Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chemical Equipment
Chapter Contents
1. Type of chemical process
2. Classes of chemical equipment
3. Separation columns
4. Reactors
5. Heat transfer equipment
2
Separation columns
• Distillation columns
• Absorption
• Extraction
3
Distillation column
4
Definition & general description of
the process
• Separating the various components of a liquid
solution
• Depends upon the distribution of these
components between a vapor phase & a liquid
phase
• Distillation is done by vaporizing a definite fraction
of a liquid mixture in a such way that the evolved
vapor is in equilibrium with the residual liquid
• The equilibrium vapor is then separated from the
equilibrium residual liquid by condensing the
vapor
Continuous Distillation
Laboratory / Testing
Physical Concept of distillation
• Carried out by either 2 principal methods
• First method: based on the production of a vapor
by boiling the liquid mixture to be separated and
condensing the vapors without allowing any liquid
to return to the still - NO REFLUX (E.g. Flash,
simple distillation)
• Second method: based on the return part of the
condensate to the still under such condition that
this returning liquid is brought into intimate
contact with the vapors on their way to the
condenser – conducted as continuous / batch
process (E.g. continuous distillation)
Continuous Distillation
10
Distillation column design
The design of a distillation column can be divided into the
following steps:
1. Specify the degree of separation required: set product
specifications.
2. Select the operating conditions: batch or continuous;
operating pressure.
3. Select the type of contacting device: plates or packing.
4. Determine the stage and reflux requirements: the
number of equilibrium stages.
5. Size the column: diameter, number of real stages.
6. Design the column internals: plates, distributors, packing
supports.
7. Mechanical design: vessel and internal fittings. 11
Distillation column
Parameters in DC:
• Reflux ratio
• Total reflux
– Total reflux is the condition when all the
condensate is returned to the column as
reflux. No product is taken off and there is no
feed. Minimum of stages.
• Minimum reflux
– Separation at infinite no. of stages.
12
Industrial Reactors
• Batch reactor
• Continuous-stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
• Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
• Packed-bed reactor (PBR)
• Fluidized bed reactor (FBR)
• Slurry reactor
• Semi-batch reactor
• Trickle bed reactor
Batch Reactor
Characteristics
• The simplest reactors used in chemical
processes
• It is closed systems; systems in which no
materials enters or leaves the reactor during
the time the reaction takes place
• It is operated under unsteady-state conditions;
process in which the conditions inside the
reactor change over time.
Batch Reactor
Operation
• The reactants are placed into
the reactor.
• Stop the reactants flow and
then start the reaction process
which allowed to react, and
products form inside the
reactor.
• After a specified time, stop the
process, and the products and
unreacted reactants are then
removed.
• The process is repeated.
Batch Reactor
Application
• Typically used for liquid phase reactions
that required long reaction time
• Also used when a small amount of
products is desired
• And used when a process is still in the
testing phase/when the product is
expensive
Batch Reactor
Example of application
• Pharmaceutical industry
to produce drugs
• Fermentation;
production of beer or
ale
Batch Reactor
Advantages
• High conversions can be obtained by leaving
reactants in reactor for extended periods of time.
• Versatile; can be used to make many products
consecutively.
• Good for producing small amounts of products
while still in testing phase.
• Easy to clean.
Batch Reactor
Disadvantages
• High cost of labor per unit of production
• Difficult to maintain large scale production
• Long downtime for cleaning leads to
periods of no production
Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR)
Characteristics
• CSTR is a open systems; a system in which
material is free to enter or exit the reactor
• It is operated under steady-state condition;
conditions in the reactor are constant with time.
• Reactants are continuously introduced into the
reactor while products are continuously removed.
• CSTR is very well mixed; the contents have
relatively uniform properties (T, density etc.)
throughout the reactor.
• Conditions in the reactor’s exit stream are the
same as those inside the tank.
Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR)
Operation
• Reactants are fed continuously into the
reactor
• The contents of the tank are well mixed by
the stirring/impeller device
• Products are removed continuously during
the reaction process
Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR)
Application
• CSTR is most commonly used in industrial
processing
• Primarily in homogeneous liquid-phase
flow reactions
Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR)
Advantages
• Good temperature control is easily maintained
• Cheap to construct
• Reactor has large heat capacity
• Interior of reactor is easily accessed
Disadvantages
• Conversion of reactant to product volume of
reactor is small compared to other flow reactors
Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Characteristics
• Also known as tubular reactor
• Consist of hollow pipe or tube through
which reactants flow
• Operated at steady-state
• Reactants are continually consumed as
they flow down the length of the reactor
Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Operation
• Reactants are continuously fed into the reactor
from the left
• As plug flow down the reactor the reaction takes
place
• This would result in an axial concentration
gradient; change in concentration over a distances
from left to right.
• Products and unreacted reactants flow out of the
reactor continuously
Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Application
• Wide variety of applications in either gas
or liquid phase systems.
• Common industrial uses;
– gasoline production
– oil cracking
– synthesis of ammonia from its elements
– oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Advantages
• High conversion rate per unit reactor
volume
• Good for large capacity processes
• Good for studying rapid reactions
• Unvarying product quality
Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Disadvantages
• Reactor temperature difficult to control
• Hot spots may occur within reactor for
exothermic process
• Difficult to control due to temperature and
composition variations
Packed-bed Reactor (PBR)
Characteristics
• Also known as fixed bed reactor
• Often used for catalytic processes
• Consist of cylindrical shell with convex
heads
• Most are vertical, and allow reactants to
flow by gravity
Packed-bed Reactor (PBR)
Operation
• Reactants enter the reactor on the top and flow
through
• Upon entering the reactor, the reactants flow
through the packed bed of catalyst
• By contacting with the catalyst pellets, the reactants
react to form products
• Then the products exit the reactor on the bottom
• Note; concentration gradient within the reactor. The
concentration of reactants decreases from top to bottom
Packed-bed Reactor (PBR)
Disadvantages
• Expensive to construct and maintain
• Erosion of reactor walls may occur
• Regeneration equipment for catalyst is expensive
• Catalyst may be deactivated
• Can’t be used with catalyst solids that won’t flow
freely
• Large pressure drop
• Attrition, break up of catalyst pellets due to impact
against reactor walls, can occur
Reactor Design
• The characteristics normally used to
classify reactor design:
– Mode of operation: Batch or Continuous
– Phases present: Homogeneous or
Heterogeneous
– Reactor geometry: flow pattern and manner of
contacting phases:
• Stirred tank
• Tubular
• Packed bed
• Fluidised bed 42
Reactor Design procedure
1. Collect kinetic and thermodynamic data on the
desired reaction (T, P, flowrate)
2. Data on physical properties is required for the
design of the reactor (literature/lab)
3. Rate controlling mechanism e.g. kinetic, mass
or heat transfer.
4. Choose a suitable reactor type
5. Selection of optimal reaction conditions is
initially made in order to obtain the desired yield
6. The size of the reactor is decided and its
performance estimated. 43
Reactor Design procedure
7. Materials for the construction of the
reactor is/are selected.
8. A preliminary mechanical design for the
reactor including the vessel design, heat
transfer surfaces etc., is made.
9. The design is optimized and validated
10. An approximate cost of the proposed
and validated design is then calculated.
44
Heat transfer equipment
45
HEAT EXCHANGERS
• A heat exchanger is used to exchange heat
between two fluids of different temperatures,
which are separated by a solid wall.
l Flow Counterflow
Heat Exchanger Types
51
Heat exchanger analysis
• 2 methods to determine the heat exchanger
characteristics:
– The effectiveness NTU method (ξ- ntu method)
• It is used when only the fluid inlet temperature are
known
– Log Mean
Temperature Difference (LMTD)
• it is used when the fluid inlet temperatures are known
and the outlet temperature are specified or readily
determined.
52
HE design procedure
1. Define the duty; heat transfer rate, fluid
flowrates, temperatures
2. Collect physical properties data of fluids
(e.g. density, viscosity, thermal
conductivity)
3. Decide on the type of HE to be used
4. Select a trial value for U
5. Calculate mean temp difference
6. Calculate area required
53
HE design procedure
7. Calculate individual coefficients
8. Calculate overall coefficient
8. Calculate pressure drop.
54