UNIT 2

POLYMERS:

1. NATURAL POLYMERS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE

What are the natural polymers?

What is meant by natural polymer?

Natural polymers are those substances which are obtained naturally. These
polymers are formed either by the process of addition polymerization or
condensation polymerization. Polymers are extensively found in nature. Our
body too is made up of many natural polymers like nucleic acids, proteins, etc.

What are natural polymer properties?

Natural polymers, especially polysaccharide-based polymers, exhibit high

biocompatibility, biodegradability, accessibility, stability, lack of toxicity,
and have low cost.
2. NATURAL POLYMERS CHEMICALS

Natural polymers, also called biopolymers, are naturally

occurring materials, formed during the life cycles of
green plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. They are
classified mainly into three groups: polysaccharides,
polypeptides, and polynucleotides [26

3. SYNTHETIC POLYMER

Synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum oil, and

made by scientists and engineers. Examples of synthetic
polymers include nylon, polyethylene, polyester, Teflon,
and epoxy. Natural polymers occur in nature and can be
extracted. They are often water-based.
4. SYNTHETIC POLYMER PHYSICAL STRUCTURE

Synthetic polymers are typically derived from petroleum

oil in controlled environment and are made up of
carbon–carbon bonds as their backbone. A combination
of heat and pressure in the presence of a catalyst alters
the chemical bonds that hold monomers together,
causing them to bond with one another.
5. SYNTHETIC POLYMER CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
6.Synthetic polymers are typically derived from
petroleum oil in controlled environment and are made up
of carbon–carbon bonds

as their
backbone. A combination of heat and pressure in the
presence of a catalyst alters the chemical bonds that
hold monomers together, causing them to bond with one
another.
7.
8.
9. .
10. Synthetic polymers are typically derived from
petroleum oil in controlled environment and are made up
of carbon–carbon bonds as their backbone. A
combination of heat and pressure in the presence of a
catalyst alters the chemical bonds that hold monomers
together, causing them to bond with one another.
11. SYNTHETIC POLYMER PROPERTIES
Synthetic polymers are lightweight, hard to break, and
12.
last a long time. They are quite cheap to make and easy
to form into shapes. One of the most common and
versatile polymers is polyethylene. It is made from
ethylene (also known as ethene) monomers.
13. GLASS STRUCTURE
14.Glasses do not exhibit the ordered crystalline structure
of most other ceramics but instead have a highly
disordered amorphous structure. This gives them very
different properties to other crystalline ceramics. The
most widely used glasses are silicate glasses, formed
from silica, SiO2.
15. Properties of glass

What are the properties of glass structure?

The main characteristics of glass are transparency, heat resistance,
pressure and breakage resistance and chemical resistance. The surface
of glass is affected if it is exposed for a long time to alkalis (and ammonia
gases in damp air) in conjunction with high temperatures.
16. Glass transiant temperature
What Does Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)
Mean?
A glass transition temperature (Tg) is the temperature at which a
polymer turns from a ductile material to a hard, brittle material. It
is the temperature at which carbon chains start to move. At this
stage, the amorphous region experiences a transition from a rigid
state to a flexible state with the temperature at the border of the
solid state changing it to more of a viscoelastic (rubbery) one. At
this temperature the free volume, or the gap between the molecular
chains, increases by 2.5 times.

The viscoelastic properties of a semi-crystalline polymer allow

flexibility as is the case of packaging materials.

The glass transition temperature is a property of

the amorphous portion of a semicrystalline material. At the point
where the ambient temperature is below Tg, the molecules of
amorphous materials remain frozen in place and behave like solid
glass. Plastic materials have a lower Tg, although plastic materials
whose molecular structure is stiff and rigid show a higher Tg.
Every polymer with an amorphous structure has its own unique
glass transition temperature, which is a useful factor in determining
whether a given material is better suited for flexible or rigid
applications.

Figure 1. Graph of glass transition temperature plotting the

temperature and stiffness of a material.

Advertisement
Corrosionpedia Explains Glass Transition
Temperature (Tg)
The temperature at which an amorphous polymer material turns
into a viscous liquid or rubbery form when heated is known as the
glass transition temperature (Tg). It can also be defined as a
temperature at which an amorphous polymer develops the
characteristic glassy-state properties such as brittleness, stiffness
and rigidity upon cooling. This temperature can be used to identify
polymers.

Also, at the Tg, the main backbone chain mobility changes. At lower
temperatures there is still molecular motion but the main backbone
chain is frozen in place. The Tg for a given plastic can be changed
by the incorporation of a plasticizer, as is the case for PVC.
The value of Tg depends heavily on the mobility of the polymer
chain, and for most synthetic polymers lies between 170°K and
500°K (-103°C and 227°C).

Pure crystalline polymers do not have a glass transition temperature

because the glass transition temperature is only applicable to
amorphous polymers. Pure amorphous polymers do not have a
melting temperature; they only have a glass transition
temperature. However, many polymers are composed of both
amorphous and crystalline structures. This means that many
polymers have both a glass transition temperature and a melting
temperature. The glass transition temperature is lower than the
melting temperature.

Practical Applications of the Glass Transition

Temperature (Tg)
The different glass transition temperatures of different polymers
make various polymers better suited for some applications than
others are. For instance, a rubber tire for an automobile is soft and
ductile because at normal operating temperatures it is well above
its glass transition temperature. If its glass transition temperature
were greater than its operating temperature, it would not have the
flexibility required to grip the pavement.

Other polymers are designed to operate below their glass transition

temperature. An example of this is a stiff plastic handle on a tool. If
the plastic handle were to have a glass transition temperature
below its operating temperature, it would be too flexible to allow
one to grab it and effectively use the tool.

Factors Affecting the Glass Transition

Temperature
External factors, like humidity or moisture level, may also affect Tg.
Because moisture tends to diffuse slowly through a material, it may
act as a plasticizer and cause the material to reach an equilibrium
moisture content based on the relative humidly of the exposure.
This results in a lower Tg. Materials used in an office environment
will only pick up moderate amounts of moisture during their service
life, compared to materials kept outdoors in a humid environment.
Because of this, a lower drying temperature (well below the curing
temperature) or controlling the moisture exposure may be
appropriate.
How Glass Transition Temperature Testing is
Performed
The classical way of measuring the glass transition temperature is
to perform a series of mechanical tests over the expected
temperature range. While there are several options for the test
type, flexural strength or shear strength testing are the standards.
Results are reported as a plot of flexural modulus or shear
modulus in relation to temperature. The Tg is indicated where there
is a significant drop off in material strength.

The most standard thermal methods for determining transition

temperature are differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic
mechanical analysis (DMA) and thermomechanical analysis (TMA).

A Practical Application for the Glass

Transition Temperature
Epoxy coatings are used extensively for pipeline protection in the oil
and gas industries. An important consideration is choosing the best
epoxy formulation that provides efficiency and sustainable corrosion
protection, especially in higher temperature conditions. The
coating's performance depends on plasticized Tg values.

17.
18. THERMOPLASTICS
Thermoplastics are polymers that can be softened
19.
through heating before being processed and then left to
cool and harden. Once cooled, they show no changes in
chemical properties, meaning they can be re-melted and
re-used several times.
What are 5 types of thermoplastics?
Some of the most common types of thermoplastic are polypropylene,
polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, polystyrene,
polyethylenetheraphthalate and polycarbonate
Which is thermoplastic material?
Thermoplastic materials are a type of plastic polymer material that
becomes moldable at certain high temperatures and then becomes solid
after cooling. Compared to elastomers, thermoplastics have a greatly
reduced elasticity capability and can easily become permanently deformed.
What is thermoplastic used for?
 Thermoplastic Uses

It is used in making CDs and DVDs. Containers like shampoo bottles, drinking
bottles, and food storage containers are made up of thermoplastic polymer.
Some of the thermoplastics (polyurethane) are used as a sealant, adhesives,
and coating material.
What are 5 types of thermoplastics?
Some of the most common types of thermoplastic are polypropylene,
polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, polystyrene,
polyethylenetheraphthalate and polycarbonate.
20.
21. CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERS
Characteristics of Polymers
 Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. ...
 Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators. ...
 Generally, polymers are very lightweight, with varying degrees of strength. ...
 Polymers can be processed in various ways to produce thin fibers or very
intricate parts.
22.
23. APPLICATION OF POLYMERS

What are applications and uses of polymers?

Clothing, floor coverings, garbage disposal bags, and packaging are
other polymer applications. Automobile parts, windshields for fighter planes,
pipes, tanks, packing materials, insulation, wood substitutes, adhesives,
matrix for composites, and elastomers are all polymer applications used in the
industrial market.
24.
25. ELASTOMERS
elastomer, any rubbery material composed of long
26.
chainlike molecules, or polymers, that are capable of
recovering their original shape after being stretched to
great extents—hence the name elastomer, from “elastic
polymer.” Under normal conditions the long molecules
making up an elastomeric material are irregularly …
 27.
28. ELASTOMERS PROPERTIES
What are the properties of elastomers?
 Temperature.
 Low-temperature flexibility.
 Hardness.
 Ageing.
 Colour.
 Elongation at break.
29.
30. ELASTOMERS APPLICATIONS
Applications of elastomers

Featured snippet from the web

Elastomer are used for rubber tires and tubes for
vehicles, motorcycles, bicycles and recreational
vehicles, lawn mowers and other yard work vehicles,
belts, hoses, gloves, matting, toy balloons, rubber
bands, adhesives and pencil erasers.
31.
32. PROCESSING OF PLASTICS

PLASTIC PROCESSING
TECHNIQUES
By

 SAURABH RANJAN

8006

VARIOUS OF PLASTIC PROCESSING TECHNIQUE

Plastics are mainly organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they
sometimes contain other substances as well. Plastics are usually synthetic,
most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many are partially
natural. Plastics are usually classified by their chemical structure of the
polymer’s backbone and side chains. Some important groups in these
classifications are the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes,
and halogenated plastics. There are a variety of methods used to
process plastic. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages and
are better suited for specific applications. There are various plastic
processing techniques are detailed.

Below various methods are used to processing:

 Extrusion – Calendaring     – Injection Moulding     –

Rotational Moulding
  Compression Moulding – Blow Moulding          –
Thermoforming
 Pultrusion

  Extrusion:

Plastics extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process in which raw

plastic material is melted and formed into a continuous profile. The
process of extrusion is usually used to make products such as film,
continuous sheeting, tubes, profile shapes, rods, coat wire, filaments,
cords, and cables. As with injection molding, dry plastic material or
compound material is placed into a hopper and feed into a long heating
chamber by feeder. At the chamber have three zone. (i.e Feeder zone,
Melting Zone & Processing Zone all zones are well connected with
heaters), The chamber has form cylinder with contained flighted screw.
however, the material is forced out of a small opening or a die in the
shape of the desired finished product. As the plastic exits the die, At the
same time puller has been pulling the product and the product may be
immersed in water to help it cool for good strength and sharpening.

 Calendaring:

Calendering is a continuous process which works in much the same way

as an old-fashioned clothes twist. For plastics, there are usually four
heated rollers of different sizes rotating at slightly different speeds. The
material is fed into these rollers, heated and melted, then shaped into a
sheet or film. This is then cooled and rolled up. The sheets can be mono-
oriented during this process. The most commonly winder has there to
rolling the roll or puller has there to pull the sheet from cooled roller and
cut in to required dimension.
 

 Injection Moulding:

Injection molding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by

injecting material into a mold. The main method used for processing
plastic is injection molding. With this process, the plastic granules is
placed into a hopper. The hopper then feeds the plastic granules into a
heated injection unit, where it is pushed through a long chamber with a
reciprocating screw. Here, it is softened to a fluid state. A nozzle is located
at the end of the chamber. The fluid plastic is forced through the nozzle
into a cold, closed mold. The halves of the mold are held shut with a
system of clamps (i.e Core & Cavity, Always Core is clamped in to cavity).
When the plastic is cooled and solidified, the halves open and the finished
product is ejected from the press. Finally workers are seated there to cut
off and finish the extra flash material from finish product.
 

 Rotational Moulding:

Rotational molding is an extremely popular and well-used process for

producing items that are usually hollow. The mould is closed and then
twisted both vertically and horizontally and moved into an oven. As the
powder starts to melt and the mould continues rotating, it is flung onto
the walls of the mould by centrifugal force where it forms a skin. After a
fixed period, the mould is removed from the oven and allowed to cool
carefully to avoid the product shrinking or warping. It’s most often used
for very large articles which are usually made in small quantities.

 
  Compression Moulding:

Compression moulding is the most common process used with

thermosetting materials and is usually not used for thermoplastics. In
thermoplastic may be used to making small sample pieces. With this
process, the material is squeezed into its desired shape with the help of
pressure and heat. Plastic moulding powder and other materials are added
to the mix in order to create special qualities or to strengthen the final
product. When the mould is closed and heated, the material goes through
a chemical change that causes it to harden into its desired shape. The
amount temperature, amount of pressure, and length of time utilized
during the process depends on the desired outcome.

 Blow Moulding:

Blow Moulding process is mainly used when the plastic product that needs
to be created should be hollow. A molten tube is created with blow
moulding by using compressed air, which blows up the tube and forces it
to conform to the chilled mould. Variations of blow moulding include
injection, injection-stretch, and extrusion blow moulding.

 
 

 Thermoforming:

Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated

to a bendable forming temperature, formed to a specific part shape in a
mould, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or film when
referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an
oven to a high-enough temperature that it can be stretched into or onto a
mould and cooled to a finished shape.  Similar to a injection moulding
where it has contained core and cavity shaping metal structures.

 
 

 Pultrusion:

Pultrusion is similar to extrusion in that it produces continuous cross-

sectional profiles. While extrusion relies on press to push unreinforced
thermoplastic materials through a short die, pultrusion pulls a variety of
reinforced fibers, wetted by thermosetting and/or some thermoplastic
resins, through a heated die. Polymerization of the resin occurs as the
wetted fibers pass through the die, forming a continuous, rigid profile
corresponding to the orifice shape.

33.
34. CERAMICS AND APPLICATIONS

What are ceramics?

The word ceramics is derived from the Greek word keramos which

means ‘potter’s clay’. However, many compounds which are
classified as ceramics today contain no clay. Modern Ceramics can
be defined as the compounds of metals and non-metals. They
generally have ionic atomic bonding between them.

Traditional ceramics include insulating materials, glass, refractories,

abrasives and enamels. They include metal oxides, carbides,
borides, nitrides and silicates. Some of their examples are Tungsten
carbide, Silicon carbide, Beryllia, Zirconia, Alumina, Magnesia.

Testing ceramic materials

Advantages of ceramics

 Most of them have high hardness hence they are used as

abrasive powder and cutting tools
 They have high melting point which makes them excellent
refractory material
 They are good thermal insulators this is another reason to use
them as refractory material
 They are high electric resistivity which makes them suitable to
be used an insulator
 They have low mass density which results in lightweight
components
 They are generally chemically inert which makes them durable

Disadvantages of ceramics

 They are brittle in nature

 They have almost zero ductility
 They have poor tensile strength
 The show a wide range in the variation of strength, even for
the identical specimens
 They are difficult to shape and machine
Types of ceramics

They are mainly of two types of ceramics based on their atomic

structure.

1. Crystalline ceramics
2. Non-crystalline ceramics
They can also be classified into three different material categories.

1. Oxides
2. Non-oxides
3. composites

Properties of ceramics

 High hardness
 High melting point
 Good Thermal insulator
 Highly electricity resistance
 Low mass density
 Generally, chemically inert
 Brittle in nature
 Zero ductility
 Low tensile strength

Examples of ceramics

 Barium titanate
 Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide
 Boron oxide
 Boron nitride
 Earthenware
 Ferrite
 Lead zirconate titanate
 Magnesium diboride
 Porcelain
  Sialon (Silicon Aluminum Oxynitride)
 Silicon carbide
 Silicon nitride
 Titanium carbide
 Uranium oxide
 Yttrium barium copper oxide
 Zinc oxide
 Zirconium dioxide
 Partially stabilized zirconia

Applications of ceramics

 They are used in space industry because of their low weight

 They are used as cutting tools
 They are used as refractory materials
 They are used as thermal insulator
 They are used as electrical insulator
35.

36. CHARACTERISTICS OF CERAMICS

What are the characteristics of ceramics?

Ceramic Properties
 hard,
 wear-resistant,
 brittle,
 refractory,
 thermal insulators,
 electrical insulators,
 nonmagnetic,
 oxidation resistant,
37.
38. PROCESSING OF CERAMICS-
Ceramics Manufacturing Process Optimization
Are your production processes running as efficiently and effectively as they
could be?
Are you keeping up-to-date with new processing innovations and
technologies?

We add value at every stage of the production process.

Raw Material Characterization

Material characterization is an extremely effective way of analyzing any raw material

changes. To fully exploit this method of testing the raw material is processed through our
pilot plant to duplicate the standard process. Material analysis then starts with rheological
evaluation, forming via pressure/plaster casting or extrusion, followed by evaluation of
the texture of the formed piece. Any differences to the baseline material formulation are
highlighted and the same loop can be followed again after any re-formulation or material
changes.

Body Preparation and Evaluation

The characterization of a body ready for processing can be critical in relation to

performance throughout the rest of the process. The key initial step is rheological
characterization of the prepared suspension to establish the more in-depth
characteristics, associated with a number of key properties, that are often not seen
during the standard manufacturing tests. This avoids problems at the end of the
production line.

Dry Forming

Dry forming utilizing a powder feedstock which has normally been granulated to improve
critical properties such as homogeneity and flow, can also be investigated by Lucideon,
via die pressing and isostatic pressing.

Die-pressing is ideal for simple shapes such as tiles. We have a number of small die
presses which can produce reference pieces for evaluation from 10mm up to 110mm
with pressures up to 50tf.

For isostatic-pressing the powder is introduced into a flexible mold which is then sealed
and placed into a water-filled pressure chamber. Forming pressure is applied to compact
the powder into the desired shape. The iso press at Lucideon can produce pieces from
18cm diameter x 45cm deep at up to 200 MPa.
Wet Forming

There are a number of forming methods available at Lucideon from extrusion through to
casting. By utilizing the pilot line, a range of smaller items can be produced to represent
the challenges faced in the bigger production process. The formed pieces can also be
tested for cast texture, where the firmness of the formed piece through the cast thickness
is evaluated. At this stage, the previous rheological characterization is referred too, such
that the difference in cast texture from the surface to the center of the piece can be
evaluated.

Drying

Often the most important part of the process, the drying stage is critical with regards to
controlling the shrinkage of the piece as it goes through critical moisture content. We can
help to map the shrinkage characteristics of the piece as it flows through the production
process and therefore establish the safe conditions that allow the piece to shrink in a
uniform manner to minimize the differential shrinkages. A number of types of drying
systems have been investigated and evaluated by Lucideon from Reduced Oxygen
(RO2) dryers through to vacuum based systems.

Glazing

We can investigate glaze technology from raw material characterization and

development, through to processing and application.

Our experienced glass and glaze technologists regularly produce a range of frits and
glazes to be tested for a range of conditions/applications, from pharmaceutical through to
whitewares. Glazes ready for application can be tested from rheological characteristics
through to firing performance, with a range of tests available from thermal expansion to
fired color, helping to summarize a glaze from a technical perspective.

The performance of a glaze in the factory from application through to fired finished and
associated faults is often a key area of investigation, with glaze faults relating to
application issues and glaze set-up becoming an area of more increased interest.

Firing

There are a range of kilns at Lucideon from gas to electric, from frit kilns with the ability to
load or empty at peak temperature through to high temperature gas burner based
systems. These can be used in combination with the previous processing steps within the
pilot plant to reproduce processes and where required investigate the variables produced
by changing the standard process.

Much of our work revolves around looking at new firing processes to offer productivity
improvements.
» For more details on our Flash Sintering technology click here

Product Evaluation and Testing

From metal release through to detailed microscopic investigation and comparison/

performance to a range of standards, we have a wide range of analytical capabilities at
our disposal. We don't just provide data though, our experts interpret the data and advise
on how best to use it to solve product and process challenges.

This range of testing and performance evaluation can be utilized within the end of the
pilot line process to establish the final output of the trials set up at the start of the process
when establishing the performance or suitability of a Raw material.

39.
40. PROCESSING OF CERAMICS-POWDER PREPARATION

What is Ceramic Powder?

A powder is a collection of fine particles. Ceramic powder is a granular material
composed of various ceramics. It includes oxides like silicon oxide, zirconium oxide,
and aluminum oxide. It also includes nitrides and carbides. Ceramic powder can be
used in making building materials, art, and earthenware. The list is endless. Numerous
methods are used to manufacture ceramic powders. Each method has properties that
distinguish it from all other methods.

What are the Manufacturing Methods of

Ceramic Powder?

Milling/Grinding
Milling, also called grinding, is a method of manufacturing ceramic powder that
involves decreasing the particle size of a ceramic material until it is converted to
powder form.
Compaction
This method is used to convert ceramic powder from its granular form to a more
cohesive and denser form. As the name implies, this process makes ceramic powder
more compact. Compaction of ceramic powders can be done through hot pressing or
cold pressing. The product of this process is usually termed green material. This green
material then goes through sintering. The properties of the green material are quite
different from that of the ceramic powder. After the compaction process, the material
should be devoid of large defects and possible to maneuver.

Injection Molding
Injection molding is used to produce ceramic materials with complex geometries. This
process can be used to produce ceramic materials in large quantities. Injection
molding is a versatile process. It is used for both oxide ceramics and non-oxide
ceramics. In addition, it is highly precise. The end product of injection molding is of
high quality. The ceramic powder is mixed with a polymeric binder and heated in this
process. Injection molding shrinks the material. However, the shrinkage is made up
for during the sintering process.

Tape Casting
Tape casting is another common manufacturing method for ceramic powders. It is
used in making substrates for integrated circuits. Also, it is used in making structures
for integrated-circuit packages and multilayer capacitors. A ceramic powder mixed
with an organic solvent and polymer binder is repeatedly cast on a carrier surface. The
carrier surface is made of a material like Teflon which is non-stick. The ceramic
powder mixture (slurry) is then spread to a specified thickness on the smooth surface
using a knife edge. The layer of ceramic powder mixture dries and is ready for further
processing.

Slip Casting
Slip casting is a manufacturing method of powder ceramics often used in pottery. It is
usually used to create shapes that are not easily created on a wheel. Slip casting is a
time-consuming process taking as long as 24 hours. On the upside, however, the final
product is precise and consistent. Slip casting has been in existence as far back as the
1750s in Europe and even earlier in China. The ceramic powder is placed in a
suspension that allows it to form a slip. The slip is then poured into a porous mold.
The mold dries, forming a solid layer from the slips.

Gel Casting
Gel casting is a manufacturing method of ceramic powders that started in Canada in
the 1960s. It is used to produce complex ceramic shapes with high quality and
strength.

Azarniya, Abolfazl & Azarniya, Amir & Safavi, Mir & Farshbaf Ahmadipour,
Mohammad & Seraji, Melica & Sovizi, Saeed & Saqaei, Mahboobe & Yamano lu,
Ridvan & Soltaninejad, Mohammad & Madaah Hosseini, Hamid Reza &
Ramakrishna, Seeram & Kawasaki, Akira & Adams, Stefan & Reddy, M V. (2019).
Physicomechanical Properties of Porous Materials by Spark Plasma Sintering. Critical
Reviews in Solid State and Materials Sciences. 45. 1-44.
10.1080/10408436.2018.1532393.

In this method, the ceramic powder is mixed with a monomer, cross-linker, and free
radical initiator. The mixture is then added to an aqueous suspension. The binder
present in the mixture is polymerized to add more rigidity to the mixture. As a result,
the mixture takes on a gel form. The gel mixture is cast into a mold where it is
solidified. After solidifying the mixture, it is removed from the mold and dried. The
final product is a green body that is subsequently sintered.

Extrusion
Extrusion is a manufacturing method of ceramic powder that can be used to form
ceramics into shapes. The ceramic powder is pulled through a die with a specific
cross-section. This method can be used to manufacture ceramics with complex cross
sections. In addition, it does not put materials through enough stress to break
them. The end products from this process have a commendable surface finish and
high strength. The first extrusion process took place in 1797. It was carried out by a
man known as Joseph Bramah. Extrusion may be hot, warm, or cold. Hot extrusion
occurs at a temperature that exceeds the material's recrystallization temperature. Cold
extrusion occurs at room temperature while warm extrusion occurs above room
temperature and below the material's recrystallization temperature.

Conclusion
The method you choose for manufacturing your ceramic powder depends on factors
like desired product, technical know-how, and resources available. Some of the major
methods include grinding/milling, compaction, injection molding, tape and slip
casting, etc. Thank you for reading our article and we hope it can help you to have a
better understanding of the manufacturing flow of ceramic components. Advanced
Ceramic Materials (ACM) supplies high-quality ceramic powder and related products
to meet our customers’ R&D and production needs. Please
visit https://www.preciseceramic.com/ for more information.

41.
42. HOT COMPATION OF CERAMICS

What is the process of compaction?

Compaction is a process of increasing soil density and removing air,
usually by mechanical means. The size of the individual soil particles does
not change, neither is water removed. Purposeful compaction is intended to
improve the strength and stiffness of soil.

April 17, 2014

Understanding the Powdered Metal
Process: Spotlight on Compacting
By Michael Russo+ Uncategorized  0 Comments

This first fabrication or configuration of a P/M bearing begins with the pressing process. 
In most cases the first serious problems to be encountered in the powdered metallurgy
process are usually found when pressing powder into shapes.  This phase of powdered
metallurgy is referred to as compacting or pressing.

Compacting or pressing of metal powders is divided into the following two areas:

     Hot Pressing

    Cold Pressing

Hot pressing is the compaction of powder at elevated temperatures.  It is usually a dual

technique where the metal powders are compacted and sintered at the same time. The
hot pressing technique is used mostly in the manufacturing of carbide cutting tools and
in a few specialized applications.

Cold pressing can be further divided into the following processes:

Axial Pressing (Conventional Pressing)

Isostatic Pressing- a technique where pressure is applied uniformly to the metal

powders.
Cold pressing is the method of applying pressure upon a column of loose (apparent
density) metal powders in a closed die to form a green compact.  This method of
compaction is used more than any others and accounts for the great majority of parts
fabricated by the powdered metallurgy process.

To better understand the pressing operation a few important principles involved in the
process will be discussed.  It has been found that powders do not behave under pressure,
in a cold die, in the same way as a liquid.  Pressure exerted on a liquid in a closed
container is transmitted evenly in all directions.  This is not the case with metal powder. 
When metal powders are pressed in a closed die they flow mainly in the direction off the
applied pressure.

The effects of pressure on metal powders depend on a number of variables and included
among them is the powder itself.  Pressing of metal powders depend upon their physical
characteristics and properties.  These include particle size, shape, composition, and size
distribution.  The type of powder and its method of manufacture also influences its
behavior under pressure in a cold die.
Usually it is important that the density of the compact be as uniform as possible
throughout its entire height.  Uneven distribution of density in a compact is caused by
pressure not being transmitted through the green shape without a drop (loss) due to
friction.  The influence of die friction upon the density distribution in compacts is an
important consideration when producing parts. Uniform density is essential to insure
dimensional consistencies during sintering. In pressing any P/M part, whether simple or
varying in shape it is important that the compression ratio remains the same throughout
the cross section of the part.

The pressure required to obtain a given green density depends upon the metal powder
material being pressed. Excessive pressures can present some complex problems such as
punch and die fractures, slip cracks and cleavage fractures in the green part.  Although
high pressures are required for pressing high density shapes they should not be
excessive.

Another pressing operation usually performed on P/M parts when required is sizing or
repressing. Generally this operation is performed after the first sintering operation.  This
special pressing operation is frequently necessary to hold dimensional tolerances beyond
the capacity of the green compacting operations. When extremely accurate dimensions
are required the P/M part or parts must be repressed because of dimensional changes
during the sintering operation. This is a rapid operation usually performed on high speed
presses.

The principal steps in the processes of compacting metal powders with presses are:

Feeding the powder into the die cavity

Compacting the powder into the required shape by applying pressure.

Removing the shaped part from the press

The earlier presses used for compacting metal powders were developed by modifying
pharmaceutical pill and small stamping presses.  The modified pharmaceutical and
stamping presses possessed poor rigidity characteristics and consequently, good punch
and die alignment could not be maintained.  They also required quite a bit of set up time
to change dies and punches because of the lack of adjustability and controls.  The
tonnage capacity of the modified pressing equipment was quite small therefore only
small simple parts with less density could be produced.
Today standard equipment is available in a wide range of tonnage capacity depending on
design and type of equipment. Refinements in design and utilization of better and
stronger material have greatly improved the rigidity and accuracy of current equipment.
The majority of P/M parts are compacted by mechanical means.  Mechanical presses, in
general, are used for making parts in the lower pressure range because their speed
exceeds those of hydraulic presses in most cases.  The two basic categories of P/M
compacting presses are mechanical and hydraulic.  The main difference between the two
are the mechanism for providing the source of energy to the compacting tools.

For more information on Powdered Metal Bearings follow the links below:

P/M Oil impregnated Bronze Bearings

P/M Design

P/M Advantages

P/M Applications

Also look for additional blogs on the other steps in the Powdered Metallurgy Process

43. CONSOLIDATION OF CERAMICS

This chapter describes the common methods for the consolidation of ceramic
powders. Plastic forming methods in which a mixture of the ceramic powder and
additives is deformed plastically through a nozzle or in a die provide a convenient
route for the mass production of ceramic green bodies. Particle packing and
polymeric additives play an important role in powder consolidation. Particle packing
is commonly divided into two types: regular packing and random packing. The
ceramic Solid Free-form Fabrication (SFF) techniques generally provide the methods
for assembling the complex-shaped objects from common starting materials such as
concentrated suspensions, powders, and particle-filled polymers. In the forming of
ceramics, the use of certain additives, sometimes in concentrations as low as a
fraction of a percent by weight, is often vital for controlling the characteristics of the
feed material, for achieving the desired shape, and for controlling the packing
uniformity of the green body.
44. DRYING OF CERAMICS

Drying Process in Ceramic Industries

Posted on April 2, 2021
Generally the term ‘ceramics’ (ceramic products) is utilized for inorganic materials
with presumably some organic content, created from non-metallic compounds and
made permanent by a firing method. In addition to clay primarily based materials,
these days’ ceramics embrace a large number of products with a little fraction of clay
or none at all. Ceramics may be glazed or unglazed, porous or glassy. Firing of
ceramic bodies induces time-temperature transformation of the constituent minerals,
typically into a combination of recent minerals and glassy phases. Characteristic
properties of ceramic merchandise embrace high strength, wear resistance, long
service life, chemical inertness and non-toxicity, resistance to heat and fire, (usually)
electric resistance and generally also a particular porosity.
Two kinds of energy are utilized in the ceramic industry; electrical energy and
chemical energy. The electrical energy is employed in 2 completely different ways;
energy once utilized in the motor and fan of the machine, and thermal energy once
utilized to heat the kilns and furnaces. The chemical energy of fossil fuel is all
converted into thermal energy through combustion reaction. Energy utilized in the
ceramic trade is predominantly occupied by fossil fuel energy. The drying method
within the ceramic trade is that the greatest energy consumer second to the firing
method. Drying suggests that loss of moisture from the surface of the substance by
evaporation, and therefore the drying speed depends on the temperature and
humidity.

Ceramic Manufacturing Process:

• Raw Materials Procurement & Weighing
The raw materials utilized in the manufacture of ceramics vary from relatively impure
clay materials well-mined from natural deposits to ultrahigh purity powders ready by
chemical synthesis. Naturally occurring raw materials utilized to manufacture
ceramics embrace silica, sand, quartz, flint, silicates, and alumino silicates. the
primary step within the method is to weigh the raw materials needed to manufacture
a ceramic tile all sorts of every type of frit, feldspar and numerous clays. All the raw
materials are accurately weighed, in order that the standard of the product may be
stabilized.
• Fine Grinding & Milling
The basic beneficiation processes contains crushing, grinding, and sizing or
classification. Primary crushing is employed to reduce the dimensions of coarse
materials, like clays, down to some one to five centimeters. The foremost common
sorts of crushers used are jaw crushers, cone crushers, gyratory crushers, and roll
crushers. Secondary crushing or grinding reduces particle size right down to
someone millimeter in diameter. Fine grinding or milling reduces the particle size
right down to as low as one.0 micrometer in diameter. Ball mills are the foremost
usually used piece of equipment for milling. 
• Filter Press
During the method to form clay and ceramic slurries used for the manufacture of
dinnerware, insulators, china etc., the clay slurry goes through a dewatering step
before any process and molding into the required. These slurries are very dense and
heavy and usually need dewatering at 225 PSI feed pressure to get a solid cake.
• Mixing
Mixing ensures a standardized distribution of clay within the solution. It conjointly
prevents the sedimentation of clay that is fascinating for the method of ceramic
formation. pug Mills are most typically used for combination in ceramic production.
• Spray Drying
Ceramic tiles are usually shaped by dry pressing. Before pressing, several facilities
granulate the ceramic mix to create a free-flowing powder, thereby improving
handling and compaction. The foremost ordinarily used methodology of granulation is
spray-drying. The slurry is injected into a drying chamber with hot gases. Because
the hot gases are available in contact with the slurry, a powder is made and picked
up during a cyclone or fabric filter. Spray dryers typically are gas fired and operate at
temperatures of 70° to 570°C. When spray drying, the water content of the granules
is between 35-40%.
• Powder Storage
The granules need to be kept in a storage bin for a couple of days so its composition
becomes even a lot of homogeneous. This method makes the granules a lot of
pliable and less doubtless to stay to the mould. The size of powder storage bin
required is going to be determined by the production capability of the plant.
Generally, the foremost appropriate size is capable of holding tons of plenty of
powder.
• Shaping
In the forming step, the ceramic mix is consolidated and shaped to provide a
cohesive body of the required form and size. Forming strategies may be classified as
either dry forming, plastic molding, or wet forming. Once the composition of the
powder becomes homogenized, it’s taken to the press wherever it’s shaped and
squeezed below high pressure to create a biscuit or Greenware tile body.
• Glazing
Glazes resemble glass structure and texture. The aim of glazing is to supply a
smooth, shiny surface that seals the ceramic body. Not all ceramics are glazed.
Those who are glazed are often glazed before firing, or may be glazed when firing,
followed by re firing to line the glaze.
 
• Speed Body Drying
The drying method within the ceramic industry is that the greatest energy consumer
second to the firing method. Drying suggests that loss of moisture from the surface of
the substance by evaporation, and therefore the drying speed depends on the
temperature and humidity. Once the substance is dried and moisture is lost, particles
are placed near, resulting in shrinkage.
• Firing
Firing is that the method by which ceramics are thermally consolidated into a dense,
cohesive body composed of fine, uniform grains. This method is also remarked as
sintering or densification. Ceramics usually are fired at 50-75% of absolutely the
melting temperature of the material. Ceramic product are manufactured by pressure
firing, that is comparable to the forming method of dry pressing except that the
pressing is conducted at the firing temperature.
• Packing
The finished products are then packed and stored or shipped.

Two types of drying process done in the manufacturing of ceramic tiles:

1. Drying through spray dryer

2. Drying through vertical dryer
To improve the utilization of the energy consuming in drying method. Here in
ceramic tiles producing method the drying method is second most energy
consuming method after the firing method. For currently regarding the energy
 consumption we’ve to analysis the method. Thus we have a tendency to visit
the one company and analysis the producing method and from the analysis we
have a tendency to do the mass balance and energy balance of drying method
for the know about the energy consumption.
45.
46. SINTERING OF CERAMICS

Sintering of ceramics

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Sintering (Firing) of ceramic materials is the method involving consolidation of

ceramic powder particles by heating the “green” compact part to a high temperature
below the melting point, when the material of the separate particles difuse to the
neghbouring powder particles.

The driving force of sintering process is reduction of surface energy of the particles
caused by decreasing their vapour-solid interfaces.

During the diffusion process the pores, taking place in the “green compact”, diminish
or even close up, resulting in densification of the part, improvement of its mechanical
properties.

Decrease of the porosity, caused by the sintering process, is determined by the level
of the initial porosity of the “green” compact, sintering temperature and time.
Sintering is enhanced if a liquid phase takes part in the process (liquid phase
sintering).

Sintering (firing) of pure oxide ceramics require relatively long time and high
temperature because the diffusion proceeds in solid state.

Applying pressure decreases sintering time and the resulted porosity.

Tunnel kilns and periodic kilns are commonly used for ceramics sintering (firing).

In periodic kilns heating and cooling sintering stages are conducted according to a
prescribed procedure.

In tunnel kilns the sintered parts are conveyed through different temperature zones.
Typical tunnel kiln has three zones:

1.
Preheat zone for removing lubricant and other organic materials;
2.
1.
Sintering zone where the diffusion occurs;
2.
1.
Cooling zone where the sintered parts cool down.
2.
Sintering process may be conducted in different atmospheres: air, inert atmosphere.

Sintering occurs simultaneously with pressing in the hot pressing processes (hot die
pressing, hot isostatic pressing).

47. APPLICATION OF CERAMICS

What are the applications of ceramics?

Other examples of where advanced ceramics are used include oil-free

bearings in food processing equipment, aerospace turbine blades, nuclear
fuel rods, lightweight armour, cutting tools, abrasives, thermal barriers and
furnace/kiln furniture.
48.