20ME403 Engineering

Materials and Metallurgy

UNIT IV
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
Presented by
Dr. A.Kadirvel M.E., PhD,
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
R.M.K. Engineering College
 NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
Introduction
 The most important non-metallic materials include polymers, ceramics, and
composites.

 Polymers are widely used in number of applicants, including toys, home

appliances, structural and decorative items, coatings, paints, adhesives,
automobile tyres, foams, and packing

 In the same way, ceramic materials are used in varies engineering

applications, including tools for grinding and cutting, seals, bearings and
other components for engines and pumps.

 The composite engineering materials are used to produce a wide range of

products varying from those used in high strength aircraft components to
road building and concrete.
 POLYMERS
INTRODUCTION

 Many of our useful plastics, rubber, and fiber materials are synthetic
polymers. In fact, in some applications polymers replaced metallic
materials. The use of synthetic polymers have increased largely during
recent decades.

POLYMERS

 The term ‘poly’ means many and the term ‘mer’ means parts or units.

 Thus polymers are composed of a large number of repeating units of small

molecules called monomers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERS

 Low density , Good thermal and electrical insulation properties

 High resistance to chemical attack, Ease of fabrication and Relatively low

cost.
 DISADVANTANGES OF POLYMER
MATERIALS
 Low strength

 Low elastic modulus values

 Low softening temperatures.

 However, the low strength and stiffness can be improved by fibre

reinforcement of polymers.

Some Important Definitions :

Monomer : The individual small molecules from which the polymer is formed
are known as monomers.

Polymer : Polymers are macro molecules (giant) having high molecular

weight and are made up of a great many simpler units – identical to each
other or at least chemically similar – joined together in a regular way.
Polymerization : The process by which the monomer molecules are linked
together to form a bigger molecule (macro-) is called polymerization.

Homopolymer: it is a polymer made out of identical monomer. When all the

repeating units along a chain are of the same type, the resulting polymer is
called a homopolymer. -M-M-M-M-

Copolymer: it is a polymer which is obtained by adding different types of

monomers. - M1-M2-M1-M2-M1-M2

Degree of polymerization : The number of repeating unit present in the

polymer chain is called degree of polymerization (n).

Plastics : When a polymer is shaped in to a hard and though utility articles by

the applications of heat and pressure then it is used as plastics. E.g. PVC,
polymethyl methacrylate (P.M.M.A.), poly styrene etc. which can be
extruded as a sheets or pipes.
(h) Fibers : Fibers are long, thin, thread like bits of material that are having
great tensile (pulling) strength in the direction of the fiber. E.g. nylon,
terylene, polyester etc.

(i) Elastomers : Elastomer possesses the high degree of elasticity that is

characteristic of rubber. It can be greatly deformed and stretched up to
eight times of its original length and yet return to its original shape. E.g.
natural rubber, synthetic rubber, silicon rubber.

(j) High polymers: Polymer which contains more than hundred monomers in
their backbone is called high polymers.

(k) Initiator : Initiator is species which are responsible to initiate chain

reaction by breaking down itself to form a free radical in presence of U.V.
light or heating.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS
 PLASTIC
 Plastic may be defined as an organic polymer, which can be moulded into
any desired shape and size with the help of heat, pressure, or both.

 Now a days plastics are extensively used in engineering applications due to

their important properties such as

➢ low price,

➢ colour range,

➢ toughness,

➢ water resistance,

➢ low electrical and thermal conductivity,

➢ Ease of fabrication
 NATURAL Vs SYNTHETIC PLASTICS
❖ NATURAL PLASTICS: the plastics which are available as such in the nature
are called natural plastics. Examples include resins, lac, and casein.

❖ SYNTHETIC PLASTICS: the plastics which are prepared artificially are called
synthetics. Examples include urea, phenol formaldehydes, polystyrene, and
acrylic.

SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS FOR PLASTICS

❖ Animals and vegetable by-products {such as casein (from cow’s milk),
cellulose(mainly from cotton fibres), and wood pulp (cellulosics) }
❖ Coal by-products (obtained during the destructive distillation of coal to
produce coal gas).
❖ Petroleum by products (obtained during the refining of crude oil)
 CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS
i. THERMOPLASTICS

ii. THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

THERMOPLASTICS:

 Thermoplastics, also known as thermoplastics, are the plastics whose

plasticity increases with the increase in temperature.

 Thermoplastic may be solidified and reheated as many time as desired. But

their characteristics remain the same.

 Thermoplastics are relatively soft and ductile.

 Since thermoplastics have low melting temperatures and can be repeatedly

moulded and remoulded to the desired shape, they have a good resale/
scrap value.
 THERMOPLASTICS
MECHANISM
❖ Thermoplastics are formed by addition polymerisation.
❖ The addition polymerisation produces only linear polymers
❖ On cooling, they are hardened and they regain their original low temperature
properties.
EXAMPLES
❖ Polythenes (Polyethylene)
❖ Polystyrenes
❖ Polyvinyls
❖ Acrylics
❖ Polyamides (Nylones)
❖ Polytetrfluoro ethylenes (Teflon)
❖ Cellulosics
 THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
❖ Thermosetting plastics, also known as thermosets, are plastics which
become permanently hard when heat is applied and do not soften upon
subsequent heating.
❖ They cannot be remoulded / reshaped again and again. That’s why they do
not have a resale / scrap value.
MECHANISM
❖ The thermosetting plastics are formed by condensation polymerisation.
❖ Condensation polymerisation produces cross-linked molecules.
❖ They are not broken by heat until the compound is decomposed
EXAMPLES
❖ Polyesters Phenolic
❖ Urea formaldehyde Melamine formaldehydre Epoxides
S.No THERMOPLASTICS THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

1. They are formed by additional They are formed by condensation

polymerisation polymerisation

2. They are linear polymers.so They are composed of three

THERMOPLASTICS Vschain
they are composed of THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
dimensional network of cross
molecules linked molecules

3. Softening is possible on Softening is not possible on

reheating (because of the reheating (because of the strong
weak secondary forces) covalent bonds)

4. They can be easily moulded They cannot be remoulded into

on remoulded into any shape new shape
5. They can be recycled again They cannot be recycled
S.No THERMOPLASTICS THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

6. They can be reclaimed for They cannot be reclaimed

value
THERMOPLASTICS Vs THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
7. They are soft, weak and less They are hard, strong, and more
brittle brittle
8. They are soluble in organic They are not soluble in organic
solvents solvents

9. They are not suitable for high They are usable in processes
temperature services requiring high temperature

10. Examples: Polyethylenes, Examples: Polyesters, Phenolics,

Polystyrenes, PVC epoxides etc.
 COMMODITY AND ENGINEERING PLASTICS
COMMODITY PLASTICS
❖ The wide used plastics are called as commodity plastics.
❖ Commodity plastics generally have lower cost.
❖ Most commodity plastics are used for throwaway items such
as hot/cool drink cups, plastic bags, boxes, etc.
 ENGINEERING PLASTICS
❖ Engineering plastics have higher strength, greater
environmental resistance, and better physical properties.
 PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF SOME
THERMOPLASTICS
HYDROCARBON PLASTICS
POLYETHYLENE (PE)

❖ Polyethylene, also known commonly as polythene, is made by the

polymerisation of ethene i.e., ethylene (CH2 = CH2).

❖ Polyethylene is made from petroleum or natural gas feed stocks

TYPES OF POLYETHYLENES:

❖ Low density polyethylene (LDPE),

❖ High density polyehtylene (HDPE),

❖ Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE)

❖ Ultra-high-molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE).

POLYETHYLENE (PE)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PEs
❖ They have excellent resistance to most solvents and chemicals
❖ They are tough and flexible over a wide range of temperature.
❖ They are non toxic
❖ They possess good electrical insulation properties.
APPLICATIONS:
❖ Polyethylene include flexible bottles, toys, packing films, seals and gaskets,
bowls and bucket, etc.
POLYPROPYLENE (PP)
❖ Polypropylene is formed from the monomer propene (CH2= CH-CH3).
❖ It is similar to high density polyethylene but its mechanical properties make
it more suitable for moulded parts than polyethylene.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PPs
❖ They are stiffer, harder, and often stronger than polyehtylens
❖ They have excellent fatigue resistance and a higher use temperature
❖ They are lighter in weight
❖ They have good chemical and thermal resistance.
APPLICATIONS
❖ Polypropylene include low-cost semi-rigid moulded products such as
housewares, car interior components, bottle caps, extruded pipes etc.
POLYSTYRENE (PS)
❖ Polystyrene is made from ethyl-benzene. It accounts for about 20% of all thermoplastics
in commercial use.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PS
❖ They are low cost, brittle, glassy, transparent polymers.
❖ They are easy to process and have excellent mouldability.
❖ They have good dimensional stability
❖ They have a poor chemical and corrosion resistance
TYPES OF POLYSTYRENES
❖ HIPS (high impact polystyrene)
❖ ABS (Acryknitrile-butadiene-Styrene)and
❖ SAN (Styrene-Acrylonitrile)
APPLICATIONS
❖ Polystyrene include packaging and insulating foams, lighting panels, appliance
components, egg boxes, wall tiles, battery cases, etc.
CHLOROCARBON AND FLUROCARBON POLYMERS
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)
❖ Polyvinyl chlorides (PVC) is made by polymerisation of monomer vinyl
chloride (CH2 = CHCL)
❖ PVC is one of the most widely used plastics in terms of volume produced.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PVC
❖ They are low cost, general purpose materials,
❖ They are ordinarly rigid, but can be made flexible with plasticizers.
❖ They have good flame, electrical, chemical, oil, abrasion, and weather
resistance in various grades.
 POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)
TYPES OF PVCs
❖ UPVC (unplasticised PVC): UPVC is a strong, rigid and tough material with
good resistance to ultra violet light.
❖ PPVC (plasticiced PVC): the raw polymer is compounded with a plasticising
agent to form PPVC.
❖ CPVC (chlorinated PVC): it is a polymer of dichloroethylene.
APPLICATIONS
❖ PVC include pipes, valves, fittings, floor tiles, wire insulations, toys, vinyl
automobile roofs, etc.
POLYTETRAFLUORO ETHYLENE (PTFE)
❖ Polytetrafluoro ethylene (PTFE) is the most widely used fluorocarbon
polymer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PTFEs
❖ They are chemically inert in almost all environments
❖ They have excellent electrical properties
❖ They have low coefficient of friction
❖ They possess relatively weak ad poor cold flow properties.
OTHER FLUOROCARBON POLYMERS are
❖ PVDF (Polyvinylidene fluoride),
❖ PVF (Polyvinyl fluoride)
❖ PFA (perfluroalkoxy ethylene)
 POLYTETRAFLUORO ETHYLENE (PTFE)
APPLICATIONS:
❖ PTFE include anti corrosive seals, chemical pipes and valves,
bearings, non-stick coatings, and high temperature electronic parts.
 ACRYLIC MATERIALS
PMMA
❖ PMMA (Polymethyl meth acrylate) also known as perspex or plexiglass, is
produced by the addition polymerisation of methyl methacrylate.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PMMAs
❖ They are hard, rigid, and high impact strength thermoplastic
❖ They are highly transparent to light
❖ They can be easily formed.
❖ They can be readily coloured and they have excellent decorative properties.
APPLICATIONS
❖ PMMAs include camera lenses, flash lights, safety glases, drfting
equipments, instrument panels, display signs, transparent aircraft
enclosures, and windows
 PAN
❖ PAN (Polyacrylonitrile) is an acrylic polymer made by the addition
polymerisation of acrylonitrile.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PANs
❖ They are highly stable material
❖ They have good resistant to oils and greases.
APPLICATIONS
❖ PAN is mainly used for synthetic fibre manufacture.
POLYAMIDES (PA)
❖ Polyamides also known as nylons, are the products of condensation
reactions between an amine and an organic acid.
❖ For example, nylon 6/12 is a copolymer of nylons 6 and 12.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NYLONS
❖ They are crystalline thermoplastics with good mechanical properties
❖ They are very strong and tough
❖ They possess good abrasion resistance
❖ They are flexible and high impact strengths
APPLICATIONS
❖ Nylons include bearings, gears, cams, fastenings, many automotive
parts, busings, electrical components, fibres, and ropes.
HETEROCHAIN POLYMERS
ACETAL (POM)
❖ Acetal, also known as polyacetal and polyoxymethylene, is based on
the polymerisaiton of formaldehyde.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACETALS
❖ They possess good strength, stiffness and toughness
❖ They have a low coefficient of friction
❖ They retain their properties at temperatures of upto 120 degree C
APPLICATIONS
❖ Acetals include plumbing fixtures, pens, bearings, gears, cams,
leavers, fan blades, pump parts, water taps, and piping.
POLYCARBONATE (PC)
❖ Polycarbonate is a linear heterochain polymer made from the
condensation of bisphenol A and carbonic acid.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACETALS
❖ They are very good impact resistance and ductility.
❖ They are dimensionally stable.
❖ They are transparent and low water absorption materials.
❖ They have low fatigue and weak resistance.

APPLICATIONS
❖ Polycarbonates include safety helmets, shields and goggles, lenses,
glazing, lighting fittings, CDs, car headlamp mouldings, kettle
mouldings, instrument casings and machine housing.
POLYETHYLENE TERAPHTHALATE (PET)
❖ Polyethylene teraphthalate also known as polyester or PETP, is a linear
polyester made by the condensation polymerisation of ethylene glycol and
teraphthalic acid.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACETALS
❖ They are high strength, high stiffness thermoplastics.
❖ They are produced as fibres, as transparent films, and as moulding
materials.
❖ They have excellent fatigue and wear strength
❖ They possess good resistance to humidity, acids, greases, oils and solvants
APPLICATIONS
❖ PET include fibres, photographic films, recoding tapes, boil-in-bag
containers, beverage containers, soft drinks bottles, electrical connectors.
POLYETHER ETHER KETONE (PEEK)
❖ Polyether ether ketone is a linear crystalline hetero chain polymer. It is a
high-temperature plastics, which is generally used for service of high
temperatures.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACETALS
❖ They have a melt temperature as high as 330 degree C.
❖ They have low flammability and lowest smoke emission ratings.
❖ They have good fatigue and chemical resistance.
❖ They possess better mechanical properties.
APPLICATIONS
❖ PEEK include high temperature engineering components, high-temperature
electrical insulation and coatings, and aerospace applications
POLYPHENYLENE OXIDE (PPO)
❖ PPO is an armorphous linear heteochain polymer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACETALS
❖ They possess good mechanical properties and a high impact
strength over a wide range of temperature (-40°C to 150°C).
❖ They have a low mould shrinkage and they show very good
dimensional stability over a wide range of temperatures.
APPLICATIONS
❖ PPO include computer components, high-temperature consumer
electrical components, automotive parts, component for
dishwashers and washing machines.
POLYPHENYLENE SULPHIDE(PPS)
❖ PPS is also a linear heterochain polymer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACETALS
❖ They have good resistance to chemicals and solvents.
❖ They also possess good flame resistance.
❖ They are difficult to pigment, therefore they are available only in
dark colours
❖ They are suitable for continuous use at Temp, up to 190°C.
APPLICATIONS
❖ PPS include coatings, fluid handling components electronic
components, hair dryer components.
POLYIMIDES (PI)
❖ The polyimides are a group of linear aromatic polymers.
❖ They are produced by a condensation reaction between pyromellitic
dianhydride and a diamine.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACETALS
❖ They possess good mechanical properties with a low coefficient of
friction.
❖ They possess excellent thermal resistance upto about 250°C
❖ They have good resistance to organic solvents but are attacked by
alkalis and concentrated acids.
APPLICATIONS
❖ Polyimides include bearings and seals for high-load/high speed
applications, printed circuit boards, fibres for space shuttle.
POLYAMIDE-IMIDE (PAI)
❖ PAI is also a linear aromatic polymer for use at high temperatures
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACETALS
❖ PAI are expensive and are attacked by alkalis.
APPLICATIONS
❖ Valves, bearings, electrical connectors, printed circuit boards, and
components for gas turbine and spark ignition engines.
PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF
SOME THERMOSETTING
ENGINEERING CERAMICS
❖ The term ceramic embraces not only earthenware, pottery and
porcelain, all materials used by man from earliest times, but also the
newer engineering ceramics which are mainly the oxides, carbides
and nitrides of metals.
❖ Ceramic materials are used in varied engineering applications
including tools for grinding and cutting, seals, bearings, magnets
other components for engines and pumps, tiles for the space
shuttles, fibres and laser source for optical communications.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CERAMICS
❖ Ceramics are non-metallic and inorganic solids that are processed
and/or used at high temperatures.
❖ Ceramics are strong, hard, and brittle.
❖ They possess high melting temperature.
❖ They are good thermal and electrical insulators.
❖ They are resistant to oxidation and corrosion
❖ They have high compressive strength but are weak in tension.
CLASSIFICATION OF CERAMICS
ENGINEERING CERAMICS
❖ Engineering ceramics are also known as technical/industrial
ceramics or advanced ceramics, are those ceramics that are
specially used for engineering applications
❖ Engineering ceramics are mainly oxides, carbides, sulphides, and
nitrides of metals
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGINEERING CERAMICS
❖ High resistance to abrasion and wear
❖ High strength at high temperature
❖ Good chemical stability
❖ Good electrical insulation characteristics.
TYPES OF ENGINEERING CERAMICS
TYPES OF ENGINEERING CERAMICS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME SELECTED ENGINEERING CERAMICS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME SELECTED ENGINEERING CERAMICS
 Classification of ceramics
1. Traditional ceramics: Clay products, Glasses, Refractories, cement.
2. Advanced Ceramics: Silicon carbide, Alumina, Silicon Nitride,
Advanced Ceramics
Alumina(Al2O3):
 Alumina is nothing but an aluminium oxide (Al2O3), which is the oldest
engineering ceramics.
 Alumina is produced from bauxite (Al2O3 . 2 H2O), which is the main ore
from which metallic aluminium is manufactured.
 It is the most widely use oxide ceramic, either in the pure form or as a raw
material mixed with other ceramics.
Synthetic alumina is obtained by the fusion of molten bauxite, iron fillings, coke in electric
furnaces. The cooled product is crushed and then graded in to various sizes. Alumina parts
are manufactured from these powders by cold pressing and sintering. Their properties are
improved by minor additions of other ceramics such as titanium oxide and titanium carbide.
Alumina has a hexagonal structure with a very strong ionic and covalent bonding.
Properties:
➢ Hard, wear-resistant
➢ Excellent dielectric properties.
➢ Resists strong acid and alkali attack at elevated temperatures Good thermal
conductivity
➢ Excellent size and shape capability
➢ High strength and stiffness
➢ Available in purity ranges from 94%, an easily metallizable (thin coated)
composition, to 99.5% for the most demanding high temperature
applications.
➢ High Hardness (1600 HV) and moderate tensile strength (206 MPa).
➢ Compressive strength (2620 Mpa) of alumina is higher than hardened tool
steels
Applications:

➢ Alumina is used as a refractory material for high temperature applications.

➢ Alumina makes an excellent high voltage insulator. Insulators in spark plugs

and in insulating substrates to support integrated circuits.

➢ Alumina based ceramic tools have high abrasion resistance, hot hardness
and are chemically stable than high speed steels. So they are used in
cutting cast irons, and steels to obtain good surface finish.

➢ It is used as abrasion material in grinding wheels.

➢ It is used for pump liners, pump impellers, check valves and nozzles
subjected to erosion.

➢ Some unique application found in medical use that include restoration of

teeth, bone filler and orthopedic implants.
Silicon Carbide (SiC): Synthetic silicon carbide is made from silica sand,
coke, small amounts of sodium chloride and saw dust.

When the mixture is fired at a high temperature in an electric arc furnace for a
long time, the carbon from coke diffuses into the sand and silicon carbide is
formed.

After the furnace has cooled, the silicon carbide mass is removed, crushed and
then graded into various desired sizes.

Two types of silicon carbides – hexagonal alpha and cubic beta. Structural parts
are commonly made from alpha Sic by the sintering process.

 α – SiC : the α Silicon Carbide is made by the reduction of silicon sand with
carbon in an arc furnace. It has a hexagonal crystalline structure.

 β – SiC the β Silicon carbide is produced by a vapour phase reactions. It

has a cubic crystalline structure.
Properties:

➢ It has high hardness (2400 HK) and wear resistance.

➢ It provides outstanding oxidation resistance even at temperature above the

melting point of steel. It retains its strength at elevated temperatures

➢ Low friction coefficient.

Applications:

➢ Silicon carbides are widely used as abrasives for grinding wheels and for

➢ bonded abrasive papers.

➢ They also used as coatings for metals, composites, and other ceramics to

➢ provide protection at very high temperatures.

➢ They are used for nuclear reactor fuel elements.

➢ They are also formed as fibres and whiskers for use as reinforcement in

➢ composite materials
Silicon Nitride (Si3N4): Silicon nitride is a man made compound synthesized
through several different chemical reaction methods.

Parts are pressed and sintered by well developed methods to produce a

ceramic with a unique set of outstanding properties.

This is a very useful engineering ceramics which fully resistant to most strong
acids and to molten aluminium and other low melting point metals

TYPES OF SILICON NITRIDE CERAMICS

❖ Reaction bonded silicon nitride

❖ Hot pressed silicon nitride

❖ Sintered silicon nitride

❖ Pressure-less sintered silicon nitride.

Properties:
➢ High strength over a wide temperature range
➢ High fracture toughness
➢ High hardness
➢ Outstanding wear resistance, both impingement and frictional
modes
➢ Good thermal shock resistance
➢ Good chemical resistance
Applications:
➢ Rotating bearing balls and rollers
➢ Cutting tools
➢ Engine moving parts — valves, turbocharger rotors
➢ Engine wear parts — cam followers, tappet shims
➢ Turbine blades, vanes, buckets
➢ Metal tube forming rolls and dies
➢ Precision shafts and axles in high wear environments
➢ Weld positioners
Partially stabilized Zirconia (PSZ): Zirconia has a monoclinic structure at
room temperature and a tetragonal structure at elevated temperature, during
the transformation of monoclinic to tetragonal structure, there is a volume
expansion. If this volume expansion is allowed to occur during hot pressing or
sintering, it fractures the part. This is avoided by stabilization of zirconia.
Stabilization is obtained by doping Zirconia with oxides of magnesium, calcium
or yttrium. This process forms a material called partially stabilized
zirconia(PSZ).

PSZ is nothing but a zirconium oxide that has been blended and sintered

with some other oxide such as magnesium oxide calcium oxide and yttrium

to control crystal structure transformation

Zirconia is an extremely refractory material.

It offers chemical and corrosion inertness to temperatures well above the

melting point of alumina. The material has low thermal conductivity.

It is electrically conductive above 600°C and is used in oxygen sensor cells and
as the susceptor (heater) in high temperature induction furnaces.

With the attachment of platinum leads, nernst glowers used in spectrometers

can be made as a light emitting filament which operates in air.
 Properties
➢Use temperatures up to 2400°C
➢High density
➢Low thermal conductivity (20% that of alumina)
➢Chemical inertness
➢Resistance to molten metals
➢Ionic electrical conduction
➢Wear resistance
➢High fracture toughness
➢High hardness
 Applications
➢Precision ball valve balls and seats
➢High density ball and pebble mill grinding media
➢Rollers and guides for metal tube forming
➢Thread and wire guides
➢Hot metal extrusion dies
➢ Deep well down-hole valves and seats
➢ Powder compacting dies
➢ Marine pump seals and shaft guides
➢ Oxygen sensors
➢ High temperature induction furnace susceptors
➢ Fuel cell membranes
➢ Electric furnace heaters over 2000°C in oxidizing atmospheres
Sialon (Si3Al3O3N5): Sialon is derived from silicon, aluminium, oxygen and
nitrogen. Sialon is formed by blending silicon nitride with various
proportions of aluminium oxide, aluminium nitride and yttrium oxide.

Sialon is formed when aluminium and oxygen partially substitute for silicon
and nitrogen in silicon nitride. During sintering, the sialon crystals are
embedded in the glassy phase based on yttrium oxide. The glossy phase is
then allowed to devitrify by heat treatment to improve its creep resistance.

Properties:

➢ Excellent thermal shock resistance

➢ Not wetted or corroded by nonferrous metals

➢ High strength

➢ Good fracture toughness

➢ Good high temperature strength

➢ Low thermal expansion

➢ Mechanical fatigue and creep resistance.

Applications:

➢ Thermocouple protection tubes for nonferrous metal melting

➢ Immersion heater and burner tubes

➢ Degassing and injector tubes in nonferrous metals

➢ Metal feed tubes in aluminium die casting

➢ Welding and brazing fixtures and pins

COMPARISON OF ENGINEERING CERAMICS TO OTHER
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
COMPARISON OF ENGINEERING CERAMICS TO OTHER
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
 COMPOSITES - INTRODUCTION
❖ There are many situations in engineering where no single material will
be suitable to meet a particular design requirement.
❖ For example, aerospace applications need materials that should have
low densities, high strength and stiffness, good abrasive, impact and
corrosion resistance.
❖ Such a combination of characteristics are not met by conventional
metals, alloys, ceramics and polymeric materials.
❖ The term composite can be defined as a material composed of two or
more different materials, with the properties of the resultant material
being superior to the properties of the individual materials that make
up the composite.
 CONSTITUENTS OF COMPOSITES
❖ Matrix phase
❖ Dispersed phase
❖ The geometry of the dispersed phase means the shape of
the particles and the particles size, distribution, and
orientation.
 PARTICLE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
❖ Particle reinforced composites consists of particles of one
material dispersed in a matrix of a second material.
❖ Metal matrix with a fine distribution of secondary particles.
❖ Our object is to strengthen this matrix-mixture so that to
obtain a composite material with superior characteristics.
CLASSIFICATIONS
❖ Dispersion-strengthened composites
❖ Large particle composites.
 DISPERSION-STRENGTHENED COMPOSITES
❖ In dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally
much smaller, having diameters between 0.01 and 0.1
microns the volume concentration are 1 to 15%
❖ Thus the plastic deformation is restricted which results in
improved yield and tensile strengths, as well as hardness.

SAP COMPOSITES
❖ Sintered aluminium powder composites has an aluminium
matrix which is strengthened by up to 14% Al2O3
❖ SAP finds wide use because they retain a much higher
strength at all temperatures.
EXAMPLES OF DISPERSION-STRENGTHENED
COMPOSITES
 LARGE PARTICLE COMPOSITES
❖ If we have a greater percentage of dispersion and larger particles, we obtain
large particle reinforcement.
❖ In a large particle reinforced composites, particles diameters are greater than 1
micron and volume concentrations are greater than 25 %.
EXAMPLES OF LARGE PARTICLE COMPOSITES
❖ CERMET: the term cermet refers to ceramic metal composites containing
between 8 and 90 % of ceramic
❖ Cermets are composed of ceramic particles in a metallic matrix.
❖ The most common cermet is the cemented carbide, which is composed of
extremely hard particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten
carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC), embedded in a matrix of a metal such
as cobalt or nickel. These composites are extensively used as cutting tools.
DIFFERENT CERMET MATERIALS AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS
 OTHER PARTICLE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

❖ Bricks
❖ Concrete
❖ Grinding and cutting wheels
❖ Electrical contacts
❖ Polymer elastomers
 FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
❖ Fibre reinforced composites are those in which the dispersed phase
is in the form of a fiber.
❖ The functions of the matrix are to keep the fibres together, to
protect them from damage, and to transmit the load from one fibre
to another.
❖ The greatest reinforcing effect is obtained when fibres are
continuous and parallel to one another.
❖ If the fibres are discontinuous, their strengthening effect will be
less than that of continuous fibres.
❖ Most fibre reinforced components provide improved strength,
fatigue resistance, stiffness, and strength to weight ratio.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

❖ FIBRE LENGTH AND DIAMETER: fibres can be short, long, or even continuous.
Their dimensions are generally specified by the aspect ratio l/d where l is the
fibre length and d is the fibre diameter.
❖ AMOUNT OF FIBRE: a greater volume fraction of fibres increases strength and
stiffness of the composite.
❖ ORINENTATION OF FIBRES: short, randomly oriented fibres give relatively
isotropic behaviour in the composite.
❖ Long or even continuous, unidirectional arrangements of fibres produce
anisotropic properties with particularly good strength and stiffness parallel to
the fibres.
❖ FIBRE PROPERTIES: if the composite is to be used at elevated temperatures,
the fibre should have a high melting temperature.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
❖ Low relative density and hence high specific strength and modulus of elasticity
❖ Good resistance to corrosion
❖ Good fatigue resistance, particularly parallel to fibre direction
Generally low coefficient of thermal expansion.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

❖ Composite materials exhibit superior mechanical properties such as high strength,
toughness, elastic modulus, fairly good fatigue and impact properties.
❖ In aerospace applications, the power to weight ratio is about 16 with composites
compared to 5 with conventional material
❖ The fabrication of composites to any desired shape and size can be achieved with
ease.
LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
❖ Higher cost than many conventional materials
❖ Polymeric composites cannot be used for high temperature applications.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Glass fibre Reinforced plastics (GFRP): Glass fibres are the most widely
used and the least expensive of all the fibres.

The most generally used glass fibre is E- Glass and common polymer matrix
materials are polyesters and vinyl esters.

Polyesters are used for general structures. Epoxies are used in high strength
applications. High purity silica fibres in polyamide resins are used for
applications where the service temperature is as high as 3000 C.

GFRP composites have very high specific strength. But they are not rigid
and are limited to service temperature below 2000 C.

Applications: Used in Automotive and marine bodies, leaf springs, pipes,

storage containers, sporting goods and industrial floorings.
Metal Matrix Composites: (MMC)

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in

research fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts.

High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices
than those offered by their polymer counterparts.

They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than

polymer composites.

Most metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require
reinforcement materials which need to be stable over a range of temperature
and non-reactive too.
If metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high
modulus reinforcements. The strength-to weight ratios of resulting composites
can be higher than most alloys.

The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at

various temperatures determine the service temperature of composites.
Applications:

➢ Aluminium reinforced with alumina fibres has been used in automotive

connecting rods and pistons.

➢ Aluminium reinforced with boron fibres has been used in aerospace

applications, including struts for the space shuttle.

➢ Aluminium reinforced with SiC whiskers are used in aircraft wing planes.

➢ Copper based alloys reinforced with sic fibres are used for producing high
strength propellers for ships.

➢ Super alloys reinforced with tungsten maintain their strength at high

temperature. They are used in Jet engines and turbine blades.
 REVISION Basic
Q1. What are polymers?
Polymers are composed of a large number of repeating units of
small molecules called manometers.
Polymers may be defined as giant organic, chain-like molecules
having molecular weight from 10000 to more than 1,000,000 g.mol-1.

Q2. List any four attractive characteristics of polymers.

1. Low density. 2. Good thermal and electrical insulation properties.
3. High resistance to chemical attack. 4. Ease of fabrication. 5. Relatively
low cost.

Q3. Classify polymers.

1. Plastics, 2. Elastomers, 3. Adhesives, 4. Coatings, 5. Fibres.
 REVISION Basic
Q4. Define the following terms: i) Monometer, ii) Homopolymer, and
iii) Copolymer.
Monomer is a small molecule consisting of a single mer i.e., a single
unit/blocking block.
Homopolymer is a polymer made out of identical monomer.
Copolymer is a polymer which is obtained by adding different types of
monomers.
Q5. What is meant by isomerism?
Isomerism is a phenomenon wherein different atomic configurations are
possible for the same configuration.
Q6. What is meant by the term ‘unsaturated molecule’? State its significance in
plastics.
A compound in which the valence bonds of the carbon atoms are not satisfied
is said to be unsaturated. Such unsaturated molecules are important in
the polymerization i.e., joining together of small molecules into large one
having the same constituents.
 REVISION Basic
Q7. What is polymerisation?
Polymerisation is the process of forming a polymer.
Q8. Define the term ‘degree of polymerisation’?
Degree of polymerisation is the number of repetitive units (or mers)
present in one molecule of a polymer. Mathematically,
Molecular weight of a polymer
Degree of polymerisation = --------------------------------------------------------------
Molecular weight of a single monomer
Q9. What is the difference between addition polymerisation and condensation
polymerisation?
Addition polymerisation, also known as chain reaction polymerisation, is a
process by which two or more chemically similar monomers are polymerized
to form long chain molecules.
Condensation polymerisation, also known as step-growth polymerisation, is
the formation of polymers by stepwise intermolecular chemical reactions
that normally involve at least two different monomers.
 REVISION Basic
Q10. Why are additives added to polymers?
The various polymer additives include:
1. Filler materials, 2. Plasticizers, 3. Stabilizers, 4. Colorants, 5. Flame
retardants, 6. Reinforcements, and 7. Lubricants.

Q11. What are the characteristics of plastics which account for their wide use
as engineering materials?
Plastics are extensively used in engineering applications due to their
important properties such as low price, colour range, toughness, water
resistance, low electrical and thermal conductivity, ease of fabrication, etc.
Q12. . Why are the fillers and plasticizers added to polymers?
S.No. Additive Purpose
Nam
To improve tensile and compressive strengths.
1. Fillers To improve dimensional and thermal stability, and other
properties.
To reduce the cost of the final product.
To improve the flexibility, ductility, and toughness. To reduce
2. Plasticisers the hardness and stiffness.
To increase and control the flow of the polymer during
molding.
 REVISION Basic
 Q13. Differentiate commodity plastics with engineering plastics.
The plastics which are not generally used for engineering applications are
known as commodity plastics. H plastics which are used in engineering
applications are known as engineering plastics.

Q14. Name any four commodity plastics and engineering plastics.

Commodity plastics: i) Polyethylene (PE), ii) Polypropylene (PP), iii)
Polystyrene (PS), iv) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Engineering Plastics:
i) Ethenic, ii) Polyamides, iii) Cellulosics, iv) Acetals.
Q15. Name any four thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
Thermoplastics: Polythenes, Polypropylene, Polystyrenes, PVC.
Thermosetting plastics: Polyesters, phenolics, epoxides, melamine
formaldehyde.
 REVISION Basic
 Q13. Differentiate commodity plastics with engineering plastics.
The plastics which are not generally used for engineering applications are
known as commodity plastics. H plastics which are used in engineering
applications are known as engineering plastics.

Q14. Name any four commodity plastics and engineering plastics.

Commodity plastics: i) Polyethylene (PE), ii) Polypropylene (PP), iii)
Polystyrene (PS), iv) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Engineering Plastics:
i) Ethenic, ii) Polyamides, iii) Cellulosics, iv) Acetals.
Q15. Name any four thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
Thermoplastics: Polythenes, Polypropylene, Polystyrenes, PVC.
Thermosetting plastics: Polyesters, phenolics, epoxides, melamine
formaldehyde.
 REVISION Basic

Q.16 What advantages do thermoplastic polymers have over thermosetting

polymers, and vice versa?
Since thermoplastics have low melting temperature and can be repeatedly
moulded and remoulded to the desired shape, they have a good resale/scrap
value.
The thermosetting plastics are generally stronger, harder, more brittle, more
resistant to heat and solvents than thermoplastics.
Q17. What are the sources of raw materials for plastics?
1. Animal and vegetable by-products, 2. Coal by-products, 3. Petroleum by-
products.
Q18. What do the following ‘acronyms’ refer: PE, PP, PS, PVC, PTFE, PMMA.
PE: Polyethylene; PP: Polypropylene; PS: Polystyrene; PVC; Polyvinyl chloride;
PTFE: Polytetrafluro ethylene; PMMA: Polymethyl methacrylate.
 REVISION Basic
20. List the properties and typical applications of PVC.
Properties: Good low-cost, general purpose materials; ordinary rigid, but can
be made flexible with plasticizers; susceptible to heat distortion.
Typical applications: Pipes, valves, fittings, floor tiles, wire insulations, toys,
phonograph records, safety glass interlayers.
21. What are acrylic materials? Name two of them.
Acrylic materials are thermoplastic polymers based on the polymerization of
esters of acrylic acid and/or methacrylic acid.
The most commonly used acrylic polymers are:
1. PMMA (Polymethyl methacrylate), 2. PAN (Polyacrylonitrile).
22. Write short notes on nylons.
Polyamides (PA), also known as nylons, are the products of condensation
reactions between an amine and an organic acid.
There are number of common polyamides. They are usually designated as
nylon 6, nylon 6/6, nylon 6/10, nylon 6/12, nylon 11, and nylon 12. These
suffixes refer to the number of carbon atoms in each of the reacting
substances involved in the condensation polymerization process.
 REVISION Basic
Q23. What are bakelites? Also state their applications.

Phenolics, also known as Bakelites, are the oldest family of thermosetting

plastics. The most important phenolic materials is the polyformaldehydes.
Typical applications include electrical plugs, sockets, switches, telephones,
door knobs and handles, adhesives, coatings, and laminates.

Q24. List the characteristics of urea-formaldehyde.

1. They are similar to the phenolics. 2. They are hard and rigid thermosets.

3. They have good electrical insulation properties. 4. They are light in colour.

5. They exhibit good resistance to most chemicals.

Q25. What are engineering ceramics?

Engineering ceramics are also known as technical/industrial ceramics, are

those ceramics that are specially used for engineering applications or in
industries
 REVISION Basic

Q 26. What is meant by PSZ?

Partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) is nothing but a zirconium oxide (ZrO2) that
has been blended and sintered with some other oxide such as magnesium
oxide (MgO), calcium oxide (CaO), and yttria (Y2O3), to control crystal
structure transformations.

Q 27. What are sialons? State their applications.

The name sialon is an acronym derived from the ingredients involved, namely
Si formed when aluminium and oxygen partially substitute for silicon and
nitrogen in silicon nitride.
Sialons are used for cutting tool materials, dies for drawing wire and tubes,
rock-cutting and coal-cutting equipment, nozzles and welding shields.
 REVISION Basic

Q28. What are composites?

Composites are produced when two or more materials are joined to give
a combination of properties that cannot be attained in the original materials.

Q29. What are the constituents of composites?

Composites are composed of two phases. They are:
1. Matrix phase, and 2. Dispersed phase.

Q30. What is the role of matrix material in a composite?

The matrix usually provides the major control over electrical properties,
chemical behaviour, and elevated-temperature use of the composite.
 REVISION

Q31. List out the classification in Plastics.

Ans: Based on their temperature dependence of their structure as
Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics
Q32. Distinguish between thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers.
Ans:

Thermosetting Thermoplastic
They are formed addition polymerisation. They are formed by condensation
polymerisation.
Softening is possible on reheating Softening is not possible on reheating
(because of the weak secondary forces). (because of strong covalent bonds).
Covalent bonds with cross- linking between They are liner chain without cross-linking
chains. and branching.
They are more strength and harder them They are usually supplied as granular
thermoplastic. materials
They can be recycled again. They cannot be recycled.
 REVISION

Q33. Discuss the strengthening of polymers?

Ans: Polymers’ resistance to deformation–strength – is influenced by many
parameters. For thermoplastics: average molecular mass, degree of
crystallization, presence of side groups, presence of polar and other specific
atoms, presence of phenyl rings in main chains and addition of
reinforcements.
Q34. Differentiate the applications of Polyethylene and Polypropylene

Polyethylene Polypropylene
Flexible bottles, toys, tumblers, Sterilizable bottles, packaging film,
battery parts, ice trays, film TV cabinets, luggage
wrapping materials
 REVISION

Q35. Discuss Acrylics (Poly-Methyl-Methacrylate)

Ans: Characteristics: Outstanding light transmission and resistance to
weathering; only fair mechanical properties.
Application: Lenses, transparent aircraft enclosures, drafting equipment,
outdoor signs Q4. Differentiate the applications of Polyethylene and
Polypropylene

Q36. Expand the term ABS and list out its applications.
Ans: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
Applications: Refrigerator lining, lawn and garden equipment, toys, highway
safety devices.
 REVISION

Q37. Explain the term Polycarbonates with its applications

Ans: Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers containing
carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Its characteristics are
dimensionally stable, low water absorption, transparent, very good impact
resistance and ductility.
Application: Safety helmets, lenses light globes, base for photographic film
Q38. Write the technical name of nylon and write few of its applications?
Ans: Polyamides
Characteristics: Good mechanical strength, abrasion resistance, and
toughness; low coefficient of friction; absorbs water and some other liquids.
Application: Bearings, gears, cams, bushings, handles, and jacketing for
wires and cables.
 REVISION

Q39. List out the characteristics and applications of Epoxies

Characteristics: Excellent combination of mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance; dimensionally stable; good adhesion; relatively
inexpensive; good electrical properties.
Application: Electrical moldings, sinks, adhesives, protective coatings, used
with fiberglass laminates. photographic film
Q40. List the unique advantages of FRP?
High strength to weight ratio
High heat resistance
Low cost tooling
High electrical conductivity
Q41. What does new ceramic material include?
Oxides, carbides, borides and other similar compounds
 REVISION

Q42. List out the characteristics and applications of Phenolic

Characteristics: Excellent thermal stability to over 150⁰C; may be
compounded with a large number of resins, fillers, etc.; inexpensive.
Application: Motor housing, telephones, auto distributors, electrical fixtures.
Q43. Write about metallic glasses?
Metallic glasses have the properties of metals and glasses such that they
have ductility, malleability and brittleness. Ferromagnetic metallic glasses
are in the form of ribbons and are used as light weight magnetic cores
having no losses and high energy products
Q44. Define ceramics with suitable examples.
Ceramics are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements. Ex:
stone, brick, clay, glass
 REVISION
Q45. Name any four refractory materials.
Fire clay, Alumina, Magnesite refractories, Chromite refractories and Zirconia
refractories
Q46. Distinguish between Alloys and Composite materials?
Alloy Composite
Composites are also a mixture of two
An Alloy is a mixture of one or more
or more elements, but it does not
metals with other elements.
contain metals.
An alloy can either be a
A composite is always a
homogeneous or a heterogeneous
heterogeneous mixture.
mixture.
Alloys are lustrous due to the Composites are not lustrous as they
presence of metals in their do not contain metals in their
composition. composition.
Composites do not conduct electricity
Most alloys can conduct electricity.
except for polymeric composites.

Alloys always contain a metal. Composites do not contain metals.

 REVISION

Q47. Write down the different types of composites?

Based on Matrix: Organic, Ceramic, and Metal matrix
Based on reinforcement: Particle reinforced, Fibre reinforced, Structural
reinforcement
Q48. List out some matrix that are used in composite materials
The major element molten metal is matrix. The material which is added to
improve the properties is reinforcement.
In polymer matrix (thermoplastics): Polypropylene (PP), Polyamide (PA),
Polycarbonate (PC), Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Q49. Write down some fiber as reinforcements in composite materials.
The main fibres used as reinforcements are:
Glass fibres, Carbon fibres, Boron fibres, Ceramic fibres, Metal fibres,
Aramid fibres and Natural fibres: sisal, hemp, flax, etc.
 REVISION

Q50. List out the challenges in selection of materials?

Characteristics (Mechanical, Physical, Chemical properties, Machinability
etc.) Cost and availability, Service life, Recycling and waste disposal.