223 scn.'w·llOme mechanism of, V
. componenls ~)f. 245-246 182-183, /5,'4 \'eclOrs, 3
Svndeslllotir.: stabilitv. of ankle, 249 statics of. 188 fon:e, 3-4
S~·novial joims. 61 . surf'lee join[ motion of, 181-185 moment, 4-5
System Intemational d'Unites (SO, 19 Tibioflblll~u· joint, 223, 225 torque, 4-5
Tibiofibular ligaments, 245-248 Velocitv, 443
injun· to, 245-249 Ventrai/molor roots, /28, 131
T TibicHalar joint, 223, 225 Vertdmlc, 287
l' system, 153 Titin filaments, 149-150 failure of. loads causing, 271-273
l~)locrural joint. 245-246 arrangement in sarcomere, lSI 293
gait cycle kinematics of, 445 Toe(s) mechanical properties of, 292-29
gait cvcle muscle action of. 453-455 claw, 237 Vertebral arthrodesis, 306, 308
Talofil1lilar ligament(s), 245-248 extensor muscles of. 233-234 Vertebral bodies, 258
injury to, 245-249 cxtdnsic muscles of. 233-234 cervical. 290
Talonavicular joint, 229, 230 great, 231-233 Viscoelastic material behador,12
Talus. 241-242 hammer, 237 Viscoelasticitv, 11-13
load distribution on, 25/ intrinsic muscles of, 233-234 Volar plate, 3"71
Tarsal joint motion, transvcrse, 229-231 k'ssel~ joint motion of. 233-234 Volkmann's canals, 28, 30
Tarsometatarsal joint motion, 230-231, mallet: 237
233-234 Toeing, -in and -out, 446
Tendons Torque vcctors, 4-5 W
biomechanical behavior of. 108 Trabeculac, 28, 29 \Vear, 88
physiological loading and, 110-111 Trabecular bone, 29 \\'eight, and bone mass, 51-52
viscoelastic. 111-112 TransfCl" lesions, 233-234 \Vhi~plash s~·ndromc, 312-314
biomechanic;:1! properties of. 109-110 Transverse ligament \Vindlass effect, on arch of foot, 23
in aging, 115 of acetabul"um, 204 WollTs law, 51
in diabetcs mellitus, 116-117 of atlas, instabilit\" of. 302, 303 \Voven bone, 29-30
in grafts, 117-118 Transvcrse tarsal joint, axes of. 23/ Wrist joint. 359, 360
in hemodialysis, 117 Trans\"crsc tarsal :joint motion, articulations of. 359
in immobilization/cxercise, 229-231 blood supply of. 365
115-li6 Transversus abdominis muscle, control mechanisms of
in nonsteroidal anti-inflarmnatory 278-279 active. 374
drug use. 117 Trendclenburg gnit pallern, 449 bonv, 365-366
in pregnancy/postpanum period, liS Trendelcnburg's test. 209 ]jga;l1entous, 366-368
in steroid usc, 117 Triangular flb~·ocartilage complex n;llscular, 374
components of, 103-108, 103r (TFCC) passive, 365-368
diffusional nutl'ition of. 107 components of, 359,36/,366.368 functional motion of, 380-381
elasticitvof, 110 kinematics of wrist and, 368 hand motion and motion of, 381
functiOil of. 103 radial migration and, 348-350, 352 kinematics of. 375
injury and failure mechanisms of. Triceps muscle, 350, 352 flexion and extension, 376
112-115, /21 Triquctnlln, 359 forearm pronation and supinatio
innervation of. 107 Tl"ochlcoginglymoid joint, 341 376-377
insertion of, into bone, 108 Tnlchoid joint, 341 radial and ulnar deviation, 376,
muscle attachment to bone, 149 Tropocollagen moleculcs, 61-62 kinetics of, 380-381
structural arrangement of Tropomyosin, in skeletal muscle, 150 ligaments of. 366-367, 367t
fiber, 104-105, /06 Troponin, in skeletal muscle, ISO ~d()rsal extrinsic, 366
outer, 108 Trunk intl·insic, 366, 368
tensilc strength of, compared to llexor and extensor muscles of, 279 palmar extrinsic, 366
muscle, 114-115 gait cvcle kinematics of. 447-448 palmar radiocarpal. 366
\"ascular svstem of, 106-107 ;nuscie co-contraction in, 279, 280 muscles of. 363r
viscoelasticitv of, 111-112 T"\ve I muscle fibers. 165-167 extrinsic and intrinsic, 350, 36
Tenosynovitis, ~le Ouen"ain's. 374 Type IlA muscle fibers, 165-167 Ilexor and extensor, 374-376
Tensors, 3 Type 1m musclc fIbers, 165-167 nelyeS of. 362, 364-365
Terminal cisternae, 152. /53 osscus slructUI"e of. 359, 360
Tetanic muscle contraction, 157-158 range of motion of, 375-377
Thumb U rep~titive motion injury of. 374
functional motion of, 380 Ulna, 341-342 tendons of. 374-376
in prehensile hand functions, 383-385 distaL articulation of, 359 tl'iangular fibrocanilage complex
Tibial plateau, stresses on, 193-194 Ulnar arter\", 365 368
Tibialis muscles, 237 Ulnar nen"~, 364
in gait cvcle, 455-456 Ulnocarpal complex, 359 y
Tibiol·emo;·al joint Ulnocarpal space, 359 Yield point, 34
derangel11e;1ts of. 182-185 Uncinate processes, of cervical \"ertebrae. Young's modulus, 33
dvnamics of, 190-194 291
I-ielfet test of. 184, /86 LJncovertebral joints, of cervical
instant ccnter pathway of. 181-182 vel"teb·rae, 291 z
range of motion of, 179-180 LJnicondylnr dianhroidal joints, 378 Z lille(s). 151, /52