CHAPTER 5

IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Vacancies and Self-Interstitials

5.1 Calculate the fraction of atom sites that are vacant for copper at its melting temperature of 1084°C
(1357 K). Assume an energy for vacancy formation of 0.90 eV/atom.

Solution

In order to compute the fraction of atom sites that are vacant in copper at 1357 K, we must employ
Equation 5.1. As stated in the problem, Qv = 0.90 eV/atom. Thus,

Nv ⎛ Q ⎞ ⎡  0.90   eV /atom ⎤ 
= exp ⎜€ v⎟ = exp ⎢€  ⎥ 
N ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎢  (8.62  ×   10−5   eV /atom ­ K) (1357 K) ⎥
⎣ ⎦ 

€ = 4.56  10-4

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 5.2 Calculate the energy for vacancy formation in silver, given that the equilibrium number of vacancies
at 800°C (1073 K) is 3.6 × 10 23 m–3. The atomic weight and density (at 800°C) for silver are, respectively, 107.9
g/mol and 9.5 g/cm3.

Solution

This problem calls for the computation of the activation energy for vacancy formation in silver. Upon
examination of Equation 5.1, all parameters besides Qv are given except N, the total number of atomic sites.
However, N is related to the density, (), Avogadro's number (NA), and the atomic weight (A) according to

Equation 5.2 as

N A €Pb
N =
APb

(6.02  ×  1023   atoms / mol)(9.5  g /cm3 )

=
€ 107.9   g / mol

= 5.30  1022 atoms/cm3 = 5.30  1028 atoms/m3

€

Now, taking natural logarithms of both sides of Equation 5.1,

Q
ln N v   =   ln N  − v
kT

and, after some algebraic manipulation

€
⎛N ⎞
Qv = € kT ln⎜ v ⎟
⎝N ⎠

Now, inserting values for the parameters given in the problem statement leads to
€
 
⎡3.60  ×   1023   m−3 ⎤ 
Qv = € (8.62 × 10-5 eV/atom -K) (800°C + 273 K) ln⎢  ⎥ 
⎣ 5.30  ×   1028   m−3 ⎦ 

= 1.10 eV/atom
€

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 Point Defects in Ceramics

5.3 Calculate the fraction of lattice sites that are Schottky defects for cesium chloride at its melting
temperature (645°C). Assume an energy for defect formation of 1.86 eV.

Solution
In order to solve this problem it is necessary to use Equation 5.4 and solve for the Ns/N ratio.

Rearrangement of this expression and substituting values for the several parameters leads to

Ns ⎛ Q ⎞
= exp ⎜€ s ⎟
N ⎝ 2kT ⎠

⎡ 1.86 eV ⎤
= exp ⎢€
€ ⎣ (2)(8.62 × 10-5 eV/K)(645 + 273 K) ⎥
⎦

= 7.87  10-6
€

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 5.4 Using the data given below that relate to the formation of Schottky defects in some oxide ceramic
(having the chemical formula MO), determine the following:
(a) the energy for defect formation (in eV),
(b) the equilibrium number of Schottky defects per cubic meter at 1000°C, and
(c) the identity of the oxide (i.e., what is the metal M?)

T (°C) ρ (g/cm 3) Ns (m–3)

750 3.50 5.7 × 109

1000 3.45 ?
1500 3.40 5.8 × 1017

Solution

The (a) portion of the problem asks that we compute the energy for defect formation. To begin, let us
combine a modified form of Equation 5.2 and Equation 5.4 as

⎛ Q ⎞
N s = N exp ⎜€ s ⎟
⎝ 2kT ⎠

⎛  N ρ ⎞  ⎛  Q ⎞ 
=  ⎜   A  
 exp  s
€ ⎟
⎜ A   +  A ⎟  ⎜− 
  ⎟ 
⎝  M O ⎠  ⎝   2kT ⎠ 

Inasmuch as this is a hypothetical oxide material, we don't know the atomic weight of metal M, nor the value of
€
Qs in the above equation. Therefore, let us write equations of the above form for two temperatures, T1 and T2.

These are as follows:

⎛ N € ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
N s1 = ⎜⎜ A 1 ⎟ exp ⎜€ Qs ⎟ (5.S1a)
⎟ ⎜ 2 kT ⎟
⎝ AM + AO ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

⎛ N € ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
N s2 = ⎜⎜ A 2 ⎟ exp ⎜€ Qs ⎟ (5.S1b)
€ ⎟ ⎜ 2kT ⎟
⎝ AM + AO ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

Dividing the first of these equations by the second leads to

€

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 ⎛ N € ⎞ ⎛ Qs ⎞
⎜⎜ A 1 ⎟ exp ⎜€ ⎟
⎟ ⎜ 2 kT1 ⎟⎠
N s1 ⎝ AM + AO ⎠ ⎝
=
N s2 ⎛ N A€ 2 ⎞ ⎛ Qs ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ exp ⎜⎜€ ⎟
⎝ AM + AO ⎠ ⎝ 2kT2 ⎟⎠

which, after some algebraic manipulation, reduces to the form

€
N s1 €1⎡ Q ⎛1 1 ⎞⎤
= ⎢
exp € s ⎜ € ⎟⎥ (5.S2)
N s2 €2 ⎢⎣ 2k ⎜⎝T1 T2 ⎟⎠⎥⎦

Now, taking natural logarithms of both sides of this equation gives

€
⎛ N ⎞  ⎛ ρ ⎞  Q ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 
ln  ⎜⎜   s1 ⎟⎟  =  ln ⎜⎜   1 ⎟⎟   −   s ⎜⎜     −   ⎟⎟  
⎝ N s2 ⎠  ⎝ρ  2 ⎠  2k ⎝T  1 T2 ⎠ 

and solving for Qs leads to the expression

€
⎡  ⎛ N ⎞  ⎛ ρ ⎞⎤   
€2 k ⎢ln  ⎜⎜   s1 ⎟⎟    −  ln⎜⎜   1 ⎟⎟⎥    
⎢⎣   ⎝ N s2 ⎠  ⎝ρ  2 ⎠⎥⎦    
Qs =
1 1
 − 
T1 T2

Let us take T1 = 750°C and T2 = 1500°C, and we may compute the value of Qs as
€
⎡  ⎛ 5.7  ×  109  m­3 ⎞   
⎛3.50 g/cm3 ⎞⎤   
€(2)(8.62  ×  10­5  eV/K) ⎢ln
    ⎜  ⎟   −  ln  ⎜   ⎟⎥   
  ×  1017  m­3 ⎠ 
⎢⎣  ⎝5.8  ⎝3.40 g/cm
  3 ⎥ 
⎠⎦ 
Qs =
1 1
 − 
750  +  273 K 1500  +  273 K

= 7.70 eV
€
(b) It is now possible to solve for Ns at 1000°C using Equation 5.S2 above. This time let's take T1 =
1000°C and T2 = 750°C. Thus, solving for Ns1, substituting values provided in the problem statement and Qs

determined above yields

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 N s2 €1 ⎡ Q ⎛1 1 ⎞⎤
N s1 = ⎢
exp € s ⎥
⎜ € T ⎟⎟
⎜
€2 ⎢⎣ 2 k ⎝T1 2 ⎥
⎠⎦

(5.7 × 10 9 m -3)( 3.45 g/cm 3) ⎡  ⎛  1 1 ⎞⎤   

 exp  − 
  7.70 eV   −  
= € ⎢ ⎜  ⎟⎥   
3.50 g/cm3 ⎢  (2)(8.62  ×  10­5  eV/K) ⎝1000 
⎣   +  273 K ⎦   
750  +  273 K ⎠⎥

= 3.0  1013 m-3

€

(c) And, finally, we want to determine the identity of metal M. This is possible by computing the atomic
weight of M (AM) from Equation 5.S1a. Rearrangement of this expression leads to

⎛ N € ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ A 1 ⎟ = N exp ⎜ Qs ⎟
⎜A + A ⎟ s1 ⎜2kT ⎟
⎝ M O⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

And, after further algebraic manipulation

€
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ N A€1 ⎥
⎢ = AM + AO
⎛ Q ⎞⎥
⎢ N exp ⎜ s ⎟⎥
⎢ s1 ⎜2 kT ⎟⎥
⎝
⎣ 1 ⎠⎦

And, solving this expression for AM gives

€

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ N A€1 ⎥
AM = ⎢ € AO
⎛ Q ⎞⎥
⎢ N exp ⎜ s ⎟⎥
⎢ s1 ⎜2 kT ⎟⎥
⎝
⎣ 1 ⎠⎦

Now, assuming that T1 = 750°C, the value of AM is

€

⎧  ⎫ 
⎪  ⎪ 
⎪  (6.02  ×  1023  ions/mol)( 3.50 g/cm3 )(106  cm3 / m3 ) ⎪ 
AM = ⎨  ⎬  −   16.00 g/mol 
 
⎪(5.7  ⎡   7.7 eV ⎤⎪   
×  109  ions/m3 ) exp ⎢  ⎥    
⎩  
⎪ ­5
×  10  eV/K)(750  +  273 K) ⎦⎪
⎣(2)(8.62 
  ⎭   

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 = 24.45 g/mol

Upon consultation of the periodic table in Figure 2.6, the divalent metal (i.e., that forms M 2+ ions) that has an
atomic weight closest to 24.45 g/mol is magnesium. Thus, this metal oxide is MgO.

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 Impurities in Solids

5.5 Below, atomic radius, crystal structure, electronegativity, and the most common valence are
tabulated, for several elements; for those that are nonmetals, only atomic radii are indicated.

Atomic Crystal Electro-

Element Radius (nm) Structure negativity Valence

Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2

C 0.071
H 0.046
O 0.060
Ag 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2
Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2
Pt 0.1387 FCC 2.2 +2
Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2

Which of these elements would you expect to form the following with nickel:
(a) A substitutional solid solution having complete solubility
(b) A substitutional solid solution of incomplete solubility
(c) An interstitial solid solution

Solution

In this problem we are asked to cite which of the elements listed form with Ni the three possible solid
solution types. For complete substitutional solubility the following criteria must be met: 1) the difference in
atomic radii between Ni and the other element (R%) must be less than ±15%, 2) the crystal structures must be
the same, 3) the electronegativities must be similar, and 4) the valences should be the same, or nearly the same.
Below are tabulated, for the various elements, these criteria.

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 Crystal Electro-
Element R% Structure negativity Valence
Ni FCC 2+
C –43
H –63
O –52
Ag +16 FCC +0.1 1+
Al +15 FCC -0.3 3+
Co +0.6 HCP 0 2+
Cr +0.2 BCC -0.2 3+
Fe -0.4 BCC 0 2+
Pt +11 FCC +0.4 2+
Zn +7 HCP -0.2 2+

(a) Pt is the only element that meets all of the criteria and thus forms a substitutional solid solution having
complete solubility. At elevated temperatures Co and Fe experience allotropic transformations to the FCC crystal
structure, and thus display complete solid solubility at these temperatures.
(b) Ag, Al, Co, Cr, Fe, and Zn form substitutional solid solutions of incomplete solubility. All these metals
have either BCC or HCP crystal structures, and/or the difference between their atomic radii and that for Ni are
greater than ±15%, and/or have a valence different than 2+.
(c) C, H, and O form interstitial solid solutions. These elements have atomic radii that are significantly
smaller than the atomic radius of Ni.

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 5.6 (a) Suppose that CaO is added as an impurity to Li 2O. If the Ca2+ substitutes for Li+, what kind of
vacancies would you expect to form? How many of these vacancies are created for every Ca 2+ added?
(b) Suppose that CaO is added as an impurity to CaCl 2. If the O2– substitutes for Cl–, what kind of
vacancies would you expect to form? How many of these vacancies are created for every O 2– added?

Solution

(a) For Ca2+ substituting for Li+ in Li2O, lithium vacancies would be created. For each Ca 2+

substituting for Li+, one positive charge is added; in order to maintain charge neutrality, a single positive charge
may be removed. Positive charges are eliminated by creating lithium vacancies, and for every Ca 2+ ion added, a
single lithium vacancy is formed.
(b) For O2- substituting for Cl - in CaCl2, chlorine vacancies would be created. For each O 2- substituting

for a Cl-, one negative charge is added; negative charges are eliminated by creating chlorine vacancies. In order
to maintain charge neutrality, one O2- ion will lead to the formation of one chlorine vacancy.

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 Specification of Composition

5.7 What is the composition, in atom percent, of an alloy that consists of 92.5 wt% Ag and 7.5 wt% Cu?

Solution

In order to compute composition, in atom percent, of a 92.5 wt% Ag-7.5 wt% Cu alloy, we employ
Equation 5.9 as

CAgACu
'
CAg = × 100
CAgACu + CCuAAg

(92.5)(63.55   g / mol)
= €   ×   100
(92.5)(63.55  g / mol)  +  (7.5)(107.87g / mol)

= 87.9 at%
€

CCuAAg
'
CCu = × 100
CAgACu + CCuAAg

(7.5)(107.87   g / mol)
= €   ×   100
(92.5)(63.55  g / mol)  +  (7.5)(107.87g / mol)

= 12.1 at%
€

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 5.8 Calculate the composition, in weight percent, of an alloy that contains 105 kg of iron, 0.2 kg of
carbon, and 1.0 kg of chromium.

Solution

The concentration, in weight percent, of an element in an alloy may be computed using a modified form of
Equation 5.6. For this alloy, the concentration of iron (CFe) is just

m Fe
CFe = × 100
m Fe + m C + m C

105   kg
=   ×   100  =  98.87 wt%
€ 105   kg  + 0.2   kg  + 1.0   kg

Similarly, for carbon

€

0.2   kg
CC =   ×   100  =  0.19 wt%
105   kg  + 0.2   kg  + 1.0   kg

And for chromium

€

1.0   kg
CC =   ×   100  =  0.94 wt%
105  kg  + 0.2   kg  + 1.0   kg

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 5.9 What is the composition, in atom percent, of an alloy that contains 44.5 lb m of silver, 83.7 lbm of gold,
and 5.3 lbm of Cu?

Solution
To determine the concentrations, in atom percent, of the Ag-Au-Cu alloy, it is first necessary to convert
the amounts of Ag, Au, and Cu into grams.

'
m Ag = (44.5 m
lb)(453.6 g/lb
m) = 20,
185 g

'
m Au = (83.7 m
lb)(453.6 g/lb
€ m) = 37,966 g

' = (5.3 lb)(453.6 g/lb

m Cu
€ m m) = 2,404 g

These masses must next

€ be converted into moles (Equation 5.7), as

'
m Ag 20,185   g
nm = =   =  187.1  mol
Ag AAg 107.87   g / mol

37,966   g
€ nm =   =  192.8  mol
Au 196.97   g / mol

2,404   g
nm =   =  37.8  mol
€ Cu 63.55   g / mol

Now, employment of a modified form of Equation 5.8, gives

€
nm
Ag
' =
CAg   ×   100
nm  + nm  +   nm
Ag Au Cu

€ 187.1  mol
=   ×   100  =  44.8 at%
187.1  mol  +  192.8   mol  +   37.8   mol

€ 192.8   mol
'
CAu =   ×   100  =  46.2 at%
187.1  mol  +  192.8   mol  +   37.8   mol

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107 or 108 of the
 37.8   mol
'
CCu =   ×   100  =  9.0 at%
187.1  mol  +   192.8   mol  +   37.8   mol

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 5.10 Convert the atom percent composition in Problem 5.9 to weight percent.

Solution

The composition in atom percent for Problem 5.9 is 44.8 at% Ag, 46.2 at% Au, and 9.0 at% Cu.
Modification of Equation 5.10 to take into account a three-component alloy leads to the following

' A
CAg Ag
CAg =   ×   100
' '
Ag   +   C Au AAu  +   CCu ACu
' A
CAg

€ (44.8) (107.87   g / mol)

=   ×   100
(44.8)(107.87   g / mol)  +  (46.2) (196.97   g / mol)  +  (9.0) (63.55  g / mol)

= 33.3 wt%
€

' A
CAu
CAu = Au   ×   100
' A  +   C ' A '
CAg Ag Au Au  +   CCu ACu

(46.2) (196.97   g / mol)

= €   ×   100
(44.8)(107.87   g / mol)  +  (46.2) (196.97   g / mol)  +  (9.0) (63.55  g / mol)

= 62.7 wt%
€

' A
CCu
CCu = Cu   ×   100
' '
Ag   +   C Au AAu  +   CCu ACu
' A
CAg

(9.0) (63.55  g / mol)

= €   ×   100
(44.8)(107.87   g / mol)  +  (46.2) (196.97   g / mol)  +  (9.0) (63.55  g / mol)

= 4.0 wt%
€

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 5.11 Determine the approximate density of a Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy that has a composition of 90 wt%
Ti, 6 wt% Al, and 4 wt% V.

Solution
In order to solve this problem, Equation 5.13a is modified to take the following form:

100
€ave =
CTi CAl C
 +    +   V
€Ti ρ Al ρV

And, using the density values for Ti, Al, and V—i.e., 4.51 g/cm 3, 2.71 g/cm3, and 6.10 g/cm 3—(as taken from
€
inside the front cover of the text), the density is computed as follows:

100
€ave =
90   wt% 6   wt% 4   wt%
 +    +  
4.51  g /cm3 2.71  g /cm3 6.10   g /cm3

= 4.38 g/cm3
€

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 5.12 Some hypothetical alloy is composed of 25 wt% of metal A and 75 wt% of metal B. If the densities
of metals A and B are 6.17 and 8.00 g/cm 3, respectively, whereas their respective atomic weights are 171.3 and
162.0 g/mol, determine whether the crystal structure for this alloy is simple cubic, face-centered cubic, or body-
centered cubic. Assume a unit cell edge length of 0.332 nm.

Solution

In order to solve this problem it is necessary to employ Equation 3.5; in this expression density and
atomic weight will be averages for the alloy—that is

nAave
€ave =
VC N A

Inasmuch as for each of the possible crystal structures, the unit cell is cubic, then VC = a3, or
€
nAave
€ave =
a3 N A

And, in order to determine the crystal structure it is necessary to solve for n, the number of atoms per unit
€
cell. For n =1, the crystal structure is simple cubic, whereas for n values of 2 and 4, the crystal structure will be
either BCC or FCC, respectively. When we solve the above expression for n the result is as follows:

€avea3 N A
n =
Aave

Expressions for Aave and ave are found in Equations 5.14a and 5.13a, respectively, which, when incorporated into
€
the above expression yields

⎛  ⎞ 
⎜  ⎟ 
⎜  100 ⎟a  3 N
⎜ CA C B ⎟  A
⎜   +   ⎟ 
⎝ €A ρ B ⎠ 
n =
⎛  ⎞ 
⎜  ⎟ 
⎜  100 ⎟ 
⎜ C A C B ⎟ 
⎜   +   ⎟ 
⎝ AA AB ⎠ 

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 Substitution of the concentration values (i.e., CA = 25 wt% and CB = 75 wt%) as well as values for the

other parameters given in the problem statement, into the above equation gives

⎛  ⎞ 
⎜  ⎟ 
100
⎜  ⎟( 3.32  ×  10­8  nm)3 (6.02  ×  1023  atoms/mol)
⎜  25 wt%  +   75 wt% ⎟ 
⎜  ⎟ 
⎝ 6.17 g/cm 3 8.00 g/cm3 ⎠ 
n =
⎛  ⎞ 
⎜  100 ⎟ 
⎜  ⎟ 
⎜  25 wt%  +   75 wt% ⎟ 
⎜  ⎟ 
⎝ 171.3 g/mol 162.0 g/mol ⎠ 

€ = 1.00 atom/unit cell

Therefore, on the basis of this value, the crystal structure is simple cubic.

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 5.13 Molybdenum forms a substitutional solid solution with tungsten. Compute the number of
molybdenum atoms per cubic centimeter for a molybdenum-tungsten alloy that contains 16.4 wt% Mo and 83.6 wt
% W. The densities of pure molybdenum and tungsten are 10.22 and 19.30 g/cm 3, respectively.

Solution

To solve this problem, employment of Equation 5.21 (which derivation is called for in problem W5.16 on
the book’s Web site) is necessary, using the following values:

C1 = CMo = 16.4 wt%

1 = Mo = 10.22 g/cm3
2 = W = 19.3 g/cm3
A1 = AMo = 95.94 g/mol

Thus

N ACMo
N Mo =
CMo AMo A
 +   Mo (100   −   C Mo )
€Mo ρW

(6.02  ×  1023   atoms / mol) (16.4 wt%)

= €
(16.4 wt%)(95.94   g / mol) 95.94   g / mol
3
 +   (100  −   16.4 wt%)
10.22   g /cm 19.3  g /cm3

= 1.73  1022 atoms/cm3

€

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 5.14 Sometimes it is desirable to be able to determine the weight percent of one element, C 1, that will
produce a specified concentration in terms of the number of atoms per cubic centimeter, N 1, for an alloy composed
of two types of atoms. This computation is possible using the following expression:

100
C1   =  
N ρ ρ (5.22)
1 +   A 2  −   2
N1 A1 ρ1

where
€ NA = Avogadro’s number
ρ1 and ρ2 = densities of the two elements
A1 and A2 = the atomic weights of the two elements

Derive Equation 5.22 using Equation 5.2 and expressions contained in Section 5.6.

Solution

The number of atoms of component 1 per cubic centimeter is just equal to the atom fraction of component
1 ( c' ) times the total number of atoms per cubic centimeter in the alloy (N). Thus, using the equivalent of
1
Equation 5.2, we may write

€
c1' NA ρave
N 1 = c1' N =
Aave

Realizing that
€

C1'
c1' =
100

and
€

C2' = 100− C1'

and substitution of the expressions for  and A , Equations 5.13b and 5.14b, respectively, leads to
€ ave ave

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 c1' NAρave
N1 =
Aave

€ N AC1' ρ1ρ2
=
C1' ρ2A1  +  (100  −   C1' ) ρ 1 A2

And, solving for C '

1
€
100N1ρ1 A2
€ C1' =
NAρ1ρ2  −   N 1 ρ 2 A1  +   N 1 ρ 1 A2

Substitution of this expression for C ' into Equation 5.10a, which may be written in the following form
€ 1

€ C1' A1
C1 =  ×   100
1 A1  +   C2 A2
C' '

€ C1' A1
=  ×  100
C1' A1  +   (100 − C1 ) A2 '

yields
€
100
C1 =
N ρ ρ
1 +   A 2  −   2
N1 A1 ρ1

the desired expression.

€

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 5.15 Germanium forms a substitutional solid solution with silicon. Compute the weight percent of
germanium that must be added to silicon to yield an alloy that contains 2.43 × 10 21 Ge atoms per cubic
centimeter. The densities of pure Ge and Si are 5.32 and 2.33 g/cm 3, respectively.

Solution
To solve this problem, employment of Equation 5.22 is necessary, using the following values:

N1 = NGe = 2.43 x 1021 atoms/cm3

1 = Ge = 5.32 g/cm3
2 = Si = 2.33 g/cm3
A1 = AGe = 72.64 g/mol
A2 = ASi = 28.09 g/mol

Thus

100
CGe =
N Aρ Si ρ
1 +    −   Si
N Ge AGe ρ Ge

€ 100
=
1 +  
(6.02  ×  1023   atoms / mol)(2.33  g /cm3 )  −  
⎛ 2.33  g /cm3 ⎞ 
⎜  ⎟ 
 (2.43 ×  1021   atoms /cm3 ) (72.64   g / mol) ⎝5.32     g /cm3 ⎠ 

= 11.7 wt%
€

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 5.16 Iron and vanadium both have the BCC crystal structure, and V forms a substitutional solid solution
for concentrations up to approximately 20 wt% V at room temperature. Compute the unit cell edge length for a 90
wt% Fe–10 wt% V alloy.

Solution

First of all, the atomic radii for Fe and V (using the table inside the front cover) are 0.124 and 0.132 nm,
respectively. Also, using Equation 3.5 it is possible to compute the unit cell volume, and inasmuch as the unit cell
is cubic, the unit cell edge length is just the cube root of the volume. However, it is first necessary to calculate the
density and average atomic weight of this alloy using Equations 5.13a and 5.14a. Inasmuch as the densities of iron
and vanadium are 7.87g/cm 3 and 6.10 g/cm 3, respectively, (as taken from inside the front cover), the average
density is just

100
€ave =
CV C
 +   Fe
€V ρ Fe

100
=
€ 10   wt% 90   wt%
 +  
6.10   g /cm3 7.87   g /cm3

3
= 7.65 g/cm
€

And for the average atomic weight

100
Aave =
CV C
 +   Fe
AV AFe

100
=
€ 10   wt% 90   wt%
 +  
50.94   g / mole 55.85  g / mol

= 55.32 g/mol
€
Now, VC is determined from Equation 3.5 as

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 nAave
VC =
€aveN A

(2   atoms / unit cell)(55.32   g / mol)

=
(7.65 
€ g /cm3 )(6.02  ×  1023   atoms / mol)

= 2.40  10-23 cm3/unit cell

€

And, finally

a = (V C )1/ 3

= (2.40 × 10 €23cm 3/unitcell

)1/3
€

= 2.89 x 10-8 cm = 0.289 nm

€

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 Interfacial Defects

5.17 For an FCC single crystal, would you expect the surface energy for a (100) plane to be greater or
less than that for a (111) plane? Why? (Note: You may want to consult the solution to Problem W3.46 at the end
of Chapter 3.)

Solution

The surface energy for a crystallographic plane will depend on its packing density [i.e., the planar density
(Section 3.11)]—that is, the higher the packing density, the greater the number of nearest-neighbor atoms, and the
more atomic bonds in that plane that are satisfied, and, consequently, the lower the surface energy. From the
1 1
solution to Problem W3.46, planar densities for FCC (100) and (111) planes are and ,
4R 2 2R 2 3
0.25 0.29
respectively—that is and (where R is the atomic radius). Thus, since the planar density for (111)
R2 R2
is greater, it will have the lower surface energy. € €

€ €

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 5.18 (a) For a given material, would you expect the surface energy to be greater than, the same as, or
less than the grain boundary energy? Why?
(b) The grain boundary energy of a small-angle grain boundary is less than for a high-angle one. Why is
this so?

Solution

(a) The surface energy will be greater than the grain boundary energy. For grain boundaries, some atoms
on one side of a boundary will bond to atoms on the other side; such is not the case for surface atoms. Therefore,
there will be fewer unsatisfied bonds along a grain boundary.
(b) The small-angle grain boundary energy is lower than for a high-angle one because more atoms bond
across the boundary for the small-angle, and, thus, there are fewer unsatisfied bonds.

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 5.19 For each of the following stacking sequences found in FCC metals, cite the type of planar defect
that exists:
(a) . . . A B C A B C B A C B A . . .
(b) . . . A B C A B C B C A B C . . .
Now, copy the stacking sequences and indicate the position(s) of planar defect(s) with a vertical dashed line.

Solution

(a) The interfacial defect that exists for this stacking sequence is a twin boundary, which occurs at the
indicated position.

The stacking sequence on one side of this position is mirrored on the other side.

(b) The interfacial defect that exists within this FCC stacking sequence is a stacking fault, which occurs
between the two lines.

Within this region, the stacking sequence is HCP.

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 Grain Size Determination

5.20 (a) Employing the intercept technique, determine the average grain size for the steel specimen
whose microstructure is shown in Figure 10.29(a); use at least seven straight-line segments.
(b) Estimate the ASTM grain size number for this material.

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem calls for a determination of the average grain size of the specimen which
microstructure is shown in Figure 10.29(a). Seven line segments were drawn across the micrograph, each of
which was 60 mm long. The average number of grain boundary intersections for these lines was 6.3. Therefore,
the average line length intersected is just

60   mm
  =  9.5  mm
6.3

Hence, the average grain diameter, d, is

€
ave. line length intesected 9.5   mm
d = = =  0.106  mm
magnification 90

(b) This portion of the problem calls for us to estimate the ASTM grain size number for this same
€
material. The average grain size number, n, is related to the number of grains per square inch, N, at a
magnification of 100 according to Equation 5.19. However, the magnification of this micrograph is not 100x, but
rather 90. Consequently, it is necessary to use Equation 5.20

⎛ M ⎞2 n €1
NM ⎜ ⎟ =2
⎝100 ⎠

where NM = the number of grains per square inch at magnification M, and n is the ASTM grain size number.
€
Taking logarithms of both sides of this equation leads to the following:

⎛  M ⎞  
log N M  +   2 log ⎜  ⎟ = (n  −  1) log 2
  ⎠ 
⎝100

Solving this expression for n gives

€

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 ⎛ M ⎞ 
log N M + 2 log ⎜  ⎟ 
  ⎠ 
⎝100
n= +1
log 2

From Figure 10.29(a), NM is measured to be approximately 4, which leads to

€
⎛ 90 ⎞ 
log 4 + 2 log ⎜  ⎟ 
  ⎠ 
⎝100
n= +1
log 2

= 2.7
€

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 5.21 For an ASTM grain size of 6, approximately how many grains would there be per square inch at
(a) a magnification of 100, and
(b) without any magnification?

Solution

(a) This part of problem asks that we compute the number of grains per square inch for an ASTM grain
size of 6 at a magnification of 100. All we need do is solve for the parameter N in Equation 5.19, inasmuch as n
= 6. Thus

N = 2 n €1

= 2 6€1 = 32 grains/in. 2
€

(b) Now it is necessary to compute the value of N for no magnification. In order to solve this problem it
€
is necessary to use Equation 5.20:

⎛ M ⎞2 n €1
NM ⎜ ⎟ =2
⎝100 ⎠

where NM = the number of grains per square inch at magnification M, and n is the ASTM grain size number.
€
Without any magnification, M in the above equation is 1, and therefore,

⎛ 1 ⎞2 6€1 = 32
N1 ⎜ ⎟ =2
⎝100 ⎠

And, solving for N1, N1 = 320,000 grains/in. 2.

€

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 5.22 Determine the ASTM grain size number if 25 grains per square inch are measured at a
magnification of 75.

Solution

In order to solve this problem we make use of Equation 5.20—viz.

⎛ M ⎞2 n €1
NM ⎜ ⎟ =2
⎝100 ⎠

where NM = the number of grains per square inch at magnification M, and n is the ASTM grain size number.
€
Solving the above equation for n, and realizing that NM = 25, while M = 75, we have

⎛ M ⎞ 
log N M + 2 log ⎜  ⎟ 
  ⎠ 
⎝100
n= +1
log 2

⎛ 75 ⎞ 
log 25 + 2 log ⎜  ⎟ 
€   ⎠ 
⎝100
= + 1 = 4.8
log 2

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 DESIGN PROBLEMS

Specification of Composition

5.D1 Aluminum–lithium alloys have been developed by the aircraft industry to reduce the weight and
improve the performance of its aircraft. A commercial aircraft skin material having a density of 2.47 g/cm 3 is
desired. Compute the concentration of Li (in wt%) that is required.

Solution

This problem calls for us to compute the concentration of lithium (in wt%) that, when added to aluminum,
3
will yield a density of 2.47 g/cm . Solution of this problem requires the use of Equation 5.13a, which takes the
form

100
€ave =
CLi 100  −   C Li
 +  
€Li ρ Al

inasmuch as CLi + CAl = 100. According to the table inside the front cover, the respective densities of Li and Al
€
are 0.534 and 2.71 g/cm 3. Upon solving for CLi from the above equation, we get

100 €Li (ρ Al  −   ρ ave )

CLi =
ρ ave (ρ Al  −   ρ Li )

(100) (0.534   g /cm3)(2.71   g /cm 3  −   2.47   g /cm3)

= €
(2.47   g /cm3)(2.71   g /cm3   −   0.534   g /cm3)

€ = 2.38 wt%

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 5.D2 Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium arsenide (InAs) both have the zinc blende crystal structure
and are soluble in each other at all concentrations. Determine the concentration in weight percent of InAs that
must be added to GaAs to yield a unit cell edge length of 0.5820 nm. The densities of GaAs and InAs are 5.316
and 5.668 g/cm3, respectively.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the concentration (in weight percent) of InAs that must be added to
GaAs to yield a unit cell edge length of 0.5820 nm. The densities of GaAs and InAs were given in the problem
statement as 5.316 and 5.668 g/cm 3, respectively. To begin, it is necessary to employ Equation 3.6, and solve for
the unit cell volume, VC, for the InAs-GaAs alloy as

n' Aave
VC =
€aveN A

where Aave and ave are the atomic weight and density, respectively, of the InAs-GaAs alloy. Inasmuch as both of
€
these materials have the zinc blende crystal structure, which has cubic symmetry, VC is just the cube of the unit cell

length, a. That is

VC = a3 = (0.5820 nm) 3

= (5.820  ×  10−8   cm)3 = 1.971  ×  10−22   cm3

It is now necessary to construct expressions for Aave and ave in terms of the concentration of indium arsenide,
CInAs using Equations€ 5.14a and 5.13a. For Aave we have

100
Aave =
CInAs (100  −   CInAs)
 +  
AInAs AGaAs

100
=
€ CInAs (100  −   CInAs )
 +  
189.74   g / mol 144.64   g / mol

whereas for ave

€

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 100
€ave =
CInAs (100  −   CInAs )
 +  
€InAs ρ GaAs

100
=
€ CInAs (100  −   CInAs )
 +  
5.668   g /cm3 5.316   g /cm3

Within the zinc blende unit cell there are four formula units, and thus, the value of n' in Equation 3.6 is 4; hence,
€
this expression may be written in terms of the concentration of InAs in weight percent as follows:

VC = 1.971 x 10-22 cm3

n' Aave
=
ρ ave N A

⎡  ⎤ 
⎢  ⎥ 
€ 100
(4   fu / unit cell) ⎢  ⎥ 
⎢  C InAs (100  −   CInAs ) ⎥ 
⎢ 189.74   g / mol  +    
⎣  144.64   g / mol ⎥⎦ 
=
⎡  ⎤ 
⎢  ⎥ 
⎢  100 ⎥(  6.02  ×   1023   fu / mol)
⎢  C InAs (100  −   CInAs ) ⎥ 
⎢   +   ⎥ 
⎣ 5.668   g /cm3 5.316   g /cm3 ⎦ 

€
And solving this expression for CInAs leads to CInAs = 46.1 wt%.

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