JIMMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Product Design
Lecture-III

FAYZA SHEMSU
 Plastics Engineered Product Design

 For over a century plastics with its versatility and vast array of inherent
plastic properties as well as high-speed/low-energy processing techniques
have resulted in designing and producing many millions of cost-effective
products used worldwide.
 The profound worldwide benefits of plastics in economics and modern
living standards have been brought about by the intelligent application of
logic with modern chemistry and engineering principle.
 Product designers have the option to choose from a variety of different
materials when selecting the material(s) of construction for a particular
product. Depending on the application, plastics compete with materials
such as woods, sheet metals, cast or forged metals, ceramics, or glass.
 In many cases, plastics offer distinct advantages over the other
materials in terms of performance, cost, or performance/cost ratio.

 light weight,

 flexible to high strength,

 provide packaging aesthetics and performances,

 excellent appearance and surface characteristics

without using secondary operations,

 degradation resistance in different environments,

 performance in all kinds of environments,

 adapt well to mass production methods,

 wide range of color and appearance,

 high impact to tear resistance,

 decorative to industrial load bearing structures,

 process virgin with recycled plastics or recycled alone,

 simple to complex shapes including many that are difficult

or impossible to form with other materials,

 breathable film for use in horticulture,

 heat resistance,
 And so on
 Materials of construction
 Plastics comprise many different materials based on their polymer
structure, additives, and so on. Practically all plastics at some stage in
their fabrication can be formed into simple to extremely complex
shapes that can range from being extremely flexible to extremely
strong.
 Polymers, the basic ingredients in plastics, are high molecular weight
organic chemical compounds, synthetic or natural substances
consisting of molecules. Practically all of these polymers use virtually
an endless array of additives, fillers, and reinforcements to perform
properly during product fabrication and/or in service.
 There are many compounded base polymer combinations so that new
materials are always on the horizon to meet new industry requirements
that now total over 35,000 plastics worldwide.
 Table 1.1 provides examples of their manufacturing stages from raw
materials to products. Examples of the diversified use of different plastics
are shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
Figure 1 Use of plastics in recreational products range from unsophisticated
types to high performance types such boats
Figure 2 Boeing 777 uses different types o f plastics that include high performance reinforced
plastics
 Appreciate the polymer chemist’s ability to literally rearrange

the molecular structure of the polymer to provide an almost

infinite variety of compositions that differ in form, appearance,

properties, cost, and other characteristics.

 Each plastic (of the 35,000 available) has specific performance

and processing capabilities.

 There are many different routes that the starting materials for

plastics can take on the way to the user.

 In this study, we are concerned with those plastics that are
supplied to the processor in the form of granules, powder,
pellets, flake, or liquids and in turn they are transformed into
plastic products.
 However, the same starting materials used to make these
plastics can take other routes and end up in the textile industry
(nylon fibers share common roots with a molded nylon gear;
acrylic fibers share common roots with acrylic sheet for glazing;
etc.), paint industry, adhesives industry, and other industries
meeting their special requirements.
 These two major classifications of thermoplastics (TPs) and thermosets
(TSs) in turn have different classifications such as virgin or recycled
plastics. Virgin plastics have not been subjected to any fabricating
process.
 NEAT plastics identify plastics with Nothing Else Added To. They are true
virgin polymers since they do not contain additives, fillers, etc. However
they are rarely used since they do not provide the best performances.
 Thus the technically correct term to identify the materials is plastics. Of
the 35,000 types available worldwide there are about 200basic types or
families that are commercially recognized with less that 120 that are
popularly used. Examples of these plastics are shown in Table 1.2.
 Thermoplastics
 TPs are plastics that soften when heated and upon cooling harden into
products. TPs can be repeatedly softened by reheating. Their morphology,
molecular structure, is crystalline or amorphous.
 Softening temperatures vary. The usual analogy is a block of ice that can be
softened (turned back to a liquid), poured into any shape mold or die, then
cooled to become a solid again. This cycle repeats.
 During the heating cycle care must be taken to avoid degrading or
decomposition of the plastic. TPs generally offer easier processing and better
adaptability to complex designs than do TS plastics.
 There are practical limits to the number of heating and cooling cycles
before appearance and/or mechanical properties are drastically
affected.
 Certain TPs have no immediate changes while others have immediate
changes after the first heating/cooling cycle.
Crystalline Vs Amorphous Polymers

 The overall molecular physical structure of a polymer identifies its

morphology. Crystalline molecular structures tend to have their
molecules arranged in a relatively regular repeating structure such as
acetal (POM), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), nylon (PA), and
polytetrafluoroethylene plastics.
 The structures tend to form like cooked spaghetti. These crystallized
plastics have excellent chemical resistance. They are usually translucent
or opaque but they can be made transparent with chemical modification.
 They generally have higher strength and softening points and require
closer temperature/time processing control than the amorphous TPs.
 Amorphous TPs have no crystalline structure. Their molecules form no
patterns. These TPs have no sharp melting points. They are usually glassy

and transparent, such as acrylontrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS),

acrylic (PMMA), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
 Amorphous plastics soften gradually as they are heated during processing.
If they are rigid, they may become brittle unless modified with certain
additives.
 During processing, all plastics are normally in the amorphous state with
no definite order of molecular chains. TPs that normally crystallize need to
be properly quenched; that is, the hot melt is cooled to solidify the
plastic.
 Compared to crystalline types, amorphous polymers undergo only small
volumetric changes when melting or solidifying during processing.
 This action influences the dimensional tolerances that can be met after
accounting for the heating/cooling process and the design of molds or
dies.
 Crystalline plastics require tighter process control during fabrication.
They tend to shrink and warp more than amorphous types due to their
higher melting temperatures, with their relatively sharp melting point,
they do not soften gradually with increasing temperature but remain
hard until a given quantity of heat has been absorbed, then change
rapidly into a low-viscosity liquid.
 If the correct amount of heat is not applied properly during
processing, product performance can be drastically reduced and/or
an increase in processing cost occurs. With proper process control
this is not a problem.
 During the melting process as the symmetrical molecules approach
each other within a critical distance, crystals begin to form.
 They form first in the areas where they are the most densely packed.
This crystallized area becomes stiff and strong. The noncrystallized,
amorphous, area is tougher and more flexible.
Will Continue
 Liquid Crystalline Polymers

 A special classification of TPs are liquid crystalline polymers. They are

composed of densely packed fibrous polymer chains. Their molecules are
stiff, rod-like structures organized in large parallel arrays in both the melt
and solid states.
 They resist most chemicals, weathers oxidation, and can provide flame
resistance, making them excellent replacements for metals, ceramics, and
other plastics in many product designs.
 They are exceptionally inert and resist stress cracking in the presence of
most chemicals at elevated temperatures, including the aromatic and
halogenated hydrocarbons as well as strong acids, bases, ketones, and
other aggressive industrial products.
 Regarding flammability, When exposed to an open flame, they form an
intumescent char that prevents dripping.
 When injection molded or extruded the molecules align into long, rigid
chains that in turn align in the direction of flow. Thus the molecules act
like reinforcing fibers giving LCPs both very high strength and stiffness.
 weight-sensitive products
 outstanding strength at extreme temperatures,
 excellent mechanical property retention after exposure to
weathering and radiation,
 good dielectric strength as well as arc resistance and
dimensional stability,
 low coefficient of thermal expansion,
 lowest warpage and shrinkage
 excellent flame resistance, and easy processability
 have a low melt viscosity and are thus more easily
processed resulting in faster cycle
 Thermosets

 Outstanding properties of TS plastic products are their substantially

infusible and insoluble characteristic along with resistance to high
temperatures, greater dimensional stability, and strength.
 TSs undergo a crosslinking chemical reaction by techniques such as the
action of heat (exothermic reaction), oxidation, radiation, and/or other
means often in the presence of curing agents and catalysts.
 However, if excessive heat is applied, degradation rather than melting
will occur.
 TSs are not recyclable because they do not melt when reheated,
although they can be granulated and used as filler in other TSs as
well as TPs.
 An analogy of TSs is that of a hard-boiled egg that has turned from a
liquid to a solid and cannot be converted back to a liquid.
 TSs generally cannot be used alone in primary or secondary
structural applications; they must be filled with additives and/or
reinforcements such as glass or wood fibers, etc.
 These compounds provide dimensional product precision and certain
other desirable properties for use in certain products.
 There are TSs particularly suitable as substitutes for metals in
products that have to meet severe demands such as high
temperature with the added advantage of offering a very good cost
reduction.
 Applications include kitchen appliances, heat-shield for an electric
iron, collectors and a wide variety of circuit breaker housings in
electrical devices, and automotive parts including headlamp
reflectors, brake servo units, brake pistons and so on.
 Within the TS family there are natural and synthetic rubbers,
elastomers, such as styrene-butadiene, nitrile rubber, polyurethanes,
silicone, butyl, and neoprene.
 They attain their properties through the process of vulcanization.
Vulcanization is the process by which a natural rubber or certain plastic
elastomer undergoes a change in its chemical structure brought about by
the irreversible process of reacting the materials with sulfur and/or other
suitable agents.
 The crosslinking action results in property changes such as decreased
plastic flow, reduced surface tackiness, increased elasticity, greater
tensile strength, and considerably less solubility.
 Plastic behaviors
 A knowledge of the chemistry of plastics can be used to help with the
understanding of the performance of designed products.
 Chemistry is the science that deals with the composition, structure,
properties and transformations of substances. It provides the theory of
organic chemistry, in particular our understanding of the mechanisms
of reactions of carbon (C) compounds.
 The chemical structure and nature of plastics have a significant
relationship both to properties and the ways they can be processed,
designed, or otherwise translated into a finished product.
Morphology/Molecular Structure

 Morphology is the study of the physical form or chemical structure

of a material; that is, the physical molecular structure.
 As a result of morphology differences among polymers, great
differences exist in mechanical and other properties as well as
processing plastics.
 In practice, molecules always occur in a mass, and the behavior of
each individual molecule is very greatly affected by its
intermolecular relationships to adjacent molecules in the mass.
 Molecular weight (MW) affect processing performances, such as
flow conditions, that in turn affect product performances, such as
strength or dimensional stability.
 Molecular weight

 MW is the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule.

For polymers, it represents a measure of the molecular chain
length.

 MW of plastics influences their properties. With increasing MW,

polymer properties increase for abrasion resistance, brittleness,
chemical resistance, elongation, hardness, melt viscosity, tensile
strength, modulus, toughness, and yield strength.

 A High molecular weight increases how far the material can stretch
before rupturing. The higher degree of entanglement allows the
material to be pulled further before the chains break.
 A High molecular weight increases the impact resistance of the material.
The higher degree of entanglement means that in order to rupture, more
polymer bonds need to be broken, this means that the polymer can
absorb more energy before failing.
 A High molecular weight increases the chemical resistance - to a point. It
takes more damage to the main chains of the molecules before it will
affect the strength of the material.
 A High molecular weight increases the viscosity of the material – makes
it harder to process the material using conventional methods. The longer
the chains, the harder it is to get them to flow because they are more
tangled.
 Low Molecular Weight polymers have lower properties due to lack of
chain entanglement and higher molecular mobility.
 Shorter chains have more end groups which increase free volume and
molecular mobility which makes it easier for the polymer chains to
respond to stresses. This is why the strength and modulus are reduced
for lower MW (higher melt flow) polymer.
 Adequate MW is a fundamental requirement to achieve desired
properties of plastics. If the MW of incoming material varies, the
fabricating and fabricated product performance can be altered.
 Viscosities and melt flow

 Viscosity is a measure of resistance to plastic melt flow. It is the

internal friction in a melt resulting when one layer of fluid is caused
to move in relationship to another layer.
 Thus viscosity is the property of the resistance of flow exhibited
within a body of material.
 When plastics flow through straight tubes or channels they are
sheared: the viscosity expresses their resistance.
 Shearing is the motion of a fluid, layer by layer, like playing cards in
a deck.
 Melt index

 The melt indexer (MI; extrusion plastometer) is the most widely

used rheological device for examining and studying plastics
(principally TPs) in many different fabricating processes.
 It is not a true viscometer in the sense that a reliable value of
viscosity cannot be calculated from the measured flow index.
 However, the device does measure isothermal resistance to flow,
using standard apparatus and test methods that are standard
throughout the world.
 The standard procedure involves the determination of the amount of
plastic extruded in 10 minutes.
 The flow rate, expressed in g/10 min., is reported. As the flow rate
increases, viscosity decreases.
 Depending on the flow behavior, changes are made to standard
conditions (die opening size, temperature, etc.) to obtain certain
repeatable and meaningful data applicable to a specific processing
operation.
 The melt index (MI) or melt flow index (MFI) is an inverse measure of
viscosity. High MI implies low viscosity and low MI means high
viscosity.
 Viscoelasticity

 A material having Viscoelasticity property is considered to

combine the features of a so-called perfect elastic solid and a

perfect fluid.

 This property possessed by all fabricated plastics to some degree,

indicates that while plastics have solid-like characteristics such as
elasticity, strength, and form or shape stability, they also have
liquid-like characteristics such as flow depending on time,
temperature, rate, and amount of loading.
 Processing –to – Performance Interface

 Different plastic characteristics influence processing and

properties of plastic products. Important are glass transition
temperature and melt temperature.
Glass Transition Temperature
 The Tg relates to temperature characteristics of plastics.
 It is the reversible change in phase of a plastic from a viscous or
rubbery state to a brittle glassy state (Fig. 1.7).
 Tg is the point below which plastic behaves like glass and is very
strong and rigid.
 Above this temperature it is not as strong or rigid as glass, but
neither is it brittle as glass.
 At and above Tg the plastic's volume or length increases more rapidly
and rigidity and strength decrease.
 The thermal properties of plastics, particularly its Tg influence the
plastic's processability performance and cost in different ways.
 The operating temperature of a TP is usually limited to below its Tg.
 A more expensive plastic could cost less to process because of its Tg
location that results in a shorter processing time, requiring less energy
for a particular weight, etc.
 Not only hardness and brittleness undergo rapid changes in this
temperature region, but other properties such as the coefficient of
thermal expansion and specific heat also change rapidly.
 Melt Temperature

• Crystalline plastics have specific melt temperatures (Tm) or melting

points.
• Amorphous plastics do not. They have softening ranges that are small
in volume when solidification of the melt occurs or when the solid
softens and becomes a fluid type melt. They start softening as soon as
the heat cycle begins.
• A melting temperature is reported usually representing the average in
the softening range.
• The Tm of crystalline plastics occurs at a relatively sharp point going
from solid to melt. It is the temperature at which melts softens and
begins to have flow tendency .
 They have a true Tm with a latent heat of fusion associated with the
melting and freezing process, and a relatively large volume change
during fabrication.
 Crystalline plastics have considerable order of the molecules in the
solid state indicating that many of the atoms are regularly spaced.
 Also, if the melt temperature is too low, the melt's viscosity will be
high and more costly power required processing it.
 If the viscosity is too high, degradation will occur. There is the
correct processing window used for the different melting plastics.
 Processing and moisture
 An important condition that influence properties is moisture
contamination in the plastic to be processed.
 There are the hygroscopic plastics (PET, etc.) that are capable
of retaining absorbed and adsorbed atmospheric moisture
within the plastics.
 The non-hygroscopic plastics (PS, etc.) absorb moisture only
on the surface.
 All plastics, to some degree, are influenced by the amount of
moisture or water they contain before processing.
 With minimal amounts in many plastics, mechanical, physical,
electrical, aesthetic, and other properties may be affected, or
may be of no consequence.
 Day-to-night temperature changes is an example of how
moisture contamination can be a source of problems if not
adequately eliminated when plastic materials are exposed to the
air.
 Moisture contamination can have an accumulative effect.