DRYING​ ​(continuation)

General​ ​types​ ​of​ ​drying​ ​systems

a) Sun​ ​drying
- Grain​ ​is​ ​spread​ ​on​ ​concrete​ ​pavement​ ​or​ ​mat​ ​and​ ​directly​ ​exposed​ ​to​ ​sun​ ​for​ ​drying
- Most​ ​commonly​ ​practiced​ ​method​ ​due​ ​to​ ​low​ ​cost
- Requires​ ​large​ ​space​ ​to​ ​accommodate​ ​big​ ​volume
- Requires​ ​more​ ​manpower
- Available​ ​only​ ​during​ ​dry​ ​season
- Grain​ ​quality​ ​is​ ​relatively​ ​low​ ​due​ ​to​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​stones,​ ​sand​ ​and​ ​uneven​ ​drying​ ​of​ ​grains
resulting​ ​to​ ​low​ ​quality​ ​milled​ ​rice
Advantages
–​ ​Free​ ​energy
–​ ​Low​ ​capital​ ​investment
Disadvantages
–​ ​risk
–​ ​Temperature​ ​control​ ​difficult
–​ ​High​ ​qualitative​ ​and​ ​quantitative​ ​losses
–​ ​High​ ​labor​ ​requirement

​​

a) Mechanical​ ​drying
- Done​ ​by​ ​forcing​ ​heated​ ​air​ ​to​ ​come​ ​in​ ​contact​ ​with​ ​grain​ ​for​ ​faster​ ​drying​ ​rate

Parts​ ​of​ ​mechanical​ ​dryer

a. Method​ ​of​ ​heating​ ​the​ ​drying​ ​air
b. Blower​ ​to​ ​force​ ​the​ ​heated​ ​air​ ​through​ ​the​ ​grain
c. Engine​ ​to​ ​drive​ ​the​ ​blower
d. Grain​ ​holding​ ​bin​ ​to​ ​hold​ ​the​ ​grain​ ​being​ ​dried
Indices​ ​for​ ​efficient​ ​drying

a)​ ​Equilibrium​ ​Moisture​ ​Content​ ​(EMC)

• grain​ ​moisture​ ​content​ ​where​ ​it​ ​no​ ​longer​ ​losses​ ​nor​ ​gain​ ​moisture​ ​to​ ​or​ ​from​ ​the​ ​grain

EMC​ ​–​ ​MC​ ​that​ ​the​ ​product​ ​will​ ​approach​ ​in​ ​equilibrium​ ​with​ ​surrounding​ ​temperature​ ​and​ ​RH
- The​ ​MC​ ​attained​ ​by​ ​a​ ​grain​ ​with​ ​respect​ ​to​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​atmospheric​ ​temp​ ​and​ ​RH
- In​ ​such​ ​condition,​ ​the​ ​grain​ ​moisture​ ​is​ ​in​ ​equilibrium​ ​with​ ​surrounding​ ​air
- D​ ​-​ ​E:​ ​second​ ​falling​ ​rate​ ​period​ ​(FRP)

- Drying​ ​rate​ ​further​ ​decreases​ ​until​ ​it​ ​becomes​ ​zero​ ​and​ ​MC​ ​reaches​ ​EMC
- All​ ​evaporation​ ​occurs​ ​from​ ​the​ ​interior​ ​of​ ​solid​ ​(transfer​ ​of​ ​internal​ ​moisture​ ​to​ ​the​ ​surface)
- Grain​ ​temperature​ ​increases​ ​until​ ​it​ ​reaches​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​of​ ​drying​ ​air
- Diffusion​ ​of​ ​heat​ ​and​ ​mass​ ​transfer​ ​grows​ ​longer
- This​ ​takes​ ​longest​ ​because​ ​drying​ ​rate​ ​is​ ​controlled​ ​by​ ​diffusion,​ ​as​ ​compared​ ​to​ ​the​ ​other
periods​ ​where​ ​there​ ​is​ ​convective​ ​heat​ ​transfer​ ​to​ ​the​ ​product,​ ​and​ ​mass​ ​transfer​ ​is​ ​controlled
by​ ​surface​ ​tension​ ​and​ ​gravity
 - Falling​ ​rate​ ​is​ ​controlled​ ​by​ ​the​ ​movement​ ​of​ ​moisture​ ​within​ ​the​ ​material​ ​to​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​by
liquid​ ​diffusion,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​removal​ ​of​ ​water​ ​from​ ​the​ ​surface

Equilibrium​ ​moisture​ ​content​ ​of​ ​corn​ ​at​ ​different​ ​temp​ ​&​ ​RH

Typical​ ​sorption​ ​isotherm

b)​ ​Drying​ ​air​ ​temperature

- Drying​ ​temperature​ ​affects​ ​the​ ​quality​ ​of​ ​dried​ ​crops
- too​ ​high​ ​temperature​ ​will​ ​result​ ​to​ ​faster​ ​drying​ ​but​ ​may​ ​affect​ ​the​ ​product​ ​quality;​ ​too​ ​slow​ ​will
result​ ​to​ ​low​ ​drying​ ​rate
- drying​ ​temperature​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​dryer​ ​designs​ ​and​ ​type​ ​of​ ​crop
- Drying​ ​rate​ ​-​ ​%moisture​ ​removed​ ​per​ ​time
- Temp​ ​–​ ​higher​ ​temp,​ ​higher​ ​drying​ ​rate
- Too​ ​high​ ​air​ ​temp​ ​–​ ​may​ ​cause​ ​checking​ ​of​ ​the​ ​grain​ ​which​ ​in​ ​turn​ ​causes​ ​breakage​ ​during
milling
- Example​ ​1:​ ​For​ ​flat​ ​dryers,​ ​temperature​ ​range​ ​from​ ​100​ ​to​ ​110°F.​ ​Continuous​ ​flow​ ​dryers​ ​could
tolerate​ ​higher​ ​drying​ ​temperature.
- Example​ ​2:​ ​Drying​ ​air​ ​temperature​ ​for​ ​corn​ ​could​ ​reach​ ​130°F.​ ​For​ ​ground​ ​feed​ ​purposes,​ ​drying
air​ ​temp​ ​ranges​ ​from​ ​160​ ​to​ ​180°F.

c)​ ​Drying​ ​air​ ​flow​ ​rate

 - volume​ ​of​ ​air​ ​flow​ ​required​ ​for​ ​drying​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​the​ ​moisture​ ​content​ ​of​ ​the​ ​grain​ ​to​ ​be​ ​dried
- the​ ​greater​ ​the​ ​moisture​ ​content​ ​of​ ​the​ ​crop​ ​to​ ​be​ ​dried,​ ​the​ ​greater​ ​the​ ​air​ ​flow​ ​is​ ​required​ ​for
bigger​ ​volume​ ​of​ ​crop
- greater​ ​density​ ​of​ ​the​ ​crop​ ​requires​ ​greater​ ​air​ ​flow​ ​rate

Constraints​ ​in​ ​Technology​ ​Utilization

1. The​ ​traditional​ ​method​ ​of​ ​sun​ ​drying​ ​grains​ ​is​ ​considered​ ​cheap
2. Artificial​ ​or​ ​mechanical​ ​drying​ ​offers​ ​the​ ​better​ ​option​ ​to​ ​sun​ ​drying.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​independent​ ​on
weather​ ​and​ ​effective​ ​in​ ​preserving​ ​grain​ ​quality.

However,​ ​it​ ​has​ ​its​ ​own​ ​drawbacks:

a) High​ ​investment​ ​cost
b) Not​ ​enough​ ​incentives​ ​to​ ​dry​ ​grain
c) Lack​ ​of​ ​available​ ​dryers​ ​suitable​ ​for​ ​farm​ ​use
d) Increase​ ​in​ ​operating​ ​cost​ ​as​ ​a​ ​result​ ​of​ ​increasing​ ​fuel​ ​prices
e) Rainfall​ ​distribution​ ​by​ ​area​ ​affects​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​mechanical​ ​dryers

Changes​ ​in​ ​tissue​ ​during​ ​drying

1.​ ​Shrinkage​ ​effect

- The​ ​product​ ​exhibits​ ​the​ ​property​ ​of​ ​“turgor”​ ​-​ ​each​ ​cell​ ​is​ ​distended​ ​by​ ​its​ ​liquid​ ​contents
- The​ ​cell​ ​wall​ ​structure​ ​possesses​ ​strength​ ​and​ ​elasticity,​ ​but​ ​if​ ​the​ ​unit​ ​tensile​ ​strength​ ​is
exceeded,​ ​the​ ​structure​ ​yields,​ ​turgor​ ​property​ ​disappears​ ​resulting​ ​to​ ​permanent​ ​deformation.
- Loss​ ​of​ ​water​ ​during​ ​a​ ​drying​ ​process​ ​originates​ ​a​ ​reduction​ ​in​ ​the​ ​size​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cellular​ ​tissue,
which​ ​is​ ​usually​ ​referred​ ​as​ ​shrinkage​ ​phenomenon
- Shrinkage​ ​affects​ ​mass​ ​and​ ​heat​ ​transfer​ ​parameters​ ​and​ ​it​ ​is​ ​a​ ​relevant​ ​factor​ ​to​ ​be​ ​accounted
for​ ​establishing​ ​drying​ ​models.

2.​ ​Browning
- Change​ ​of​ ​color​ ​to​ ​dark​ ​brown​ ​due​ ​to​ ​high​ ​temperature​ ​drying​ ​especially​ ​for​ ​fruits​ ​and
vegetables
- A​ ​combined​ ​effect​ ​of​ ​temperature​ ​and​ ​time​ ​exposure
- Normally,​ ​a​ ​result​ ​of​ ​too​ ​high​ ​temperature​ ​drying

3.​ ​Case​ ​hardening

- Refers​ ​to​ ​a​ ​situation​ ​when​ ​the​ ​outer​ ​tissue​ ​of​ ​the​ ​prepared​ ​material​ ​tends​ ​to​ ​form​ ​a​ ​glassy​ ​or
leathery​ ​surface​ ​skin​ ​although​ ​the​ ​center​ ​is​ ​still​ ​very​ ​wet
- When​ ​a​ ​piece​ ​of​ ​tissue​ ​is​ ​being​ ​dried​ ​fast,​ ​shrinkage​ ​in​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​layer​ ​puts​ ​the​ ​deeper​ ​layers
under​ ​compression.

Sun​ ​drying​ ​vs.​ ​Artificial​ ​drying

Factors​ ​to​ ​consider​ ​in​ ​selecting​ ​a​ ​dryer
1. Farm​ ​size​ ​and​ ​output
2. Crop
3. Future​ ​development
4. Local​ ​atmospheric​ ​conditions
5. Marketing
6. Labor
7. Capital

METHODS​ ​OF​ ​DRYING

Factors​ ​affecting​ ​the​ ​selection​ ​of​ ​dryer​ ​type

1. Raw​ ​material​ ​characteristics
2. Operation​ ​costs

In​ ​contrast​ ​to​ ​natural​ ​drying,​ ​artificial​ ​ways​ ​of​ ​drying​ ​are​ ​used,​ ​such​ ​as:
- cabinet​ ​or​ ​tray​ ​dryer,
- tunnel​ ​dryer,
- batch​ ​or​ ​bin​ ​dryer,
- spray​ ​dryer,
- drum​ ​dryer,​ ​and
- vacuum​ ​shelf​ ​dryer.

The​ ​method​ ​to​ ​be​ ​used​ ​in​ ​drying​ ​foods​ ​depends​ ​on:
- nature​ ​of​ ​material​ ​to​ ​be​ ​dried
- cost
- product​ ​quality​ ​and​ ​efficiency

TYPES​ ​OF​ ​DRYER

1. Cabinet​ ​Dryer
- Air-convection​ ​tray​ ​drying​ ​intended​ ​for​ ​relatively​ ​small-scale​ ​operations
- Applications:
o air​ ​dried​ ​food​ ​in​ ​piece​ ​form​ ​(ex.​ ​fish​ ​crackers)
o preservation​ ​of​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​fruits​ ​and​ ​vegetables
- The​ ​most​ ​commonly​ ​preferred​ ​for​ ​fruits​ ​and​ ​vegetables
- has​ ​smaller​ ​capacity,​ ​lesser​ ​cost​ ​and​ ​easier​ ​to​ ​construct​ ​and​ ​operate​ ​as​ ​compared​ ​to​ ​the​ ​other
dryers.

2. Tunnel​ ​dryer
- a​ ​continuous​ ​type​ ​of​ ​dryer
- wet​ ​materials​ ​are​ ​loaded​ ​in​ ​a​ ​thin,​ ​uniform​ ​layer​ ​on​ ​the​ ​drying​ ​trays​ ​at​ ​one​ ​end​ ​of​ ​the​ ​dryer
- dried​ ​products​ ​are​ ​removed​ ​at​ ​the​ ​other​ ​end
- Applications:
o ​ ​any​ ​food​ ​in​ ​pieces​ ​of​ ​almost​ ​any​ ​size​ ​and​ ​shape​ ​as​ ​long​ ​as​ ​they​ ​are​ ​solids
o ​ ​liquids​ ​if​ ​solid​ ​trays​ ​are​ ​used​ ​such​ ​as​ ​fruits​ ​and​ ​vegetables

3. Continuous​ ​conveyor​ ​dryer

- completely​ ​mechanized​ ​dryer
- for​ ​drying​ ​pieces​ ​of​ ​food​ ​material​ ​in​ ​warm​ ​circulating​ ​air
- best​ ​adapted​ ​to​ ​the​ ​large​ ​scale​ ​drying​ ​of​ ​a​ ​single​ ​product
- Wet​ ​material​ ​supplied​ ​to​ ​the​ ​spreader​ ​device​ ​at​ ​the​ ​left​ ​is​ ​loaded​ ​evenly​ ​on​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​of​ ​a
slowly​ ​moving​ ​conveyor​ ​belt
- Hot​ ​air​ ​flows​ ​through​ ​the​ ​meshes​ ​or​ ​perforations​ ​in​ ​the​ ​conveyor
- Applications:​ ​vegetables​ ​and​ ​puree

4. Spray​ ​dryer
- The​ ​material​ ​to​ ​be​ ​dried​ ​is​ ​dispersed​ ​into​ ​a​ ​stream​ ​of​ ​heated​ ​air
- Moisture​ ​evaporates​ ​into​ ​the​ ​air​ ​stream
- Dryer​ ​particles​ ​are​ ​separated​ ​from​ ​the​ ​air​ ​and​ ​collected
- The​ ​moist​ ​cool​ ​air​ ​is​ ​exhausted
- produce​ ​products​ ​in​ ​powdered​ ​form
- water​ ​is​ ​removed​ ​from​ ​solutions​ ​or​ ​suspensions
- the​ ​resulting​ ​powder​ ​is​ ​dried​ ​to​ ​a​ ​moisture​ ​content​ ​that​ ​approaches​ ​equilibrium​ ​with​ ​the
exhaust​ ​drying​ ​air
- The​ ​material​ ​to​ ​be​ ​dried​ ​must​ ​have​ ​at​ ​least​ ​20%​ ​soluble​ ​solids.
- Applications:​ ​milk​ ​and​ ​juices
- extremely​ ​fast​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​small​ ​diameter​ ​of​ ​the​ ​drops
- requires​ ​high​ ​costs,​ ​both​ ​in​ ​the​ ​initial​ ​and​ ​operating​ ​costs
- primarily​ ​used​ ​in​ ​producing​ ​powder​ ​from​ ​liquid​ ​food​ ​products,​ ​like​ ​milk​ ​and​ ​fruit​ ​juices.

SPRAY​ ​DRYER​ ​SET-UP

 SPRAY​ ​DRIED​ ​SAMPLE

5. Drum​ ​dryer
- Comprises​ ​a​ ​roll​ ​or​ ​drum​ ​with​ ​heating​ ​medium​ ​circulating​ ​through​ ​the​ ​drums
- Viscous​ ​material​ ​is​ ​fed​ ​from​ ​the​ ​top​ ​to​ ​the​ ​hot​ ​drum​ ​surface
- Product​ ​dries​ ​on​ ​the​ ​drums​ ​and​ ​is​ ​scraped​ ​off​ ​by​ ​the​ ​stationary​ ​blades​ ​fixed​ ​along​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​of
the​ ​drum
- Application:​ ​milk​ ​and​ ​juices

6. Fluidized​ ​bed​ ​dryer

- Product​ ​is​ ​fed​ ​in​ ​at​ ​one​ ​end​ ​to​ ​lie​ ​on​ ​a​ ​porous​ ​plate
- Product​ ​is​ a​ gitated​ ​and​ ​moved​ ​along​ ​towards​ ​the​ ​exit​ ​at​ ​the​ ​other​ ​end​ ​by​ ​hot​ ​air​ ​which​ ​is​ ​blown
up​ ​through​ ​the​ ​product
- Applications:​ ​soup​ ​mixes,​ ​vegetables

7. Freeze​ ​dryer
- a​ ​dehydrator
- water​ ​is​ ​removed​ ​from​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​by​ ​direct​ ​sublimation​ ​from​ ​the​ ​frozen​ ​state​ ​to​ ​the​ ​vapor
state,​ ​without​ ​water​ ​passing​ ​through​ ​an​ ​intermediate​ ​liquid​ ​state
- Temperature:
● -21.7°C​ ​(for​ ​most​ ​products)
● -32°C​ ​to​ ​-34°C​ ​(for​ ​fruit​ ​juices)
- Application:​ ​meat,​ ​fruits​ ​with​ ​high​ ​moisture