1.

Liquid Crystal
A solid heated to its melting point will overcome the intermolecular forces that provide
order to the solid. The resulting liquid is characterized by random molecular orientations
and considerable molecular motion. Some substances, however, exhibit more complex
behavior as their solid phase is heated, like liquid crystals. In 1888, Freidrich Reinitzer
studied cholesteryl benzoate and found that the substance melts at 145 degrees Celsius
to form a milky liquid and at 179 degrees Celsius, the milky liquid turns clear. He also
noted that when the substance is cooled, the reverse process occurs. Reinitzer noted that
instead of passing from solid to liquid phase when heated, some substances pass through
an intermediate liquid-crystalline phase. This phase has some of the structures of solids
and the freedom of motion of liquids. Liquid crystals may be very viscous and possess
intermediate characteristics of the solid and liquid phases. The weak intermolecular
forces that hold molecules together in a liquid crystal are easily affected by changes in
temperature, pressure, and electromagnetic fields.
2. Types of Liquid-Crystalline Phases
There are three types of liquid-crystalline phases namely, the nematic, smectic, and
cholesteric phases. In the nematic liquid-crystalline phase, the molecules are aligned
along the long axes with no ordering with respect to the tail of the molecule. Within this
phase, the dipole-dipole interactions promote alignment in the molecules. This may allow
rotation and sliding parallel to one another. In the smectic liquid-crystalline phase, the
molecules exhibit additional ordering beyond that of the nematic phase. There are
different kinds of smectic phases from A to C and so forth. In this phase, intermolecular
forces limit the ability of the molecules to slide past one another. In the cholesteric liquid-
crystalline phase, the molecules are aligned along the long axes as in the nematic liquid
crystals. It is arranged in layers with molecules in planes twisted slightly in relation to the
molecules in the planes above and below. This phase derived its name from the many
derivatives of cholesterol that adapt this structure. It has a complex structure but can be
described as a flat rod with a flexible tail. The molecules sit side by side in layers. The tail
causes one layer to twist relative to the next. The slight twist in orientation tends to make
the crystals colored. Changes in temperature and pressure change the order and also the
color of these crystals.
 3. LCD Essay
LCD uses the sunglasses trick to switch its colored pixels on or off. At the back of the
screen, there's a large bright light that shines out toward the viewer. In front of this, there
are the millions of pixels, each one made up of smaller areas called sub-pixels that are
colored red, blue, or green. Each pixel has a polarizing glass filter behind it and another
one in front of it at 90 degrees. That means the pixel normally looks dark. In between the
two polarizing filters there's a tiny twisted, nematic liquid crystal that can be switched on
or off electronically by twisting the crystal. When it's switched on, it rotates the light
passing through it through 90 degrees, effectively allowing light to flow through the two
polarizing filters and making the pixel look bright. When it's switched off, it doesn't rotate
the light, which is blocked by one of the polarizers, and the pixel looks dark. Each pixel is
controlled by a separate transistor that can switch it on or off many times each second.
4. Polymers
Polymers are formed through polymerization or joining together of monomers. In the
past 60 years, scientists have learned to create synthetic polymers through controlled
chemical reactions. These usually have a backbone of carbon-carbon bonds because
of carbon’s ability to form strong, stable bonds with one another. Addition
polymerization is a type of polymerization reaction forming polyethylene from ethylene.
Examples of these are polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyvinyl
chloride. Condensation polymerization occurs when two molecules are joined to form
a larger molecule by elimination of a smaller molecule such as water. Polymers that
are formed from two different monomers are called copolymers. Examples of these
include polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and nylon 6,6.
Plastics are generally applied to materials that can be formed into various shapes,
usually by the application of heat and pressure. Thermoplastic materials can be
reshaped, melted down, and the polymer can be recycled for some other use.
Thermosetting plastic goes through irreversible chemical processes therefore cannot
be reshaped easily. Elastomers are materials that exhibit rubbery or elastic behavior.
When subjected to stretching or bending, it regains its original shape upon removal of
the distorting force. Fibers are very long in relation to their cross-sectional area and
are not elastic.
 Cross-linking polymers are polymers forming chemical bonds between the polymer
chains. The more cross-links formed, the more rigid the material. An example of this would
be vulcanization. Vulcanization was discovered by Charles Goodyear. He used natural
rubber formed from liquid resin from Hevea brasiliensis. Goodyear, by accident,
discovered that by adding sulfur to rubber then heating the mixture makes the rubber
more rigid. It also reduces its susceptibility to oxidation or other chemical attack. It
changes rubber from a soft and chemically reactive plastic to a thermosetting polymer.
The cross-linking at some of the double bonds of rubber makes rubber resilient and
flexible. Now, it is usually heated with sulfur, peroxide, or bisphenol. He also discovered
that adding carbon black increases road-wear abrasion and tensile-strength.
5. Biomaterials
A biomaterial is any material that has a biomedical application that could be used for
treatment of an injury or disease. It could also be sued for monitoring a quantity such as
glucose level in blood which is useful for diagnostics. The characteristics of biomaterials
include biocompatibility, physical requirements, chemical requirements, and polymeric
biomaterials. Living systems have complex defense mechanisms for protection from
invasions or other organisms. Molecular-sized objects are bound by antibodies and
rejected. Larger objects induce an inflammatory reaction around them. Biocompatible
objects are more readily integrated into the body. It must meet the criteria to be used as
a replacement. For example, joint replacements must be wear-resistant. Biomaterials
must also be medical grade. They must remain innocuous over the lifetime of application.
It must not have contaminants. Biopolymers found in the body are highly complex. Man-
made polymers usually have one or two repeating monomers. Most polymers have few
or no polar groups along the chain that can interact with the aqueous medium. Synthetic
polymers can be detected as foreign objects when placed in the body because of the two
previous statements.
6. Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic, nonmetallic, solid materials. They can be crystalline or
noncrystalline. They are normally hard and brittle and are stable at very high temperatures.
Ceramic materials include silicates, oxides, carbides, nitrides, and aluminates. Ceramics
produce random, undetectable microcracks and voids. These areas are susceptible to
stress and becomes the origin of cracking and fractures. To toughen the ceramic,
materials that are less than a micrometer are produced through the sol-gel process and
then sintered into the ceramic. Composites are formed from complex mixtures of two or
more materials and procedure a tougher ceramic. These usually use ceramic fibers to
layer on top of ceramic material. Ceramics are often used in the cutting tool industry, the
electronic industry, the manufacturing of ceramic tiles for space shuttle services, and
superconducting ceramics.
7. Thin Films
Thin films were first used as decorative materials. By painting a pattern on ceramic
objects with a silver salt solution and then heating the painted object, the decomposition
of the salt leaves a thin film of metallic silver. This may be made from any kind of material
including metals, metal oxides, or organic substances. This refers to films with thickness
ranging from 0.1 micrometer to 300 micrometers. It does not refer to paints or varnish
which are much thicker. These thin films must be chemically stable in the environment in
which it is to be used. They should adhere well to the surface it covers and should be
chemically pure or of controlled composition. It should have low density of imperfections
and might have special properties like insulating or semiconducting. Because think films
are inherently fragile, they must adhere to its substrate to provide support. To obtain that
support, thin films must be bound to the substrate by strong forces. Thin films are used
as conductors, resistors, and capacitors. They are used as optical coating on lenses to
reduce the amount of light reflected from the lenses to reduce the amount of light reflected
from the lens and to protect the lens. They are used in protective coating in metals by the
use of electrical currents like silver plating and chrome plating. Thin films are also used
on metal tool surfaces to increase their hardness. These films are also used on glass
bottles to resist scratching.

Thin films may be formed through vacuum deposition and sputtering. Vacuum
deposition is used to form films of substances that can be vaporized or evaporated without
destroying their chemical identities. Sputtering uses high voltage to remove materials
from a source or target and deposit on a substrate.