Type of Solution

1) Hypotonic

• Solute concentration in the external solution is lesser than solute concentration inside the cell.
• Water concentration outside the cell is higher than the water concentration inside the cell.

2) Isotonic

• Solute concentration in the external solution is equal to the solute concentration inside the cell.
• Water concentration inside and outside of the cell is the same.

3) Hypertonic

• Solute concentration in the external solution is greater than solute concentration inside the cell.
• Water concentration outside the cell is lower than the water concentration inside the cell.

Types of solutions:

Type of Hypotonic Isotonic Hypertonic

Solution
Animal Cell The cell inflates due to the water No change in the size The cell shrinks and becomes
molecules enter the cell. of cell. Net soft and dehydrated due to the
Eventually it bursts (thin plama movement of water is water molecule leave the
membrane). Example: red blood zero. Example: red cell. Example: red blood cell in
cell in distilled water. blood cell in 0.85% 5% sodium chloride solution.
sucrose solution.

Plant Cell The cell expands and becomes No change in the size The cell becomes flaccid
firm / turgid due to the water of cell. Net (plasmolysis occurs), vacuole
molecules enter the cell. The movement of water is and cytoplasma shrink due to
rigid cellulose cell wall expands zero. Example: strip the water molecules leave the
slightly and prevents cell from of potato in 5% cell. Example: strip of potato in
bursting. Example: strip of sucrose solution. 30% sucrose solution.
potato in distilled water.

Application

1. Food is soaked in a concentrated salt solution to prevent bacteria and fungus to survive.
2. Chemical fertiliser (dissolved ions) increases solute concentration (decrease water molecules)
in soil. Therefore, water leaves from the cell sap of the plant which result the plant wither.
Polymers

1. Polymer – many small units (monomers) joining together to formed large molecule.

2. Polymer can be classified into two groups:

• synthetic polymers / man-made polymers (polythene; PVC – polyvinyl chloride; artificial silk;
and polypropene)
• natural polymers (natural rubber; starch; cellulose; and proteins)

3. Natural polymer: Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) (starch, glycogen and cellulose)

• General formula: Cx(H2O)y with the ratio of H:O = 2:1

• Carbohydrates have cyclic structure.
• Monomer: glucose (C6H12H6)
• Reaction to form polymer: condensation reaction (- H2O)

4. Natural polymer: Protein (polypeptide)

• Protein consists of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (some have sulphur, phosphorus and
other elements)
• Monomer: amino acids
• Amino acids have two functional group which are carboxyl group (-COOH) and amino group
(-NH2)
• Reaction to form polymer: condensation reaction (- H2O)

5. Natural polymer: Natural rubber

• Monomer: isoprene, C3H8

• Reaction to form polymer: additional polymerisation (one of the double bond in isoprene
becomes single bond)

6. Structure of rubber molecule

• Latex is colloid (35% rubber particles and 65% water).

• Rubber particle contains rubber molecules which are wrapped by a layer of negatively-charged
protein membrane. Same charge of rubber molecules repels each other. This prevent rubber
from coagulate.

7. Coagulation process of latex

The process for the coagulation of latex is summarised as:

1. Acid (H+) can neutralise the negatively-charged protein membrane. Example of acid: formic
acid, methanoic acid, suphuric acid and hydrochloric acid.
2. The rubber molecules will collide after the protein membrane is broken.
3. Rubber molecules (polymers) are set free
4. Rubber molecules combine with one another (coagulation).

8. Natural coagulation process of latex

For the natural coagulation of latex:

1. Latex is exposed to air without adding acid (duration – overnight).

2. Coagulation process occurs in slower pace due to the bacteria (microorganism) action which
produce acid)

9. Prevent coagulation process of latex

The following are latex coagulation prevention method:

1. Alkaline / Basic solution is added to the latex. Example: ammonia (NH3).

2. Positively-charged hydrogen ion / H+ produced by bacteria can be neutralised by negatively-
charged hydroxide ion / OH- from ammonia solution.

10. Properties of natural rubber

• elastic
• cannot withstand heat (become sticky and soft – above 50°C; decompose – above 200°C; hard
and brittle – cooled)
• easily oxidised (present of C=C)
• insoluble in water (due to the long hydrocarbon chains)
• soluble in organic solvent (propanone, benzene, petrol etc.)

11. Vulcanisation of rubber

Vulcanisation – process of hardening rubber and increases rubber elasticity by heating it with sulphur
or sulphur compounds.

Methods:

• heating natural rubber with sulphur at 140°C using zinc oxide as catalyst or
• dipping natural rubber in a solution of disulphur dichloride (S2Cl2) in methylbenzene.

12. Properties of vulcanisation of rubber

• The sulphur atoms are added to double bonds in the natural rubber molecules to form
disulphide linkages (-C-S-S-C-) / sulphur cross-links between the long polymer chains.
Therefore, vulcanised rubber is more elastics and stronger.
• This increases the molecular size and the intermolecular forces of attraction between rubber
molecules. Therefore, vulcanised rubber is more resistant to heat (does not become soft and
sticky when hot).
• This also reduces the number of carbon-carbon double bonds in rubber molecules. Therefore,
vulcanised rubber is more resistant to oxygen, ozone, sunlight and other chemicals.

13. Comparison between the properties of vulcanised rubber and unvulcanised rubber

Properties Vulcanised rubber Unvulcanised rubber

Double bonds Decreases (formation of More number of double
sulphur cross-links) bonds
Melting point High (presence of sulphur) Low
Elasticity More elastic (sulphur cross- Less elastics
links prevents the polymer
chain or rubber from slipping
past.
Strength and Strong and hard (depends on Weak and soft (polymer
hardness degree of vulcanisation) chain of rubber will break
when rubber is over
stretched.
Resistant to Resistant to heat Poor resistant to heat
heat
Oxidation Resistant to oxidation Easily oxidised by oxygen,
(reduction of number of UV light (presence of many
double bonds per rubber double bonds per rubber
molecule) molecules)