THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CVNG 1005 SCIENCE OF MATERIALS - B

LECTURE NOTES

POLYMERS AND PLASTICS

 Background
Polymers – derived from two Greek words ‘"MER" that means "part" and another
Greek word “MONO” which means ‘one’. This part of a plastic is a unique
combination of molecules and is called a "MONOMER." It is like a single link in a
chain. The monomers are then fused or joined together, usually using heat and
pressure, to make long chains that result in a material with a useful blend of
properties. Using another Greek word "POLY" which means "many", the long chain
of "monomers" forms a "POLYMER." The monomers are held together in a polymer
chain by the strong attractive forces between molecules, while much weaker forces
hold the polymer chains together. The polymer chains can be constructed in many
ways. Some simplified examples of the way polymers are built are shown
(Transparency)

Polymers are all organic in origin and include:

a. Natural polymers (Natural rubber and timber) which are very complex and
specialized in molecular structure; and
b. Synthetic products obtained from of the petrochemical industry, a significant
factor in the reaction of plastic to high temperatures (burning)

 Plastics are polymers

Plastics encompass a large and varied group of materials consisting of different

combinations or formulations of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other
organic and inorganic elements. Most plastics are solid in finished form; however, at
some stage of their existence, they are a liquid and may be formed into various
shapes. The forming is usually done through the application, either singly or
together, of heat and pressure. There are over fifty different, unique families of
plastics in commercial use today and each family may have dozens of variations.

 Polymerization

The two or more monomers in a polymer are combined during the chemical reaction of
polymerization or alloying. That is the simple mixing of two or more polymers with a
resulting material possessing properties that are often better than either individual
material. Changing the length of the chains in a thermoplastic material will change its
final properties and how easily it can be shaped when it is melted.
 a. The "repeating unit" or molecular group is the same (A-); the product is known as
a homopolymer.
b. The "repeating unit" or molecular group are two (e.g. A-B-) the product is known
as a copolymer; and
c. The "repeating unit" or molecular group of three (A-B-C-) the product is known as
a terpolymer.

The number of repeating units in the polymer chain is called the "degree of
polymerization." If the repeating unit has a molecular weight (the combined weight of
all of the molecules in the repeating unit) of 60 and the chain or polymer has 1000
repeating units, then the polymer has a "molecular weight” The "repeating unit" or
molecular group in of 60 x 1000 = 60,000. The molecular weight is a way of measuring
how long the polymer chains are in a given material. The molecular weight of plastics
is usually between 10,000 and 1,000,000. It becomes increasingly difficult to form or
mold the plastic with the application of heat and pressure as the molecular weight
increases

 Crystalline Materials

Some of the polymers, because of their geometry, pack together very tightly in a
regular order when the material is hard and are called "crystalline." These polymers
usually exhibit a very sharp melting point; that is, they are solid. Then with a small
increase in temperature they become liquid or melt. An illustration of a sharp melting
point is the melting of ordinary candle wax. The crystalline polymers provide superior
properties, but they tend to shrink a considerable amount as they cool and reharden.

 Amorphous Materials

Materials that do not crystallize upon solidifying are called "amorphous” These
materials demonstrate a gradual softening as the temperature is increased. These
materials are usually not as easily processed as the crystalline material since they do
not flow as easily during molding.

 Polymers to Plastics
In a number of polymers, the chemical reactions do not result only in the formation of
long molecular chains but also link the molecules by chemical bonds to give rise to a
three-dimensional network called cross linking. Hence polymers consist of long-chain
molecules or molecular networks. Plastics however consist of:

a. a base polymer that is either transparent or translucent; and

b. additives (in small amounts) which can significantly improve specific properties

These additives include:

- colorants - these may be organic dyes or inorganic powder and
provide the desired color to the material. A colorant can make a
clear material transparent , translucent or opaque.
 - Fillers - these may be extenders which serve to reduce the
amount of base polymer or included to improve mechanical,
electrical or thermal properties
- Plasticizers - included to aid the flow of the plastic through the
manufacturing process
- reinforcement - including mica (formica) and glass fibre to
produce fibre glass composites. Reinforcements usually increase
the material's strength at the expense of impact resistance. The
use of reinforcements in plastics permits them to be used at
higher temperatures and loads with greater dimensional stability.
- Antioxidants: to improve high temperature stability
- antistatic agents - since the high resistance of surfaces of some
plastics are conducive to static electricity charges
- biocides for plastics containing organic materials,
- Flame retardants - for some plastics (polyethylene) that burn
readily,
- impact modifiers - where reinforcements usually increase the
material's strength at the expense of impact resistance
- friction reducers - some plastics wear rapidly
- foaming agents
- fungicides - plastics exposed to the weather; and
- ultraviolet stabilizers or uv absorbers: some plastics area a subject
to damage by ultraviolet radiation. Some withstand years of
continuous exposure while other weather badly. For example,
carbon black is used as a uv absorber in the manufacture of
storage tanks.

 THERMOPLASTIC/THERMOSET MATERIALS

The terms "thermosetting” and "thermoplastic” have been traditionally used to

describe the different types of plastic materials.

a. A "thermoplastic ", in general, is like wax; that is, you can melt it and shape it
several times. The "thermoplastic" materials are either crystalline or amorphous.
b. A "thermoset" is like concrete. You only get one chance to liquify and shape it.
These materials can be "cured" or polymerized using heat and pressure

The main difference between the two classes of materials is whether the polymer
chains remain "linear" and separate after molding (like spaghetti) or whether they
undergo a chemical change and form a three dimensional network (like a net) by
"crosslinking". Generally a crosslinked material is thermoset and cannot be
reshaped. Due to recent advances in polymer chemistry, the exceptions to this rule
are continually growing.

- Some examples of thermoplastics include:

 i. poly vinyl chloride (pvc) ii. nylon iii. polystyrene iv. polypropylene
v. neoprene

- Some examples of thermosets:

i. urea formaldehyde ii. phenol formaldehyde iii. epoxy resins
iv. polyurethane

 Processing of Plastics

Plastics are changed into useful shapes by using many different processes. The
processes that are used to mold or shape thermoplastics basically soften the plastic
material so it can be injected into a mold, flowed through a die, formed in or over a
mold, etc. The processes usually allow any scrap parts or material to be ground up
and reused. Some of the more common processes, too numerous to mention, are:

a. moulding b. extrusion c. thermoforming and d. casting

In all these method the polymers are used in the molten state

- Moulding (injection and rotational molding being the principal methods) -

“Injection Molding" is used to make three dimensional shapes
with great detail. The material is placed in the hopper of an
injection molding machine where it is fed into a chamber to be
melted. Once melted the material is forced, under pressure,
into the mold where it conforms to the shape of the cavity. The
mold is temperature controlled, usually by circulating
temperature controlled water through it. Once the part is
cooled, the mold is opened and the part removed. This method
is particularly suited for the repetitive production of
components of complicated shapes.

Rotational moulding is used for the formation of large

thermoplastic products as water tanks, etc.
- extrusion, - " Extrusion" is like squeezing toothpaste out of its tube. The
process produces continuous two dimensional shapes like
sheet, pipe, film, tubing, gaskets, etc. The material is fed into
the extruder where it is melted and pumped out of the
extrusion die. The die and the take-off line shape the material
as it cools and control the final dimensions of the cross-section
of the shape. Suite for producing a more durable layer above
a less durable substrate
- blow molding - the use of air to produce different shapes,
- thermoforming (which includes vacuum forming) - An extruded or
cast sheet can be heated, draped over (as opposed to inside) a
mold, and allowed to cool to produce a part; and
- casting - as the name implies, the material in a liquid form is
poured into a mold and hardened

 Properties of Plastics
 a. density - all low-density hence lightweight. In comparison with other materials:
o steel about 7900 kg/m3
o concrete 24 kN/m3
o timber - range from 500 kg/m3 to 1000 kg/m3
o plastics - range from 830 kg/m3 to 2150 kg/m3

a. Permeability - generally impermeable

b. Tensile strength
c. Impact strength
d. Resistance to friction and wear
e. Thermal properties
f. Durability
g. Fire behaviour; and
h. Toxicity

 Applications of Plastics in Engineering/Construction

1. Structural plastics - doors, window frames, glazing, sandwich constructions.
adhesives (in the manufacture of plywood), roof sheets, cladding, reinforcement
spacers, pipes (electrical, gas, potable water, waste water), storage tanks, etc.
2. Non structural plastics
- impermeable plastic membranes (dpc), linings for canals and
reservoirs, sleeving for buried iron pipes, etc.
- tiles, toilet seats, skirting, lighting, ceiling

3. Geo textile membranes - for ground stabilization and containment

4. Independent fabric structures - tents, masts and cable supported structures
temporarily of canvass
5. Paints and coatings use for decorative but primarily for corrosion control (epoxy
resins) and to a lesser extent for the protection of wood and concrete. All
coatings are a mixture of a polymer binder and fine powder pigments. The latter
serve to improve weathering and protect from photo-oxidation.
6. Adhesives - primarily for constructional timber:
a. Wood glues (powder form) also for wood laminates (plywood) and wood
composites (chip board, mdf)
b. Multi purpose two-pack thermoset materials (navicote); or
c. emulsions (polyvinyl acetate PVAC)
d. solvent based (contact cement)
7. Concrete modifiers (polymer concrete)