c c

Table of Contents

History of Calligraphy 2
Basic Strokes 6
Vertical Roman 7
Italic Cursive 8
Gothic or Black Letter 9
Uncial 10
Practice Paper 11
Works Cited/ About the Authors 17

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Copyright ©2010 Ben Clarke and Moriah Sanford
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the readers’ use.

History of Calligraphy 11
History of Calligraphy
he art of calligraphy as we know it today
actually finds its origins in cave paintings.
Back in the days when communication was
a series of grunts, the written word was a
mere pictorial representation of significant events in a
caveman’s life. As humans developed, the art of draw-
ing pictures became quite highly
developed and reached great heights
under the direction of the Egyptians.
About 3500 BC, the Egyptians cre-
ated the highly stylized hieroglyph-
ics for which they are so well known.
These symbols were incised inside
tombs or painted with brushes
across papyrus paper. A few thou-
sand years later, around 1000 BC, the
Phoenicians went a step further and
developed what is believed to be
one of the first alphabets and writing
systems. Luckily the Phoenicians
were sea faring types and they read-
ily passed along their new talents
to every seaport through which they
passed. They most likely influenced
the Greeks who later developed their
own form of writing, which by 850 BC An example of Egyptian calligraphy, the competition from the 20th cen-
the Romans had adapted to suit the known as Hieroglyphics
Latin language.
It just so happens that Latin was the lingua franca
of the churches of Europe in the Middle Ages and the
monks (and a smattering of nobility) constituted the
only literate members of society. Since nothing could
be more glorious than the word of God, the monks
began to carefully scribe ancient texts into decora-
tive books used by high-ranking church members and
royalty. Paper was expensive during the Middle Ages,
so scribing monks developed a writing style that was
narrower allowing more words to fit on a single line.
This style came to be known as Gothic and lasted as
a popular scribing technique throughout much of the
Middle Ages.
By the mid 15th century, however, Johannes
Gutenberg had invented the printing press based upon
the Gothic lettering of the monks. This new technique
allowed for faster printing of Bibles and threatened the
métier of the monks. Although the use of the printing
press spread worldwide, handwriting skills were still in
high demand. The bulky printing press was too coarse
2 2 History of Calligraphy
for everyday letters, formal correspondence and invita-
tions. As the arts flourish during Europe’s Renaissance,
so too did the art of calligraphy. Italians during this
time invented the italic script, which became popular
throughout most of Europe. But calligraphers were
threatened once again with the advent of engraved
copperplates in the 17th century, which permitted the
printing of finer lines more attuned to italic script. One
hundred years later, artistic penman-
ship was in a steep decline.
To further complicate matters for
artistic scribes, by the 19th cen-
tury the steel pen and fountain pen
replaced the flat-edged pen. The
rounded tip of these new pens made
the special curves of calligraphy
more difficult to achieve. The art
itself might have seen its extinction
if it weren’t for the British poet and
artist William Morris. In the mid-19th
century William Morris spearheaded
a calligraphic revival, reintroducing
the flat edged pen and elevating the
act of writing to the art form of its
past.
It might appear that the art of cal-
ligraphy couldn’t possibly withstand
tury’s most important invention – the
computer. With a click of the mouse,
a list of various scripts are generated electronically and
lasered onto bleached paper in an instant – the art of
script preserved in an electronic pulse. But calligraphy
is flourishing more than ever with calligraphic societies
throughout the United States and Europe. According
to noted calligrapher, Julian Waters during a lecture at
Washington’s Sidwell Friends School in 1997, true cal-
ligraphy is the art of producing letters that capture the
spirit of the text they represent. For many artists, much
mental pre-planning is necessary to fully understand
the text before deciding how to display it in its full
beauty. This type of emotion can not always be gener-
ated from a computer, which for Julian Waters is ‘simply
another tool’ to be manipulated by the artist.
Calligraphy is a popular art form whose boundar-
ies are not restricted to Europe and the United States.
Around 1500 BC the Chinese developed a complicated
writing technique using more than 1500 characters.
Today the Chinese consider calligraphy to be one
of their most respected art forms. Master Chinese
calligraphers may appear to be spontaneously stroking
a brush over the paper, but many meditate extensively
before designing. The Arabs are also noted for their
history of calligraphy. Their cursive is written from right illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow,
to left and formed by eighteen distinct shapes, the
various combinations of which produce twenty-eight
letters. Arabic script appears highly distinctive from the resulted in the recruiting of “a crowd of scribes”, ac-
lettering used throughout most of
Europe, but Arabic calligraphy has
had many of the same Greek and
Phoenician influences. In Arabic
calligraphy there are six major
scripts (Farsi, Naskh, Kufi, Deewani,
Req’aa, and Thuluth) representing
various artistic styles.
For true calligraphers, the art of
penmanship will always be alive as
long as there is at least one artist
willing to carry on the tradition.
Despite super fast computers that
can produce a myriad of different The Phoenician alphabet. This alphabet hand during the 12th century.
fonts, real calligraphy comes from was spread throughout the Mediterranean Over the next three centuries, the
deep within the artist who strives to
evoke the true emotion of the script through the words
they draw. Calligraphy has survived throughout history
despite printing presses and copperplate engravings,
and dedicated followers of the art expect it to outlast
the next big invention of the 21st century.
This passage was taken from: http://www.essortment.com/all/ called Chancery cursive, and Roman book hand. These
calligraphyhist_reyt.htm
Development of Western Style Calligraphy
Western calligraphy is the calligraphy of the Latin
writing system, and to a lesser degree the Greek and
Cyrillic writing systems.[ Early alphabets had evolved
by about 3000 BC. From the Etruscan alphabet evolved
the Latin alphabet. Capital letters (majuscules)
emerged first, followed by the invention of lower case
letters (minuscules) in the Carolingian period. The his-
tory of lettering records many excursions into historical
obscurity and disuse as well as elaborating the story of
what gave rise to contemporary print.
Long, heavy rolls of papyrus were replaced by the
Romans with the first books, initially simply folded
pages of parchment made from animal skins. Reed
pens were replaced by quill pens.
Christian churches promoted the development
of writing through the prolific copying of the Bible,
particularly the New Testament and other sacred texts.
[11] Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and
half-uncial (from the Latin “uncia,” or “inch”) devel-
oped from a variety of Roman book hands. The 7th-9th
centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic
Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells.
Charlemagne’s devotion to improved scholarship
cording to Alcuin, the Abbot of York.
Alcuin developed the style known
as the Caroline or Carolingian
minuscule. The first manuscript
in this hand was the Godescalc
Evangelistary (finished 783) — a
Gospel book written by the scribe
Godescalc. Carolingian remains
the one progenitor hand from
which modern book type descends.
Blackletter (also known as Gothic)
and its variation Rotunda, gradu-
ally developed from the Carolingian
scribes in northern Europe used
an ever more compressed and spiky form of Gothic.
Those in Italy and Spain preferred the rounder but
still heavy-looking Rotunda. During the 15th century,
Italian scribes returned to the Roman and Carolingian
models of writing and designed the Italic hand, also
three hands — Gothic, Italic, and Roman book hand
— became the models for printed letters. Johannes
Gutenberg used Gothic to print his famous Bible, but
the lighter-weight Italic and Roman book hand have
since become the standard.
During the Middle Ages, hundreds of thousands of
manuscripts were produced: some illuminated with
gold and fine painting, some illustrated with line draw-
ings, and some just textbooks.
Development of Western Style Calligraphy
Western calligraphy is the calligraphy of the Latin
writing system, and to a lesser degree the Greek and
Cyrillic writing systems. Early alphabets had evolved by
about 3000 BC. From the Etruscan alphabet evolved the
Latin alphabet. Capital letters (majuscules) emerged
first, followed by the invention of lower case letters
(minuscules) in the Carolingian period. The history of
lettering records many excursions into historical obscu-
rity and disuse as well as elaborating the story of what
gave rise to contemporary print.
History of Calligraphy 33
 Long, heavy rolls of papyrus were replaced by the
Romans with the first books, initially simply folded
pages of parchment made from animal skins. Reed
pens were replaced by quill pens.
Christian churches promoted the development of
writing through the prolific copying of the Bible, par-
ticularly the New Testament and other sacred texts. Two is unlikely that this picture represents the historical ori-
distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-un-
cial (from the Latin “uncia,” or “inch”) developed from a of later 19th and 20th century antipecuniary comfort of
variety of Roman book hands. The 7th-9th centuries in
northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated
manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow, Lindisfarne
Gospels and the Book of Kells.
Charlemagne’s devotion to improved scholarship
resulted in the recruiting of
“a crowd of scribes”, accord-
ing to Alcuin, the Abbot of
York. Alcuin developed the
style known as the Caroline
or Carolingian minuscule.
The first manuscript in this
hand was the Godescalc
Evangelistary (finished 783)
— a Gospel book written An example of traditional western style
by the scribe Godescalc. calligraphy with hint of Gothic style.
Carolingian remains the
one progenitor hand from which modern book type
descends. Blackletter(also known as Gothic) and its
variation Rotunda, gradually developed from the
Carolingian hand during the 12th century. Over the next his own calligraphy on them. Johnston and his students
three centuries, the scribes in northern Europe used
an ever more compressed and spiky form of Gothic.
Those in Italy and Spain preferred the rounder but
still heavy-looking Rotunda. During the 15th century,
Italian scribes returned to the Roman and Carolingian
models of writing and designed the Italic hand, also
called Chancery cursive, and Roman book hand. These
three hands — Gothic, Italic, and Roman book hand
— became the models for printed letters. Johannes
Gutenberg used Gothic to print his famous Bible, but
the lighter-weight Italic and Roman book hand have
since become the standard.
During the Middle Ages, hundreds of thousands of
manuscripts were produced: some illuminated with
gold and fine painting, some illustrated with line draw-
ings, and some just textbooks.
Resurgence of Western Calligraphy
The rise of printing from movable type in the mid-
15th century did not mean the end of calligraphy.
Illuminated manuscripts declined, however, after print-
ing became ubiquitous. Conventionally the histories
4 4 History of Calligraphy
of Copperplate hands have represented such writing
to have been with a sharp pointed nib instead of the
broad-edged one used in most calligraphic writing. This
so called “Copperplate Myth” represents the name to
come from the sharp lines of the writing style resem-
bling the etches of engraved copper printing plates. It
gins of the term accurately, but is rather more reflective
the Arts and Crafts movement participants. It is most
likely that what is today written with pointed steel nibs
began stylistic life before the 1820s with a broad edged
quill and a number of period pen hold, posture and arm
position variations to facilitate the fine lines. Hence
there was likely a gradual
change in historic writing
practices and a reorientation
of the vocation and place of
writing rather than the elimi-
nation of the art.
At the end of the 19th
century, the aesthetics and
philosophy of William Morris
and the Arts and Crafts
movement appealed to many
calligraphers, including
Englishmen Edward Johnston and Eric Gill. Johnston
was introduced to 10th-century manuscripts, at the
Fitzherbert Museum by Sir Sidney Cockerell and based
were to redefine, revive and popularize English broad-
pen calligraphy.
The legacy of the Arts and Crafts movement includes
considerable myth. Published in 1906, Johnston’s best
known work Writing, Illuminating & Lettering never
used the terms “Foundational” or “Foundational Hand”
for which he is most remembered. Johnston initially
taught his students an uncial hand using a flat pen
angle, but later taught his “foundational hand” using
a slanted pen angle. He first referred to this hand as
“Foundational Hand” in Plate 6 of his 1909 publica-
tion, Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools and
Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen. The Johnston
Typeface (commissioned in 1916) became the basis for
the London Underground signage and continues today
in the New Johnston typeface, revised in 1988.
At about the same time as Johnston, Austrian Rudolf
Larisch was teaching lettering at the Vienna School
of Art and published six lettering books that greatly
influenced German-speaking calligraphers. Because
German-speaking countries had not abandoned the
Gothic hand in printing, Gothic also had a powerful
effect on their styles. Rudolf Koch was a friend and
younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch’s books, type
designs, and teaching made him one of the most in-
fluential calligraphers of the 20th century in northern
Europe and later in the U.S. Larisch and Koch taught
and inspired many European
calligraphers, notably Friedrich
Neugebauer, Karlgeorg Hoefer,
and Hermann Zapf.
Graily Hewitt was most re-
sponsible for the revival of the
art of gilding, both by contribut-
ing to Writing, Illuminating and
Lettering (Chapter 9 Appendix)
and through his own publica-
tions, most notably Lettering for
Students & Craftsmen (1930).
Hewitt is not without both Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of AD 1407 on design layout which is not the
critics and supporters in his
display in Malmesbury Abbey,
rendering of Cennino Cennini’s
medieval gesso recipes. Donald Wiltshire, England.
Jackson, a British calligrapher,
has sourced his gesso recipes from earlier centuries a
number of which are not presently in English transla-
tion. Graily Hewitt created the patent announcing the
award to Prince Philip of the title of Duke of Edinburgh
on November 19 1947, the day before his marriage to
Queen Elizabeth.
Many typefaces are based on historical hands, such
as Blackletter (including Fraktur), Lombardic, Uncial,
Italic, and Round hand.
Calligraphy Today
Calligraphy today finds diverse applications. These
include graphic design, logo design, type design, paint-
ings, scholarship, maps, menus, greeting cards, invita-
tions, legal documents, diplomas, cut stone inscrip-
tions, memorial documents, props and moving images
for film and television, business cards, and handmade
presentations. Many calligraphers make their liveli-
hood in the addressing of envelopes and invitations
for public and private events including wedding statio-
nery. Entry points exist for both children and adults via
classes and instruction books.
The scope of the calligraphic art is more than
pure antiquarian interest. Johnston’s legacy remains
pivotal to the ambitions of perhaps most Western
calligraphers:
“It is possible even now to go back to the child’s -
something like the early calligrapher’s - point of view,
and this is the only healthy one for any fine beginning:
to this nothing can be added; all Rules must give way
to Truth and Freedom.”
The multi-million dollar Saint John’s Bible project
for the 21st century has engaged Donald Jackson with
an international scriptorium and is nearing comple-
tion. It is designed as a 21st century illuminated Bible,
executed with both ancient and
modern tools and techniques.
The earlier 20th-century “Bulley
Bible” was executed by a student
of Edward Johnston’s, Edward
Bulley.
The digital era has facilitated
the creation and dissemination
of thousands of new and histori-
cally styled fonts. Calligraphy
gives unique expression to every
individual letter form within a
strength of typeface technolo-
gies no matter their sophistica-
tion. The usefulness of the digi-
tal medium to the calligrapher
is not limited to the computer layout of the new Saint
John’s Bible prior to working by hand. Writing directly
in the digital medium is facilitated via graphics tablets
(e.g. Wacom and Toshiba) and is expected to grow in
use with the introduction of Microsoft Windows Vista
operating system (“Vista Pen Flicks”) in 2007. Apple Inc.
introduced a similar “shorthand” facility in their Tiger
operating system in 2005. Graphics tablets facilitate
calligraphic design work more than large size art pieces.
The internet supports a number of online communities
of calligraphers and hand lettering artists.
[Excerpt taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Western_calligraphy]
Calligraphy of the German word “Urkunde” which trans-
lates to “deed.”
History of Calligraphy 55
 Basic Strokes
Probably the first thing you would do as a beginner calligrapher is practice the
basic elements of letters — vertical and horizontal stems, round strokes, slanted
stems. Here are some letter elements for the Roman hand:

More Tips
1. Intentionally make time to practice. I've found that if you actually schedule
practice time, it becomes a part of your routine. It is the routine that will help
make you a better calligrapher.
2. Consistently practice your craft. Setting a schedule to practice once per month
will not help you learn how to write calligraphy. Consistent, scheduled practice
makes for beautiful works of this amazing art. Let's say at least once per week.
3. Share your practice works with others. Sharing what you create is a powerful way
to gain momentum in the learning process. Praise and constructive criticism is
always helpful for the mind and the spirit.

Now try your hand at performing basic strokes using the lins below (Note that none of
these basic strokes will be used as ascenders or descenders yet).

6 6 History of Calligraphy
Vertical Roman
Vertical is the most common type of calligraphy. It’s shape is created from a
rectangle with serifs on the ends of the letters. A serif is a small line on the
beginning of a stroke and the end of a stroke.

Practice: trace the letters with a paint brush or pen.

History of Calligraphy 77
 Italic or Cursive
This font is slanted rather then straight, it is also flowing and free. Be sure to ease
up on your grip when using this font.

Practice:

8 8 History of Calligraphy
Gothic or Black Letter
A more formal font but it is difficult to read. It is one of the first fonts of calligraphy
ever used. It is also the most recognized of all fonts.

Practice:

History of Calligraphy 99
 Uncial
Uncial is a combination of upper case letters and lower case letters. It shows
stregnth and intensity with elegnce.

Practice:

1010 History of Calligraphy

History of Calligraphy 1111
1212 History of Calligraphy
 13
History of Calligraphy 13
1414 History of Calligraphy
 15
History of Calligraphy 15
 Works Cited
History of Calligraphy- http://www.essortment.com/all/calligraphyhist_reyt.htm

Calligraphy- http://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/calligraphy.html

Phoenician Alphabet- http://www.phoenician.org/alphabet_phoenician.GIF

Western Calligraphy- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_calligraphy

How to Write Calligraphy- http://www.squidoo.com/howtowritecalligraphy

Inkscape Tutorial: Calligraphy- http://www.inkscape.org/doc/calligraphy/tutorial-calligraphy.html

About the Authors

Ben Clarke
Ben Clarke is a student at Hamilton High School in Chandler,
Arizona. He enjoys spending his time hanging out with his friends,
watching TV, and playing video games. For this book, he set the type,
did research on the history of calligraphy, and formatted the book.

Moriah Sanford
Moriah Sanford is a junior at Hamilton High School in Chandler,
Arizona. She enjoys her spare time playing video games, hanging out
with friends, and playing with her ferrets. For this book she did all the
calligraphy and created the background and covers.

1616 History of Calligraphy

 17
History of Calligraphy 17